CHAPTER 4

DETAILED PROCESS AND MECHANICAL DESIGN

4.1 Mixing Tank

4.1.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
Mixing of Mixture at T= 310.15 K. Mixture discharged at P = 2bar

% 5 = q
( )( ) kg kJ mol barcm dP v H W
s
/ 1020 . 0 / 1502 . 18 1 2 1502 . 18
3
2
1
= = = = A =
}

kg kJ H
s
/ 1020 . 0 = A
kg kJ
kg kJ H
H
s
/ 204 . 0
50 . 0
/ 1020 . 0
= =
A
= A
q

P V
T
T
CpIn S A = A |
1
2


Find T A at kg kJ H / 204 . 0 = A ;

( )
( ) | |( ) kPa K K x
kg m x T K kg kJ kg kJ
P T V CpdT H
325 . 101 15 . 310 10 96 . 352 1
/ 10 007 . 1 . / 17 . 4 / 204 . 0
) 1 (
1 6
3 3
2 2

+ A =
A + = A |

027 . 0 = AT



104

So,

K T 177 . 310 027 . 0 15 . 310
2
= + =

K kmol kJ x
kmol
kg
x
K kg
kJ
x S
kPa
kg
m
x x In
K kg
kJ
S
. / 10 9 . 5
1
015 . 18
.
10 279 . 3
325 . 101 10 007 . 1 10 352
15 . 310
177 . 310
.
17 . 4
3 4
3
3 6


= = A
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

K kmol kJ x S . / 10 9 . 5
3
= A


4.1.2 Mixing to Form Flue Gas

= A
= A
i
i i
Iny y nR S
H 0



kmol
y
2
CO 0.0665 0.002
O H
2
30.1765 0.998

Using the equation above;

( )
1
62 . 3 998 . 0 998 . 0 002 . 0 002 . 0 314 . 8 243 . 30

= + = A

kJK In In S
i


For heating step

H
P
C
S
P
C
2
CO 41.649 38.3508
O H
2
34.153 34.149

K kJ Cp
K kJ C
S
H
P
/ 04 . 1033 1765 . 30 149 . 34 0665 . 0 3508 . 38
/ 38 . 1033 1765 . 30 153 . 34 0665 . 0 649 . 41
= + =
= + =


105

K kJ In S
kJ H
/ 76 . 40
15 . 298
15 . 310
05 . 1033
56 . 400 , 12 ) 15 . 298 15 . 310 ( 38 . 1033
= = A
= = A


For the total process;

K kg kJ S
kg kJ kg kJ kg kJ H
. / 3 . 44 76 . 40 62 . 3 10 9 . 5
/ 204 . 400 , 12 / 400 , 12 / 204 . 0
3
= + + = A
= + = A

Ideal Work, ( )| | kW W
ideal
53 . 431 , 24 ) 3 . 44 )( 15 . 298 ( 204 . 400 , 12 243 . 30 = =

4.1.3 Pump
Since the pump operates adiabatically,
( )
( )
( ) k kW K kg kJ
hr
kmol
S
k kW K kg kJ
hr
kmol
S
k kW K kg kJ
hr
kmol
S
S n S
/ 358 . 0 . / 3 . 44 1360 . 29
/ 013 . 0 . / 3 . 44 0611 . 1
/ 648 . 5 . / 3 . 44 0459 . 0
.
.
.
. .
= =
= =
= =
A =

Work Lost, ( ) kW S T W
G
lost 019 . 6 358 . 0 013 . 0 648 . 5 15 . 298
.
. .
= + + = =
o

Work Analysis,

kW kW kW Ws 043 . 6 019 . 6 10 431 . 24
3
.
= + =



4.1.4 Sizing and Costing
The required volume for mixing tank is 37 cubic meters (37,690 liters). The
STANDARD SIZE fits with the decided volume is:

Volume (liter) Diameter(ft/meter) Height (ft/meter)
45,000 19ft/ 5.791m 7ft /2.134m

106

Item
Price (RM)/
m
Quantity
(m)
Cost (RM)
Lean Concrete G15 215.00 1.321 284.015
Concrete G25 295.00 6.324 1,865.58
Formwork 35.00 42.16 1,475.6
BRC A8 7.00 42.16 295.12
Total 3,920.32
Total cost for mixing tank 2 RM 7,840.64
Table 4.1: Estimated cost of mixing tank

4.1.5 HAZOP and HAZAN Analysis
Tanks are classified and considered to be permit-required confined spaces. Entering
process tanks for inspection and maintenance requires that adequate precautions
be taken. Hazards associated with entry into confined space include asphyxiation
from the lack of oxygen, contaminants or slurries and sludge.

Operational problem for Mixing Tank usually begins with the chocking of
cow dung in inlet pipe is occurring. The incident happens when the portion of
mixtures are not well integrated to each input material. High pH of sludge entering
the mixing tank happened when the rate of loading components are unbalanced.
Loading rate of organic material is a factor resulting of overloading. Overloading
will cause material to flow out to another tank before the slurry has been mixed
homogenously. Scarcity of cow dung / water also a serious problems and the
leakage of slurry from the tank. Due to the hazard arises, input temperature of the
influent mixture need to be observed, so that the component is able to flow in
steady-state condition.





107

The best way to ensure proper feeding is to have marks in the mixing tank
indicates of level of fresh cow dung and level after mixing with the requisite
amount of water. Fresh cow dung dumped into the mixing tank, when leveled
should come up to the mark. Then another component has to be poured up to
second mark. All the mixture stirred with good consistency. Also care has to be
taken not to let sand or mud collected along with the dung into the tank. Best time
to charge the feed is around 3-4 pm

Leakage of slurry from the tank wall happens depends on the material used
in constructing the tank itself. Leakage of slurry occurs because of inadequate
thickness of brickwork in the base and also happened by virtue of the high pressure
of gas (above 0.1 m of water). It has not been possible to arrest leakage despite
careful construction, use of special coatings and plaster seals, etc. and this is a
major area for further work. Some of suggestions are to concentrate on small
number of designs, use of cast concrete structures and develop materials that can
withstand uneven loading. The structural design should be such that it is
continuously and uniformly under pressure.

