Chemistry Homework 3.

3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

COMPONENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

1. Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays or hyphenated as gammarays (especially in astronomy, by analogy with X-rays) and denoted as , is electromagnetic radiation of high frequency (very short wavelength). Gamma rays are usually naturally produced on Earth by decay of high energy states in atomic nuclei (gamma decay). Important natural sources are also high-energy sub-atomic particle interactions resulting from cosmic rays. Such high-energy reactions are also the common artificial source of gamma rays. Other man-made mechanisms include electron-positron annihilation, neutral pion decay, fusion, and induced fission. Some rare natural sources are lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, which produce high energy particles from natural high-energy voltages. Gamma rays are also produced by astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of

bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron radiation. Gamma rays are ionizing radiation and are thus biologically hazardous.

2. Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays, in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from 3 eV to 124 eV. It is named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with frequencies higher than those that humans identify as the colour violet. These frequences are invisible to humans, but visible to a number of insects. They are also indirectly detectable, through their induction of secondary fluorescense at visible wavelengths.

3. Infrared Radiation
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres (m), and extending conventionally to 300 m. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 1 to 400 THz,.nd include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature. Microscopically, IR light is typically emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements.

4. Microwave Radiation
Microwaves are radio waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.[1] This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), and various sources use different boundaries.[2] In all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3 mm).

5. Radio Waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and corresponding wavelengths from 1 millimeter to 100 kilometers. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.

6. X-Ray Radiation
X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (31016 Hz to 31019 Hz) and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is called Rntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen, who is usually credited as its discoverer, and who had named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation. Correct spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s) and X ray(s). XRAY is used as the phonetic pronunciation for the letter x. The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes had a longer wavelength than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei (gamma rays).Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 1011 m, defined as gamma rays. However, as shorter wavelength continuous spectrum "X-ray" sources such as linear accelerators and longer wavelength "gamma ray" emitters were discovered, the wavelength bands largely overlapped. The two types of radiation are now usually distinguished by their origin: Xrays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

7. Visible Radiation/Light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has wavelength in a range from about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm, with a frequency range of about 405 THz to 790 THz. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.

Chemistry Homework 3.4

Nuclear Fission vs Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion and Nuclear fission are two different types of energyreleasing reactions in which energy is released from high-powered atomic bonds between the particles within the nucleus. The main difference between these two processes is that fission is the splitting of an atom into two or more smaller ones while fusion is the fusing of two or more smaller atoms into a larger one.

Definition of nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear fusion is the reaction in which two or more nuclei combine together to form a new element with higher atomic number (more protons in the nucleus). The energy released in fusion is related to E = mc 2 (Einsteins famous energy-mass equation). On earth, the most likely fusion reaction is DeuteriumTritium reaction. Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. 2 1Deuterium + 3 1Tritium = 42He + 10n + 17.6 MeV

Physics behind both fission and fusion processes

The more the binding energy held within the bonds of an atom, more stable is an atom. Binding energy is the amount of energy held within the bonds of the atoms. The most stable is the nucleon of iron atom, which neither fuses nor splits. Thats why iron is at the top of the binding energy curve. Each atom tries to become more stable by increasing its binding energy. For atomic nuclei lighter than iron and nickel, energy can be extracted by combining these nuclei together through nuclear fusion. In contrast, for atomic nuclei heavier than iron or nickel, energy can be released by splitting the heavy nuclei through nuclear fission.

Conditions for fission and fusion

For a fission reaction, two conditions need to be satisfied: Critical mass of the substance (the minimum amount of mass is required for fission to be self-sustaining). A relatively slow neutron is required to initiate the process. For a nuclear fusion reaction to occur it is necessary to bring two nuclei so close that nuclear forces become active and glue the nuclei together. Nuclear forces are small-distance forces and have to act against the electrostatic forces where positively charged nuclei repel each other. This is the reason why nuclear fusion reactions occur mostly in high density, high temperature environment.

Natural occurrence of fusion and fission

In nature, fusion occurs in stars. On Earth, nuclear fusion was first achieved in the explosion of the Hydrogen bomb. In a non-destructive manner, fusion has also been .producing energy in a controlled fashion. On the other hand, fission is a nuclear process which does not normally occur in nature. The reason for this is that it requires a large mass and an incident neutron to initiate the process. But there have been examples where nuclear fission has occured in natural reactors. This was discovered in 1972 wherein uranium deposits were found at one location which could self sustain a natural chain reaction. 16 deposits have been discovered of these deposits at this lone site.