The hazard of tank occurs when the precipitate may plug lines if the
formation rate exceeds the rate of removal. This incident leads the tanks to
overflow, broken lines and pump can cause slippery conditions. Sludge press areas
are notoriously wet and congested work areas with slips, trips, and fall present as
ongoing hazards. As a consequence, the floor surface around mixing is required to
be checked.

Tank mixing equipment may entangle workers who come in contact with
propellers or shafts. The tank ought to design especially the propeller to protect
people from harmful splashing of rotating mixers or entanglement with shafts or
motors. Then, by installing the deadman switches on the equipment and implement
lock-out / tag-out procedures when performing maintenances on the mixer.

108

Opportunistic insects and animal especially in cooler climates and around
warm process equipment lead to hazard. Vermin, insect and arthropod control
measures should be considered.











109

4.1.6 Mechanical Design

















Figure 4.1: Mechanical drawing of Mixing Tank
110

4.2 Digester

4.2.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
Refer to Appendix-B1 for the flow diagram, conditions, formulas and
thermodynamic properties.

For digester with reaction (anaerobic digestion),

(a) Reaction at 310.15 K
0.0665 C
36
H
60
O
26
+ 0.532 H
2
O => 1.2635 CH
4
+ 1.1305 CO
2


H = nH
f

= 1.1305(-3.935E5) + 1.2635(-7.487E4) 0.532(-2.858E5)
0.0665(-3.504E7)
= 1.9428E6 kJ

G= nG
f

= 1.1305(-3.9436E5) + 1.2635(-5.046E4) 0.532(-2.3713E5)
0.0665(-4.7718E7)
= 2.7898E6 kJ

S = (H
f
- G
f
)/298.15 = (1.9428E6 - 2.7898E6)/298.15
= -2.8409E3 kJ/K

(b) (i) Mixing of CH
4
(g) and CO
2
(g)

H = 0

S = - nRylny
= - (1.5084)(8.314)[0.8360ln0.8360 + 0.1640ln0.1640]
= 5.5936 kJ/K


111

(ii) Mixing of H
2
O (l) and CO
2
(s)

H = 0

S = - nRylny
= - (30.5282)(8.314)[0.0289ln0.0289 + 0.9711ln0.9711]
= 33.2233 kJ/K

(c) (i) Heat mixture of CH
4
(g) and CO
2
(g) from 310.163 K to 318.15 K

<C
p
t
>
H
= 0.2474(38.3508) + 1.2610(36.0927) = 55.0009 kJ/K

<C
p
t
>
S
= 0.2474(38.3492) + 1.2610(36.0911) = 54.9985 kJ/K

H = <C
p
t
>
H
(T T
0
) = 55.0009(318.15 310.163) = 439.2922 kJ

S = <C
p
t
>
S
ln(T/ T
0
) = 54.9985 ln (318.15/310.163) = 1.3983 kJ/K

(ii) Heat mixture of H
2
O (l) and CO
2
(s) from 310.163 K to 318.15 K

<C
p
t
>
H
= 29.6648(75.5485) + 0.8834(38.3508) = 2.2735E3 kJ/K

<C
p
t
>
S
= 29.6648(75.5485) + 0.8834(38.3492) = 2.2735E3 kJ/K

H = <C
p
t
>
H
(T T
0
) = 2.2735E3(318.15 310.163) = 1.8158E4 kJ

S = <C
p
t
>
S
ln(T/ T
0
) = 54.9985 ln (318.15/310.163) = 57.8037 kJ/K

Total process in the basis of 0.0665 kmol of C
36
H
60
O
26
reacted per hour.

H = 1.9428E6 + 439.2922 + 1.8158E4 = 1.9614E6 kJ

S = -2.8409E3 + 5.5936 + 33.2233 + 1.3983 + 57.8037 = -2.7429E3 kJ/K
112

W
ideal
= m(H T

S) = H T

S = 1.9614E6 298.15(-2.7429E3)
= 2.7792E6 kJ/h = 772 kW

By assuming Q = 0,

S
G
= S/3600 = -2.7429E3/3600 kJ/s.K = -0.7619 kW/K

W
lost
= T

S
G
= 298.15(-0.7619) = -227.1605 kW

For pump which operates adiabatically,
S
G
= nS = (30.243)(5.8424E-3)/3600 = 4.9081E-5 kJ/s.K
= 4.9081E-5 kW/K

W
lost
= T

S
G
= 298.15(4.9081E-5) = 1.4634E-2 kW

4.2.2 Sizing
Refer to Appendix-B2 for the requirements, formulas and the total power
consumption.

Digester (Bioreactor)
Volume,

= [(14501 kg/d)/(1000 kg/m
3
)].(30 d).(1.25) = 543.7875 m
3
= H
BR
3


H
BR
3
= 543.7875/ = 173.0929

H
BR
= 5.6 m = 6.0 m, D
BR
= 12 m

Volume load,

(DM
BR
=volume of organic dry matter)
= (1450 kg oDM/d)/(543.7875 m
3
)
= 2.6665 kg oDM / m
3
.d


113

Diameter of sludge discharge pipe,

= [(4)(543.7875)/()(18000)(0.5)]
(1/2)

= 0.3 m

Diameter of biogas discharge pipe, D
gas
= 0.0762 m

Diameter of inlet pipe, D
inlet
= 0.1270 m

Capacity per agitator drive,
P
BRR
= (1.3)(Ne
BRR
)(
G
)(n
BRR
)
3
(D
BRR
)
5

= (1.3)(0.5)(1000 kg/m
3
)(150/30 1/s)
3
(0.5 m)
5

= 78.7269 kW = 80 kW

Power consumption of both agitators,
(P
BRR
)
tot
= 2(P
BRR
)(t
BRR
)
= 2(80 kW)(5/60) = 13.4 kW

Pump
Throughput, V
VP
= 10 m
3
/h = 1/360 m
3
/s

Pressure head, P
VP
= 1 bar = 100000 Pa

Capacity of the motor,
= (1/360)(100000)/(0.5)W
= 555.5556W = 0.6 kW






114

4.2.3 Costing
Refer to Appendix-B3 for the costing formulas and tables.
Item Price (RM) Quantity Cost (RM)
2 digesters with 0.1m polystyrene coating outside and 1mm bitumen coating inside
Concrete G25
Formwork
BRC A8
Polysterene coating cost for 2 digester
Bitumen coating cost for 2 digesters
Total digester tanks cost with coating


133,455
15,834
3,167
22/m
2

2/m
2



2
2
2
2X452.3893 m
2
2X452.3893 m
2


266,910.00
31,668.00
6,334.00
19,905.00
1,810.00
RM 326,627.00
The preparation of basin and drainage system for digester
Sand/gravel cost
Digester bottom polyethylene foil
Basin polyethylene foil
Basin polypropylene foil
Total cost for basin preparation

26/ton
5016/ton
5016/ton
7524/ton

76 ton
0.34848 ton
0.48672 ton
1.352 ton

1,976.00
1,748.00
2,441.00
10,172.00
32,674.00
Table 4.2: Costing for Digester

115

Item Price (RM) Quantity Cost (RM)
4 agitators with submerged motors
Capacity, S = 6.7 kW = 9 hp
Purchase cost, C
p
=RM 3.5(2600)(S
0.17
)


13221


4


52,884.00
2 centrifugal pumps with motors
Capacity of pump = 0.6 kW = 1 hp
H = (P)/(g) = 10.1937 m (33 ft), Q = 44 gpm
S = Q(H)
0.5
= 253, C
B
=RM 6,678, F
T
= 1 and F
M

Purchase cost, C
p
= F
T
F
M
C
B

Total purchase cost for 2 centrifugal pumps,
Capacity of motor, P
C
= 0.6 kW = 1hp
C
B
= RM 241, C
P
= F
T
C
B

Total purchase of 2 centrifugal pump with motors
Total cost of centrifugal pump with motors





13,356


313





2


2





26,712.00


626.00
27,338.00
Table 4.2: Costing for Digester (continued)




116

Item Price (RM) Quantity Cost (RM)
6 diaphragm valves
Cost of 2 units of 0.0762m diaphragm valve
Cost of 2 units of 0.1270m diaphragm valve
Cost of 2 units of 0.3048m diaphragm valve
Total cost for 6 valves

1,200.00
2,300.00
10,200.00

2
2
2

2,400.00
4,600.00
20,400.00
27,400.00
Total cost for digester system RM 466,923.00
Table 4.2: Costing for Digester (continued)

117

4.2.4 HAZAN and HAZOP Analysis
Digester use in this plant is a continuous stirred tank which undergoes anaerobic
digestion and bacteria is involved. The input is the mixture of cow dung,
lemongrass biomass and water. The output is biogas (65% methane and 35%
carbon dioxide with other traces). The hazards that are identified are (refer to
Appendix-B4 for details):

(i) Oxygen deficiency from methane in biogas
(ii) Oxygen deficiency from carbon dioxide in biogas and carbon dioxide
toxicity
(iii) Hydrogen Sulfide toxicity
(iv) Methane explosivity
(v) Bacteria

Prevention and measurements taken during the design of digester:

(i) Coating of 0.1 m thick of polysterene on the outer wall for insulation.
(ii) Coating of 1 mm thick of bitumen on the inner wall to prevent corrosion
(H
2
S and CO
2
).
(iii) Regular cleaning of the digesters.
(iv) The workers are to wear masks and goggles when working in the
digester system.










118

Detection system for hazards and measurements taken when emergency
happened:
(i) Methane detector with alarm. The mixture will be drained to another
tank when there is biogas leakage.
(ii) Drainage system at the bottom of the digester (refer to Appendix-B4). If
leakage happens at the bottom of digester, the mixture will be
channeled to a tank by the drainage system.
(iii) 3 layers of plastics are used to cover the basin to prevent the mixture
leaks from the drainage system into the groundwater. First layer is 1
kg/m
2
of polypropylene foil, second layer is 0.0008 m polyethylene foil
and the third layer is another layer of 1 kg/m
2
polypropylene foil.
(iv) A safe and open area is assigned for the workers to gather when
emergency (Alarm will be sounded).

4.2.5 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram with Control












Figure 4.2: PID with control of digester
119

4.2.6 Mechanical Drawing

The drawing is not to scale.















Figure 4.3: Mechanical drawing of digester
120

4.3 Compressor

4.3.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
The methane enters the compressor at 1 bar and 318.25 K. Liquefaction results
when the methane gas is compressed to 20 bar and cooled back to 298.25 K. The
surroundings temperature of T, is 300K. Methane The liquefied methane is stored
at the methane storage tank and then converted to gaseous methane by throttle
valve at 295 K.

Assumptions:
Heat leakage from the surroundings is assumed negligible.
The efficiency of compressor is 75%.

The properties at the various points of the process, given in the
accompanying table, are either available as data or calculated by standard
methods. Data are from Perry and Green (Table 2-281, p. 2-251; Table 2-282, p. 2-
253). The basis of all calculations is 1 kg of methane entering the process, and all
rates are expressed on this basis.

Point State of CH
4
T/K P/bar H/kJ kg
-1
S/kJ kg
-1
K
-1

1 Superheated vapor 318.25 1 1241.8 11.760
2 Superheated vapor 298.25 10 1187.2 10.017
3 Saturated liquid 111.5 1 285.4 4.962
4 Superheated vapor 295.0 1 1188.9 11.589
Table 4.3: Properties at various points of compressor

The fraction of methane that is liquefied, z is calculated by an energy
balance:

z +

= Q
where Q is the heat leakage from the surroundings


121

Solution for z gives

The power consumption of the compressor is 8000 kJ/h. Hence, the actual
work of this compression is 8000 kJ.