Effects of fusion vs. fission

If accidentally, a fission reaction goes out of control as a result of not controlling the emission of neutrons, a nuclear meltdown can happen which can then release highly radioactive particles in the atmosphere. In contrast, in case of nuclear fusion if the reaction goes out of control, the reaction would stop automatically as it itll cool down. In addition, in case of nuclear fusion reaction, the amount of radioactive materials produced as waste is very small and the maximum damage which could happen is the vaporization of anything in the immediate vicinity of the reaction. With regards to these factors it can be said that a fusion reaction is a more environmentally friendly method of producing nuclear power. Energy requirement: It takes less energy to split two atoms with fission than it does to fuse two atoms, which is why fission reactors were developed first, and why fusion reactors have not been developed yet.

History of human-engineered fusion/fission

While an atom bomb is an example of nuclear fission, a hydrogen bomb is an example of nuclear fusion. The testing of a hydrogen bomb arising out of fusion was first conducted in 1951 though the idea of such nuclear fusion had been proposed as early as 1941. This bomb was tested at full scale in 1952. Atom Bombs based on nuclear fission were tested first in World War II. The first atomic bomb used as a weapon was detonated by the United States in 1945 on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The first test detonation of an atomic bomb was conducted in New Mexico state in 1945.

Chain Reaction in fusion vs. fission

Both fission and fusion nuclear reactions are chain reactions. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions, thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions. The specific nuclear reaction may be the fission of heavy isotopes (e.g. 235 U) or the fusion of light isotopes (e.g. 2H and 3H). Fission chain reactions occur because of interactions between neutrons and fissile isotopes and a fusion chain reaction occurs under extreme pressure and temperature conditions, which are maintained by the

energy released in the fusion process.

Nuclear weapons
Two methods of assembling fission bombs One class of nuclear weapons, a fission bomb, otherwise known as an atomic bomb or atom bomb, is a fission reactor designed to liberate as much energy as possible and as rapidly as possible, before the released energy causes the reactor to explode (and the chain reaction to stop). Another class is the hydrogen bomb, which functions by fusion of lighter nuclei into the heavier one. Hydrogen bomb or H-bomb is a weapon deriving a large portion of its energy from the nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes. Extremely high temperatures are required in order to initiate a fusion reaction which also gives the hydrogen bomb the name of a thermonuclear bomb.

Cost of fission vs. fusion

Nuclear fission: The inefficiency of cost comes into play when it is considered that nuclear fuel creates heat and this heat is used to boil the water and the steam produced is used to turn turbine to generate electricity. This transformation from heat energy to electrical energy is cumbersome and expensive. A second source of inefficiency is that clean-up and storage of nuclear waste is very expensive because the waste is radioactive and finally security issues add to the cost of nuclear energy.

Nuclear fusion: For fusion to occur the atoms must be confined in the magnetic field and raised to a temperature of 100 million Kelvin or more. This takes lot of electricity and hence cost inefficiency comes in the picture. Hence both are cost inefficient logically for productive and non destructive purpose.

Advantage of nuclear fusion over nuclear fission

In case of fusion reactions, fusion reactors cannot sustain a chain reaction so they can never melt down like fission reactors. Fusion reaction produces very less or, if the right atoms are chosen, no radioactive waste. In case of nuclear fission large radioactive waste is produced and disposal of radioactive waste is a complicated problem. For nuclear power, fusion is the better choice.

Energy ratios in fission and fusion

The energy released by fusion is three to four times greater than the energy released by fission. This is because the amount of mass transformed into energy is that much greater in a fusion reaction than in a fission reaction.

Chemistry Homework 3.5 Scientists who developed the Periodic Table :

1. Antoine Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution; 26 August 1743 8 May 1794; French pronunciation: [ twan l d lavwazje] ), the "father of modern chemistry", was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry and biology. He termed both oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), helped construct the metric system, put together the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also the first to establish that sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a compound. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same.