The ideal work depends on the overall changes in the methane passing
through the compressor.

)(285.4) + (0.9981)(1188.9) 1241.8] (300)[(0.0019)(4.962)
+(0.9864)(11.589) 11.760]
= 41.14 kJ

The rate of entropy generation and the lost work for each of the individual
steps of the process are calculated:

For compression/cooling: Heat transfer for this step is give by an energy
balance:

1187.2- 1241.8) 8000
= -8054.6 kJ

Then,

= 10.017 11.760 -

= 25.106 kJkg
-1
K
-1

W
lost

= (300)(25.106) = 7531.7 kJkg
-1


122

Throttle: for adiabatic operation of the throttle and separator,

=



(1-z)

= (4.962)(0.0019) + (11.589)(0.9981) 10.017
= 1.5594 kJkg
-1
K
-1

W
lost

= (300)(1.5594) = 467.82 kJkg
-1

The entropy generation analysis:
kJkg
-1
K
-1
Percent of S
G

S
G
(compression/cooling) 25.106 94.15
S
G
(throttle) 1.5594 5.85
S
G
26.6654 100.0

The work analysis:
kWkg
-1
Percent of W
s

W
lost
(compression/cooling) 7532 94.15
W
lost
(throttle) 468 5.85
W
s
8000 100.0

The largest loss occurs in the compression step.

4.3.2 Sizing
Volume of Compressor needed, V

From mass balance, we know that flow rate of methane gas (from digester),
Q:
Q = 20.23 kg/hr
= 20.23 kg/hr x 24 hr/day
= 485.52 kg/day


Density of methane gas = 0.717 kg/m
3
123

V = 20.23 kg/hr
= 20.23 kg/hr / (0.717 kg/m
3
)
= 28.22 m
3
/hr
= 7451.8 gallon/hr

Hence, approximately 7500 gallon volume of compressor is needed for the
plant.

Design:
Specifications below are taken as reference.
- suction pressure (P
1
) = 1 bar = 14.503 psia
- final pressure (P
2
) = 10 bar = 145.03 psia
- suction temperature (T
1
) = 45 C = 85 F
- methane flow rate m
methane
= 20.23 kg/hr
- pressure drop of inter cooler (P)= 5 psia

Compression ratio (R
Ct
): Compression ratio is the relation of discharge
pressure (P2) over the suction pressure (P1) for a compressor, P
2
/P
1
.

R
Ct
= P
2
/P
1
= 145.03/14.503 = 10

Number of stage (n): For the high-pressure compression services, the
compressor is design for multiple process compression stages.

Rc = (Rc
t
)
(1/n)
= (10)
0.5
= 3.16 (acceptable since it is in range 3 - 5)

So, methane compression is carried out in two stages.

Discharge pressure:

a) Discharge pressure for the first stage (P
12
):
P
12
= (Rc * P
1
) + (P / 2) = (3.16 * 14.503) + (5 /2) = 48.33 psia

124

R
C1
= P
12
/ P
1
= 48.33/ 14.503 = 3.33

b) Inlet pressure for the second stage (P
22
):

P
22
= P
12
p/2 = 48.33 5/2 = 45.83 psia

R
C2
= P
2
/ P
22
= 145.03 / 45.83 = 3.17

Outlet final temperature:

T
F
= T
1
R
c
(k-1)/k
where, T = degrees Rankine or kelvins
k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.32 for methane)
R= compression ratio

T
F
= T
1
* R
C
(k-1)/k
= (113+460) * 3.25
(1.32-1)/1.32
= 762 R

= 302.33F (Acceptable, in the range of 300
o
F to 350 F)

Typical compression ratios are about 3 per stage to limit discharge
temperatures to perhaps 300
o
F to 350

F.

Capacity at actual condition (Qa
1
, Qa
2
)

Q = 20.23 kg/hr = 44.0925 lb/hr

Standard cubic feet/hour (ft
3
/hr) at 14.7psia and 60
o
F
= [(lb/hr)/MW]*359.05

Q = [44.0925 /16.043]*359.05 = 986.81ft
3
/hr = 7381.35 gallon/hr

Million standard cubic feet/day =

a) For first stage:
125

1 ft
3
= 7.48 gallon

Qa
1
(at 14.503 Psia, T
1
=113F) =

.24ft
3
/hr = 0.028 MMSCFD

b) For second stage:

Qa
2
(at 145.03 Psia, T
2
=302F) =

.43ft
3
/hr = 0.037MMSCFD

Brake horse power: From compressor horsepower selection chart, by known
(Rc =3.16, K= 1.32).

BHP/MMCFD =150

a) For first stage:

(BHP)
1
=Qa
1
* BHP/MMCFD (@14.4 Psia, T=85f) = 0.028 * 150 =4.2 HP

b) For second stage:

(BHP)
2
= Qa
2
* BHP /MMCFD (@14.4 Psia, t = 100f) = 0.037 *150
= 5.6 HP

Total Brake horse power = (BHP)
1
+(BHP)
2
= 9.8 BHP
Standardized (BHP)
total
= 10 HP

BHP)
1st
= BHP)
1
* BHP)
st
/BHP)
t
= 4.2 *9.8/10 = 4.2 HP = 3.07 kW

BHP)
2st
= BHP)
2
* BHP)
st
/BHP)
t
= 5.6 * 9.8 /10 = 5.5 HP = 4.09 kW
126

4.3.3 HAZOP and HAZAN Analysis
There is possibility of over-pressure at the throttle valve. The main possible cause
to this problem is due to the rise in control pressure that occurs at low or zero flow.
This lockup tail is due to the effects of imperfect plug and seat alignment and the
elastomeric effects of the main throttle valve. If for some reason the main throttle
valve fails to completely shut off, or if the valve shuts off but the control pressure
continues to rise for other reasons, the lockup tail could get very large, and the
control pressure could rise to extremely high valves. Damage to the regulator or
the downstream pressure volume could occur.