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier was, amongst other things, a chemist, economist, and public servant. He is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. Lavoisier, the son of a very prosperous lawyer, was born in Paris on August 26, 1743. He was educated at the College des Quatre Nations where he studied a broad range of academics. He was expected to follow in his fathers footsteps and even obtained his licence to practice law in 1764 before turning to a life of science. In particular, he turned to geology. From 1763 to 1767 he studied geology under Jean Etienne Guettard. In 1765 he wrote and published a paper on how to improve the street lighting in Paris. For this and some works on agriculture, he was elected into the Royal Academy of Science in 1768. Also in this year, he joined the Farmer's General, a private company that collected taxes and tariffs for the government. In 1771, he married the daughter of a Farmer General, Jaques Paulze. She immediately became her husbands collaborator, learning to read English (which Lavoisier could not do) and becoming a skilled draftsman and engraver.

2. Johann Dobereiner
A German scientist called Johann Dobereiner put forward his law of triads in 1817. Each of Dobereiner's triads was a group of three elements. The appearance and reactions of the elements in a triad were similar to each other. Dobereiner, the son of a coachman and servant, had little formal education and little money for formal education. From age 15 to 17, Dobereiner worked as an apprentice at an apothecary named Lotz in Munchberg, after which he attended college lectures on

chemistry, botany, and mineralogy, and studied on his own, but was unable to afford college. In 1802, although now an apothecary, Dbereiner had neither the money nor license to buy a pharmacy. He opened an agricultural produce business (Landesproduktenhandlung) and small chemical factory in the small town of Gefree near Bayreuth, and he began to produce pharmaceutical-chemical preparations, publishing the reports of his experiments in the Neues allgemeines Journal der Chemie, edited by Adolph Ferdinand Gehlen (17751815). [8] It was Gehlen who later proposed his name for professor of chemistry at the University of Jena. In 1810, Dobereiner became professor of chemistry at Jena, teaching there for thirty-nine years. Dobereiner's publications include Essays on Physical Chemistry (1824-36) and Principles of General Chemistry (1826, 3rd ed.).

3. John Newlands
John Alexander Reina Newlands (26 November 1837 - 29 July 1898) was an English chemist who invented the Periodic Table. Newlands was born in London and was the son of a scottish Presbyterian minister and his Italian wife. He was home schooled by his father rather than going to a normal school studied and went on to study at the Royal College of Chemistry but was also interested in social reform, and in 1860, he served as a volunteer with Giuseppe Garibaldi in his campaign to unify Italy. Returning to London, he set up in practice as an analytical chemist in 1864, and in 1868 became chief chemist in James Duncan's London sugar refinery, where he introduced a number of improvements in processing. Later he left the refinery

and again set up as an analyst with his brother Benjamin. Newlands was the first person to devise a Periodic Table of elements arranged in order of their relative atomic weights. Continuing Dbereiners work with triads and J. B. Dumas' families of similar elements, in 1865 he published his law of octaves which states that "any given element will exhibit analogues behaviour to the eighth element following it in the table". Newlands arrangement showed all known elements arranged in seven groups which he likened to the octaves of music. The elements are ordered by atomic weights that were known at the time. They were numbered sequentially to show the order of atomic weights. In Newlands table periods and groups are shown going down and across the table, respectively the opposite from the modern periodic table. The incompleteness of a table he drew up in 1864 alluded to the possible existence of additional, undiscovered elements. For example, he predicted the existence of germanium. At the time, his law of octaves was ridiculed by his contemporaries and the Society of Chemists did not accept his work for publication. In 1894, Newlands had a child by the name of Christopher Maddocks Newlands. There is a blue plaque on the house where Newlands was born and raised in West Square, Newington, south London, installed by the Royal Society of Chemistry. After Dmitri Mendeleyev and Lother Meyer received the Davy Medal from the Royal Society for their later 'discovery' of the Periodic Table, Newlands fought for recognition of his earlier work; he eventually received the Davy medal in 1887. Newlands died on 29 July 1898 at his home in Lower Clapton, London, and was buried at West Norwood Cemetery. His business was continued after his death by his younger brother, Benjamin Edward Reina Newlands (18421912).

4. Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (also romanized Mendeleyev or Mendeleef; Russian: 8 February [O.S. 27 January] 1834 2 February [O.S. 20 January] 1907), was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements. Using the table, he predicted the properties of elements yet to be discovered. Mendeleev was born in the village of Verkhnie Aremzyani, near Tobolsk in Siberia, to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleev (ne Kornilieva). His grandfather was Pavel Maximovich Sokolov, a priest of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Tver region. Ivan, along with his brothers and sisters, obtained new family names while attending the theological seminary. Mendeleev is thought to be the youngest of either 11, 13, 14 or 17 siblings; the exact number differs among sources. His father was a teacher of fine arts, politics and philosophy. Unfortunately for the family's financial well being, his father became blind and lost his teaching position. His mother was forced to work and she restarted her family's abandoned glass factory. At the age of 13, after the passing of his father and the destruction of his mother's factory by fire, Mendeleev attended the Gymnasium in Tobolsk. In 1849, the now poor Mendeleev family relocated to Saint Petersburg, where he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1850. After graduation, his contraction of tuberculosis caused him to move to the Crimean Peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in 1855. While there he became a science master of the Simferopol gymnasium 1. He returned with fully restored health to Saint Petersburg in 1857. Other scientists had suggested in the 1860s that the elements display periodicity. John

Newlands published his Law of Octaves in 1865. The lack of spaces for undiscovered elements and the placing of two elements in one box were criticized and his ideas were not accepted. Another was Lothar Meyer, who published a paper in 1864 describing 28 elements. Neither attempted to predict new elements. In 1863 there were 56 known elements with a new element being discovered at a rate of approximately one per year. After becoming a teacher, Mendeleev wrote the definitive textbook of his time: Principles of Chemistry (two volumes, 18681870). As he attempted to classify the elements according to their chemical properties, he noticed patterns that led him to postulate his periodic table. Mendeleev was unaware of the other work on periodic tables going on in the 1860s. He made the following table, and by adding additional elements following this pattern, developed his extended version of the periodic table.

5. Julius Lothar Meyer

Julius Lothar von Meyer (August 19, 1830 - April 11, 1895) was a German chemist. He was contemporary and competitor of Dmitri Mendeleev to draw up the first periodic table of chemical elements. Some five years apart, both Mendeleev and Meyer worked with Robert Bunsen. He was born in Varel, at that time belonging to the Duchy of Oldenburg, now part of Germany, the son of Friedrich August Meyer, a physician, and Anna Biermann. After high school (Altes Gymnasium Oldenburg AGO) he went to study medicine first at Zrich University in 1851, and then, two years later, at the University of Wrzburg, where he had Rudolf Virchow as his teacher in pathology. The influence of C. F. W. Ludwig, under whom he studied at Zrich, decided him to devote his attention to physiological chemistry,

and therefore he went, after his graduation (1854), to Heidelberg, where R. Bunsen held the chair of chemistry. There he was so influenced by G. R. Kirchhoff's mathematical teaching that he took up the study of mathematical physics at Knigsberg under F. E. Neumann. In 1859 he became privat-docent in physics and chemistry at Breslau. In the preceding year, he had graduated as Ph.D. with a thesis on the action of carbon monoxide on the blood. In 1866 he accepted a post in the School of Forestry at Neustadt-Eberswalde, but soon moved to Carlsruhe Polytechnic. He married Johanna Volkmann on August 16, 1866. Meyer is best known for the share he had in the periodic classification of the elements. He noted, as did J. A. R. Newlands in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals; and in particular he showed that if the atomic weights are plotted as ordinates and the atomic volumes as abscissae, the curve obtained presents a series of maxima and minima, the most electro-positive elements appearing at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modernen Theorien der Chemie, which was first published in Breslau in 1864, has an early version of the periodic table containing 28 elements classified into 6 families by their valence the first time that elements had been grouped and ordered according to their valence. Work on organizing the elements by atomic weight had hitherto been stymied by inaccurate measurements of the atomic weights. Mendeleev published his periodic table of all known elements (and predicted several new elements to complete the table, plus some corrected atomic weights) in 1869. Working completely independently, a few months later, Meyer published a revised and expanded version of his 1864 table, virtually identical to that published by Mendeleev (Meyer had been sent a copy of Mendeleev's table earlier, Mendeleev sent it to all well known chemists of those times) and a paper showing graphically the periodicity of the elements as a function of atomic weight. As well as other chemists, Meyer was doubtful about Mendeleev's periodic law, and he criticized Mendeleev for 'changing existing elements' atomic weights, only regarding possibility of periodical law in its structure', but Mendeleev's work provided significant support, particularly when the new elements were found as predicted and remeasured atomic weights accorded with those predicted. In 1882, Meyer received from the Royal Society, at the same time as Mendeleev, the Davy Medal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law.

6. Henry Moseley
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887 10 August 1915) was an English physicist. Moseley's outstanding contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number. This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra. Moseley's Law justified many concepts in chemistry by sorting the chemical elements of the periodic table of the elements in a quite logical order based on their physics. Moseley's law advanced atomic physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr's theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This remains the accepted model today. When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications officer. Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on August 10, 1915, at the age of just 27. Some prominent authors have speculated that Moseley could have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916, had he not died in the service of the British Army. Before Moseley and his law, atomic numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary ordering number, vaguely increasing with atomic weight but not strictly defined by it. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrarily assigned, but rather, they have a strong physical basis. Moseley redefined the idea of atomic numbers from its previous status as an ad hoc numerical tag to help sorting the elements, in particular in the

Periodic Table, into a real and objective whole-number quantity that was experimentally measurable. Furthermore, as noted by Bohr, Moseley's law provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data that supported the (new from 1911) conception by Ernest Rutherford and Antonius Van den Broek of the atom, with a positively-charged nucleus surrounded by negatively-charged electrons in which the atomic number is understood to be the exact physical number of positive charges (later discovered and called protons) in the central atomic nuclei of the elements. Moseley mentioned the two scientists above in his research paper, but he did not actually mention Bohr, who was rather new on the scene then. Simple modification of Rydberg's and Bohr's formulas were found to give theoretical justification for Moseley's empirically-derived law for determining atomic numbers.

Chemistry Homework 3.6 1. Chemical Bond

A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the

result of a dipole attraction. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as dipole-dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding. Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. Also, an electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them. Thus, the most stable configuration of nuclei and electrons is one in which the electrons spend more time between nuclei, than anywhere else in space. These electrons cause the nuclei to be attracted to each other, and this attraction results in the bond. However, this assembly cannot collapse to a size dictated by the volumes of these individual particles. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves. In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases indeed most of the physical environment around us are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter.

Examples of Chemical Bond

1. Ionic Bond An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds are formed between a cation, which is usually a metal, and an anion, which is usually a nonmetal. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Silver Chloride (AgCl)

Iron Oxide (FeO) 2. Covalent Bond A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding. Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen

3. Polar Covalent Bond Polar covalent bonds are a particular type of covalent bond. In a polar covalent bond, the electrons shared by the atoms spend a greater amount of time, on the average, closer to the Oxygen nucleus than the Hydrogen nucleus. This is because of the geometry of the molecule and the great electronegativity difference between the Hydrogen atom and the Oxygen atom. The result of this pattern of unequal electron association is a charge separation in the molecule, where one part of the molecule, the Oxygen, has a parital negative charge and the Hydrogens have a partial positive charge. You should note this molecule is not an ion because there is no excess of proton or electrons, but there is a simple charge separation in this electrically neutral molecule. Water is not the only molecule that can have polor covalent bonds. Examples of other molecules that have polar covalent bonds are Peptide bonds and amines . The biological consequence of polar covalent bonds is that these kinds of bonds can lead to the formation of a weak bond called a hydrogen bond.

3. Non Polar Covalent Bond NON-POLAR BONDING results when two identical non-metals equally share electrons between them. One well known exception to the identical atom rule is the combination of carbon and hydrogen in all organic compounds. Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen

4. Metallic Bond Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attractive forces between the delocalized electrons, called conduction electrons, gathered in an "electron sea", and the positively charged metal ions. Understood as the sharing of "free" electrons among a lattice of positively charged ions (cations), metallic bonding is sometimes compared with that of molten salts; however, this simplistic view holds true for very few metals. In a more quantum-mechanical view, the conduction electrons divide their density equally over all atoms that function as neutral (non-charged) entities. Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity, opacity, and luster. Copper Zinc Sodium