To avoid this situation, some regulators are designed with a built-in over-
pressure relief mechanism. Over-pressure relief circuits usually are composed of a
spring-opposed diaphragm and valve assembly that vents the downstream piping
when the control pressure rises above the set point pressure.

Reciprocating Compressors

- Reciprocating compressor which is a type of positive displacement
compressor will be used because it can handle the most flexible
pressure and flow rates which cause it to be suitable for this plant as it
is scalable.
- Reciprocating compressors that used in this plant are furnished in
multistage types.
- The maximum allowable discharge-gas temperature determines the
maximum compression ratio.
- The power of the compressor use is about 11 kW or 4 hp.







127

4.4 Clarifier

4.4.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
Temperature cools down in the clarifier, from 45
0
C in the input to 26
0
C in the
clarifier. The mean heat capacities between 318.14K (45
0
C) and 299.15K (26
0
C) are
calculated as shown in equations below. The results in J mol
-1
K
-1
are summarized
as below:

)(

)+ (

)

A, B, C and D are constants given in heat capacity table.

Component n, (kmol/h)

Solid (Carbon Dioxide) 0.8834 38.1938 37.9371
Water 29.6448 33.6275 33.62696

Total mean heat capacities,

Hence,

128

4.4.2 Sizing and Costing
Clarifier: From mass balance, we know that flow rate of Influent (from digester), Q:

Q = 573.08 kg/hr
= 573.08 kg/hr x 24 hr/day
= 13,753.92 kg/day

1 liter = 0.2642 gallon
1 liter = 0.001 m
3


Density of fertilizer = 1310 kg/m
3

Volume of Clarifier needed, V
V = 13,753.92 kg/day
= 13,753.92 kg/day / (1310 kg/m
3
)
= 2773.59 gallon/day

Hence, approximately 3000 gallon volume of clarifier is needed for the
plant. Specifications below are taken as reference.









129


Volume
(Gallons)
Tank
Diameter
Tank
Side
Water
Depth
Concrete
Floor
Height
Center
Sump
Diameter
Inlet
Stilling
Well
Diameter
Inlet
Pipe Size
Diameter
Outlet
Size
Diameter
Scum
Pipe Size
Diameter
Sludge
Pipe Size
Diameter
Sludge
Pipe
CL
Height
Sludge
Well
Height
3,321 8-0 8-8 9 20 2-0 6 6 2 3 4 7
Table 4.4: Specification of Clarifier
130

4.4.3 Mechanical Drawing






















Figure 4.4: Cross sectional view of clarifier

131

4.4.4 Composting Tank
Two tanks are needed after clarification. One is used as vermicomposting tank
where earthworms will be added into the solid fertilizer, while the other one is the
liquid fertilizer storage tank.

Details
Vermicomposting
Tank
Liquid Fertilizer Storage
Tank
Volume (m
3
) 4.91 9.236
Thickness of Wall (mm) 9 10
Material of
Constructions
Plastic Plastic
Quantity needed 2 2
Costing per tank RM 2130.10 RM 3776.90
Table 4.5: Specifications of vermicomposting tank and liquid fertilizer
storage tank
132


Figure 4.5: Top and front view of vermicomposting tank

Type Centrifugal Pump
Volumetric flow rate 10 m
3
/h
Power 0.6 kW
Quantity needed 3
Costing per pump RM 13356
Table 4.6: Specifications of pump

Type Diaphragm Valve
Quantity needed 4
Costing per valve RM 578.17
Table 4.7: Specification of valve



133

Item Price (RM) Quantity Cost (RM)
Clarifier 17076.74 1 17,076.74
Solid Fertilizer Storage Tank 2130.10 2 4,260.20
Liquid Fertilizer Storage Tank 3776.90 2 7,553.80
Centrifugal Pump 13356 3 40,068.00
Diaphragm Valve 578.17 4 2,312.68
TOTAL 71,271.42
Table 4.8: Total cost for clarifier and composting section

4.4.5 HAZOP and HAZAN Analysis
Clarifiers cannot be used for the disposal of hazardous waste such as coolants,
solvent, Freon, hydraulic fluids, transformer oil, etc. Clarifiers must be periodically
pumped and have maintenance contracts in order to keep discharges within limit.
There is possibility of over-flowing or underflow of input into clarifier. The main
possible cause to this problem is the blockage or failure of pump/valve in the input
or output for the clarifier. Another probable cause is the leaking or rupture of the
clarifier itself which causes losses in the level of input in clarifier. Level transmitter
or level sensors should be installed in the clarifier to indicate the level of slurry in
the clarifier. A control panel will then take corrective measures to avoid any
deviation in the flow. For example, halt the operation of pump to direct slurry from
the digester or closing valve before clarifier to avoid overflow in clarifier.

Alarm should be installed as well in the clarifier control panel to alert the
authority with any uncommon situation, for example, high level or low level of input
in clarifier. Clarifier is made of carbon steel. It resists corrosion due to the presence
of components such as ammonia in the slurry but over a long period, it will corrode
as well. Hence, inspection has to be carried out regularly to ensure no leakage or
rupture of clarifier which leads to leakage or slurry into the environment. Fittings of
clarifier such as the inlet pipe have to be inspected as well to ensure no corrosion.


134

Plastic material is used for the constructions of both liquid and solid fertilizer
tanks. There might be presence of components such as ammonia that is corrosive
in nature. As plastic are resistant to corrosion, it is less likely to corrode. However,
fittings have to be checked regularly to ensure there is no leakage due to corrosion.
Prevent excessive heat near the tank. Protect personnel from chemical danger in
the event of a leak and protect the tank from traffic damage and excessive heat.
Tanks are designed for above ground use only. Fully support the entire bottom of
the tank on a clean, smooth concrete foundation. Fill the usable capacity of the
tank with water and hydro test up to a minimum 5 hours after installation and
before product is introduced to ensure tank and fitting integrity.

In addition, atmospheric pressure must be maintained in tank at all times.
Tanks should be inspected on a routine basis. Inspect the exterior and interior of
the tank for cracking and brittle appearance. Inspect fittings and exterior gaskets
for leaks and signs of general corrosion and deterioration. There is one additional
backup tank in case of emergency such as overflowing and leakage from the main
tank. Level sensors should be installed at the main tank to alert the operators of
any uncommon situation. Liquid and solid fertilizers are generally non-hazardous to
humans or environment. However, if leaked from tank will cause un-hygiene
environment and sometimes, uncomfortable aroma. Hence, it is advised to build
drainage system around storage tank to flush away leakage.












135

4.4.6 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram with Control















Figure 4.6: PID with control of clarifier and composting section














136

4.5 Boiler

4.5.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
The reaction occurring of the gases passing through the boiler is :

CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
O

This reaction as :
H
O
298
= 393,509 + 2( 241,818) ( 74,520) = 802,625 J

G
O
298
= 394,359 + 2( 228,572) ( 50,460) = 801,043 J

Whence,

S
O
298
= = 5.306 J K
-1


On the basis of 1 mol of methane burned with 25% excess air, the air
entering the boiler contains:

O
2
: (2)(125) = 2.5 mol
N
2
: (2.5)(79/21) = 9.405 mol
Total : 11.905 mol air

Calculation path for combustion process

i) For unmixed the entering air:

H
a
= 0

S
a
= n R
i
y
i
ln y
i
= (11.905) (8.314) (0.21 ln 0.21 + 0.79 ln 0.79) = 50.870 J K
-1



H
O
298
G
O
298
298.15
137

460
298.15
ii) For the standard reaction at 298.15 K:

H
b
= H
O
298
= 802,625 J

S
b
= S
O
298
= 5.306 J K
-1


iii) For mixing to form the flue gas:

H
c
= 0
S
c
= n R
i
y
i
ln y
i

= (12.905) (8.314) (0.0775 ln 0.0775 + 0.1550 ln 0.1550 +
0.0387 ln 0.0387 + 0.7288 ln 0.7288)

iv) For the heating step, the mean heat capacities between 298.15 K and
460 K are calculated

(Cp)
H
(Cp)
S

CO
2
41.649 41.377
H
2
O 34.153 34.106
N
2
29.381 29.360
O
2
30.473 30.405

Each individual heat capacity is multiplied by the number of moles of that species in
the flue gas and the product are summed over all species. This gives total mean
heat capacities for the 12.905 mol of mixture.

(C
t
p)
H
= 401.520 and (C
t
p)
S
= 400.922 J K
-1


Then,

H
d
= (C
t
p)
H
(T
2
T
1
) = (401.520) (460 298.15) = 64,986 J

S
d
= (C
t
p)
S
ln = 400.922 ln = 173.852 J K
-1

T
2

T
1

138

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
For the total process on the basis of 1 mol CH
4
burned:

H = H
i
= 0 802,625 + 0 + 64,986 = 737,639 J

S = S
i
= 50,870 5.306 + 90.510 + 173.852 = 208.186 J K
-1

Thus, H = 737.64 kJ and S = 0.2082 kJ K
-1


The steam rate is m = 84.75kg s
-1
. An energy balance for the boiler unit,
where heat is transferred from the combustion gases to the steam, allow
calculation of the entering methane rate n
CH4
:

(84.75) (3,391.6 203.4) + n
CH4
( 737.64) = 0

Whence, n
CH4
= 366.30 mol s
-1


The ideal work for the process:

W
ideal
= 366.30 [ ( 737.64) (298.15)(0.2082) ] = 292.94 x 10
3
kJ s
-1


We assumed no heat transfer from the boiler to the surrounding. Therefore,
Q = 0. The term (Sm)
fs
is simply the sum of the entropy changes of the two
streams multiplied by their rates:

S
G
= (366.30) (0.2082) + (84.75) (6.6858 0.6580) = 587.12 kJ s
-1
K
-1


The work lost, W
lost
= T

S
G
= (298.15) (587.12) = 175.05 x 10
3
kW

The major source of inefficient is the boiler. The combustion itself accounts
for most of the entropy generation in this unit. The remainder is the result of heat
transfer across finite temperature differences.


139

4.5.2 Sizing and Costing
a) Boiler feed Water Pumps:

Each pump discharge capacity minimum = 53.8 m
3
/hr

Discharge capacity of each pump = 64.6 m
3
/hr

b) Sizing calculations of FD Fan:

Total combustion Air = 17.56 m
3
/s
Power required for FD Fan, BHP = 80.9 HP
Motor HP required = 90 HP

c) Sizing calculations of ID Fan:

ID Fan capacity = 27.2 m
3
/s
ID Fan static Head = 250 mmWC
Power required for ID Fan = 105 HP
Motor HP required = 117 HP

Costing for boiler (shop-ready made) = RM116,060.00

4.5.3 HAZOP and HAZAN Analysis

4.5.3.1 Standards, Testing and Certification Process
Overpressure condition might occur mostly at the throttle valve. Main possible
cause to this problem is due to the valve condition that may stuck closed or control
system failure. The consequences that occur if this condition happened may bring
the high pressure in boiler and might intent to possible explosive. The damage by
the boiler may affect major contribution of the plant.

140

Luckily, boiler that comes from the supplier or shop-ready made have highly
protection as all known the major contribution of it in plant. Furthermore, the
safety steps consist by the boiler can be ensured.

Most burners are fitted with multiple safety features to prevent burn back
which could result in fuel store ignition. The drop cell or zone is fitted as a physical
barrier that prevents a fire spreading to the fuel store. Up to two temperature
sensors are fitted along the burner feed auger to detect burn back and, if activated,
can disconnect the power supply and release water (dousing system) to extinguish
the fire.

Heating and power boilers may also be required to have a code stamp that
certifies the boiler was constructed to the requirements of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPVC).

This code is not a standard but a prescription for the design and
construction of a boiler. The ASME BPVC requires certification of the materials used
to make the boiler, adherence to a construction strict process, certification of
employees (e.g., welders) who work on boilers and visual inspection and pressure
testing of each unit.

Hazards that may be encountered in the workplace include but are not
limited to:

chemical hazards
thermal hazards
manual handling hazards
machinery guard requirements
illumination of work area
rubbish and combustibles in area
leakage of steam plant
leakage of fuel
obstructions in work area
141

hot exposed steam pipe
excessive noise from machinery
spillage of oil on the workplace floor
Odour of gas
fumes from a liquid chemical spill
boiler low water condition.
broken ladder hand rail

The pre-operational checks of boilers may include but not be limited to:

checks of feed water supply and system
fuel supply/heat source system
the operation and position of boiler valves
combustion air supply system
combustion equipment
boiler water level
essential fittings

4.5.3.2 Alarms and Shutdowns
Design the plant controls to avoid nuisance shutdowns. These can be caused by
unnecessary items being interlocked into the shutdowns, bad design, or lack of
provisions in the case of power or instrument air failure. Also design for easy
restart in the case of shutdown, especially when caused by non-process type
failures such as interruption of power or instrument air.









142

4.5.4 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram with Control














Figure 4.7: PID with control of boiler





143

4.5.5 Mechanical Design

















Figure 4.8: Mechanical drawing of boiler (side view)
144



















Figure 4.9: Mechanical drawing of boiler (top view)
145

4.6 Steam Distiller

4.6.1 Thermodynamic Analysis
Extraction Tank
Assume the kinetic and potential energy are negligible

Work Lost,

(0.249 kW)

Condenser

Assume stream is ideal gases with

, take

The kinetic and potential energy are negligible

By follow the countercurrent flow

Work lost,

(0.219kW)



146

Pump
Assume the pump enter adiabatic with 1 atm (101.325 kPa) and discharge at a
pressure of 2 atm (202.650kPa) and pump efficiency is 90 percent

Because 1kJ=10
6
kPa cm
3
,

Temperature change of water during pump,

Entropy change of water cooler,

Work lost,

(7.288E-3 kW)

4.6.2 Sizing
Extraction Tank
The extractor tank or still proper serves as a vessel in which the steam contacts the
plant material and vaporizes its essential oil. The vessel consists of cylindrical tank
with the diameter equal or slightly less than its height.



147

Steam input = 56.25 kg/h

Tank capacity = 250kg of lemongrass per extraction

Tank Volume = .r
2
.h

Taking Diameter, D
1
= 1.5 m and Height, H
1
= 2m

Tank Volume = (0.75)
2
x 2
= 3.534 m
3
(volume is sufficient to extract the lemongrass)

Material of Construction
Stainless Steels material which is highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety
of environment especially the ambient atmosphere. Type of Stainless steel is the
18Cr/8Ni unstabilised (304).

Thickness of Wall
Cylindrical Section

Diameter of the tank = 1.5 m

Value shows include a corrosion allowance of 2mm.

Hence, thickness of tanks wall should be 7mm with corrosion allowance of 2mm.

Domed head
The standard dished head (torisphere)

148

Thus a dished head would be probably being the most economical. Take a same
thickness as wall 7.0mm.

Condenser
Water is used to cool the Steam at rate of 37.5935kg/h from 100
o
C to 26
o
C with
the specific heat of 4.179kJ/kg.
o
C. The fluid are used in countercurrent flow double-
pipe stainless steel heat exchanger and the water enter at 25
o
C and leaving at
30
o
C,

(3.2293kW)

Collector Tank
Storage of the condensate water and oil after extraction

Condensate input

Volume

If there is 3 extraction per day

Taking

Tank Volume

Hence, volume is sufficient to store the condensate for 4 hours of extraction per
day and 3 times extraction per day

149

Thickness of Wall
Values shown in table above shows that condensate tank have the diameter less
then 1 m, thus the thickness of wall should have a thickness of 5mm with
corrosion allowance of 2mm.

Material of Construction
Plastic storage tank is used as plastic does not corrode with presence of water.
Furthermore, it is cheaper in cost.

Water cooler pump
The water is pumped from a water tank to the condenser, using a centrifugal
pump. The water tank operates at atmospheric pressure at 1 bar which is equals to
100 kPa. Pump is designed to deliver

of water from the water

tank to the condenser.
Efficiency of pump is

.

Throughput,

Capacity of motor,

Hence, pump of 0.07162kW is needed to pump the water from to the
condenser.

Hand Operate Chain Hoist
A hoist is needed to lift the retorts cover open and close of the retort. An electrical
hoist has lifting capacity of ton and required only 24 pounds hand pull on the
chain to lift 500pounds. Standard equipment includes hook latches, 8 coil chain
and overload device, push button control, overload protection, 10 feet coil lift chain
and hook latches as standard.


150

Water Tank
Water cooling input

Density of water at

Volume

Taking

Tank Volume

Hence, volume is sufficient to store the water use to cool down the condensate for
4 hours of extraction per day

Thickness of Wall
Values shown in table above shows that condensate tank have the diameter less
then 1 m, thus the thickness of wall should have a thickness of 5mm with
corrosion allowance of 2mm.

Material of Construction
Plastic storage tank is used as plastic does not corrode with presence of water.
Furthermore, it is cheaper in cost.

Valve
There are 9 valves used in the steam distillation system (as shown in the PID of
steam distillation). 3 types of valve are used in this system such as the ball valve,
Butterfly valve and globe valve. Taking all sizes of the valve is 2 in except of the V-
2 of butterfly valve is 6 in and V-3 the globe valve is in and the specification of
valve; Cast Iron Wafer Butterfly Valve (S/S disc/stem) 2; Cast Iron Wafer Butterfly
Valve (S/S disc/stem) 6; Stainless steel Ball Valve Bar Stk Red Bore BSP, 2;
Bronze Steam Globe Valve BSP, 1/2

151

4.6.3 Costing
Item Price (RM) Quantity Cost (RM)
Extraction Tank (S/S 304)
Sieve (S/S wire mesh)
Installation cost
20030.10/1000gal
207.64
1661 x 1.7
3
3
1
60,090.30
622.92
2,738.70
5m
2
double pipe stainless steel
heat exchanger for of heat
transfer area with cost
installation

4,804.36
3

14,413.08
Cost of plastic storage tank
(150 gal) 673.04
3
2,019.12
Water pump

with
72W power 3,673.08
1
3,673.08
Hand Operate Chain Hoist 4,940.40 1 4,940.40
Cost of plastic storage tank
(2500 gal) 2846.06/2500gal
2
5,692.06
Cast Iron Wafer Butterfly Valve
(S/S disc/stem) 2
Cast Iron Wafer Butterfly Valve
(S/S disc/stem) 6
Stainless steel Ball Valve Bar
Stk Red Bore BSP, 2
Bronze Steam Globe Valve
BSP, 1/2
394.50

1005.00

536.88

509.88
1
1
6
1
394.60
1005.00
3,221.28
509.88
TOTAL RM 99,320.42
Table 4.9: Costing of steam distiller unit






152

4.6.4 HAZOP and HAZAN analysis
Any system in which the pressure departs at all significantly from atmospheric and
is therefore of rigid construction, needs to be considered as a pressure system.
Therefore the system is covered by the Pressure System and Transportable Gas
Container Regulations 1989 (the Pressure Systems Regulation). Thus the Steam
distillation is the pressure system under the Regulation 2 where a system
comparing one or more pressure vessels of rigid construction, any associated pipe
work and protective devices; the pipe work with protective devices to which a
transportable gas container is or is intended to be connected

The design, fabrication and construction of pressure vessels are a subject
which is particularly well covered by standards and codes of practice. Pressure
vessel codes fall into two man types. The first type is conventional codes, the
second the so-called advance codes; Conventional code: BS1500:1958 Fusion
Welded Pressure Vessels for General Purpose and advance code: BS1515:1965
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessel for use in the chemical, Petroleum and Allied
Industries. Heat exchanger is component of importance in steam distillation system
which is the heat interchange duties in this process. Some problems may occur in
the heat exchanger and may effect the safety operation:

1. Fouling. It may affect the heat transfer and pressure drop. The
reduction of heat transfer capacity may be particularly serious is the
heat exchanger is a cooler on a critical duty such as removal of heat
from a reactor. Effect o increasing pressure drop which may be serious
are reduction in the maximum flows which can be passed through the
exchanger and reduction in the pressure drop across the control valve
and hence deterioration in the tightness of control. In extreme, foiling
can result in complete blockage of the exchanger. Fouling also occur
due to operational factors such as stoppage of pump, omission of filter,
transfer of debris from other equipment and so on. If this can have a
serious effect, but the incorporation of fouling factor in design is of little
use in this situation.

153

2. Tube vibration. It is because of the use of high capacity, compact heat
exchangers with long tubes and high fluid velocities. It can cause
damage to the tubes themselves and possibly to the exchange shell and
its supports or to the pipe work connected to it, can transmit destructive
pressure fluctuations from the exchanger and can generate considerable
noise. It can be sufficiently severe to lead to shut-down with multiple
tube failure.

3. Tube rupture. The high pressure gas or vapour in the tube and low
pressure liquid in the shell, tube rupture can lead to overpressure shell
is recognized in the pressure vessel. Heat exchanger shall be protected
with a relieving device of sufficient capacity to avoid over pressure in the
case of an internal failure. The problem will gives effects on the heat
exchanger such as local pressure rise at point of rapture and overall
peak pressure rice in shell.

During the severe process upset, the pressure and temperature limits of
integrity for the steam distillation system can approached. To avoid an
uncontrolled, catastrophic release of the contents or the destruction of the vessels,
pressure relieve systems are installed. Usually, these are relieving valves on the
process lines that open automatically at the certain pressure. Downstream, its must
connecting to stack directed away from workers since in this process deal with the
material such as steam that present physical hazards. The design of the pressure
relief system is especially important, as the worst case scenario must be
considered, which sometimes the simultaneous failure of multiple relief system.

Beside the relief valves, rupture disks are used to open the process to the
discharge in a line. It is designed to fail rapidly as a set of pressure. Ideally, the
rupture disk allows no floe when the pressure is below the set pressure and it
immediately offers no resistance to flow when the pressure hits the set point.


154

Flanged joints in the steam distillation process are sealed mainly by gaskets
or ring seals. There are 2 types of gaskets that commonly used such as the
compressed asbestos fiber (CAF) gaskets and metallic spiral wound gaskets. The
metallic spiral wound gasket mostly used because it gives a relatively simple and
low cost joint, elasticity and material flow required for good sealing. They are well
suited to high pressure and resistant to high temperature and corrosive condition.
The ring seal also known as a lens or ring type joint is used particularly for high
pressure plant. It is a ring with an approximately ovoidal cross section which fits
into two grooves and capable of a degree of deformation to make a good seal.
155

4.6.5 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram with Control















Figure 4.10: PID with control of steam distiller unit


156

4.6.6 Mechanical Drawing

















Figure 4.11: Mechanical drawing of steam distiller
157




























Figure 4.12: Mechanical drawing of separator




158



















Figure 4.13: Mechanical drawing of condenser