GAS RESERVOIRS

Gas reservoirs are hydrocarbon reservoirs that contain dry gas. Behavior of these reservoirs is governed by the gas equation of state and the material balance equation Ideal Gas Equation: The Ideal Gas Equation of state is derived from Boyles law, Charles or Gay Lussacs law, and Avogadros law:

pV = nRT = where:

(18)
3

p = pressure, psia, V = volume, ft , n = number of pound-moles R = gas constant = 10.732, T = temperature, R = 460 + F, W = weight, lb M = molecular weight, lb/lb-mole This Eq. is used to calculate the number of moles of gas when the pressure and volume are known. This allows the determination of the moles of gas left in the reservoir as the Pressure declines, and thus recovery in moles. However, each mole of any ideal gas occupies a volume of 379.4 ft3 (10.74 m3) at 60F (289K), and 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Therefore, recovery in standard volumes is: 379.4 x (number of moles recovered)= standard ft3 or 0.74 x (number of moles recovered)= standard ft3

Real Gas Equation: Deviation from ideal behavior increases with pressure and decreases with temperature. To correct for the deviation from ideal gas behavior, a gas deviation factor, or compressibility factor, is introduced, giving: pV = znRT (19) Application of the Real Gas Equation of State Volumetric Calculations Eq 19 may be used to calculate the number of moles, and thus the standard ft3 of gas in a gas reservoir. The value of z can be less than, equal to, or greater than 1.0. It very seldom exceeds a value of 1.10. However, it can be as low as 0.3.

p/z versus Cumulative Production

We mentioned that the equation of state together with the material balance equation defines the behavior of a gas reservoir. The MBE for a gas reservoir with no water influx and neglecting compressibilities of rock and its associated water is Gp Bg = G( Bg - Bgi)

where:

Gp = cumulative gas produced, SCF (m ) 3 3 Bg = gas formation-volume factor, RB/SCF (m /standard m ) 3 G = original gas in place, SCF, (m ) Bgi = taken at the original pressure pi Bg is calculated by

Where Tr is the reservoir temperature in R , and standard conditions are taken at 14.7 psi (101 kPa) and 60F (289 K). Substituting for Bg gives

This equation plots Gp versus p/z resulting in a straight line. The extrapolation of the straight line to any p/z value gives total recovery at that pressure value, and its extrapolation to p/z = 0 gives the initial gas in place.

Effect of Water Influx If water influx is present, Equation 22 becomes Bg Gp = C(Bg - Bgi) + W e (25) where

Since We is a function of pressure and time (it is not constant), and Bg is a function of pressure, a plot of G p versus p/z will not give a straight line. However, at early time We is normally small, and, because of this, the plotted points may appear to fall on a straight line. Such a straight line will have a relatively flat slope, and its extrapolation to p/z = 0 will give an erroneously high value for G.

Later tine production data will not continue on a straight line trend. Rather, they will curve with a slope as shown in Figure 2.

Recovery Factors Gas recovery by pressure depletion usually is the most efficient means of producing gas reservoirs and results in a maximum recovery. Recovery can easily be calculated by Equation 24, and requires an estimate of the level of abandonment pressure. This recovery can also be approximated by

Recovery in percent = 1 -

100

When water influx is present, recovery is adversely affected because of the tendency for the encroaching water to trap portions of the gas in the reservoir, perhaps15-50% or more. This trapped gas is unrecoverable. In addition, heterogeneities and stratification may cause the encroaching water to bypass a portion of the reservoir and prematurely "water out" the producing wells. Generally speaking, when water influx is present, reservoir and production engineers may try to "outrun" the water by producing the gas at a high rate. This tends to maximize the effect of the expansion part of the recovery mechanism, before the water can move into the gas-saturated portion of the reservoir. Abnormal-Pressure Gas Reservoirs Abnormally pressured gas reservoirs are those reservoirs whose average fluid pressure gradient is substantially higher than 0.433 psi/ft (9.796 kPa/m), which is the average for normally pressured reservoirs. Abnormal pressures can result from a number of conditions, some of which include undercompaction of sediments, chemical diagenesis, tectonic activity (e.g., faulting), fluid density differences and fluid migration. For such reservoirs, the effective rock compressibility could be several orders of magnitude higher than that of normal reservoirs. P/Z Behavior In the case of abnormally pressured gas reservoirs, the compressibility of the rock cannot be ignored. It acts to maintain the pressure at a relatively high value. Thus a plot of p/z versus cumulative gas production for these reservoirs will show two distinct slopes.

The early slope exists during the period of abnormally high pressure (because of gas expansion, as well as pressure maintenance resulting from formation compaction, crystal expansion and water expansion), and the later one characterizes the reservoir when the pressure reaches the normal value ( Figure 3 ).

Extrapolation of the early slope to obtain initial gas in place will result in an optimistic value. In this sense it is similar to the p/z plot when water influx is present, as discussed earlier. If the second straight line is adequately defined it may be extrapolated to obtain an estimate of the initial gas in place. If only the first slope is defined the engineer is advised against using the p/z technique for determining gas in place: instead, the MBE with compressibility terms should be used. Material Balance Equation with Compressibility Terms The MBE for a gas reservoir with no water influx is

GpBg= G(Bg - Bgi) +

(Swcw+ cr) (pi- pR)

The first term on the right-hand side is the gas expansion and the second term is the expansion of the rock and associated water. The left-hand side term is the gas production. All are expressed in reservoir volumes. The initial gas in place G is then

(27) Equation 27 should be used to calculate the initial gas in place, in place of the normal p/z versus Gpplot for abnormally pressured reservoirs.

Gas Condensate Reservoirs

Gas condensate reservoirs have been defined as those hydrocarbon reservoirs that yield gas condensate liquid in the surface separator(s). A retrograde gas condensate reservoir is one whose temperature is below the cricondentherm (the maximum temperature at which liquid and vapor phases can coexist in equilibrium for a constant-composition multicomponent system). As pressure decreases below the dewpoint due to production, a liquid phase develops within the reservoir, which process is called retrograde condensation. Performance prediction for a gas retrograde condensate reservoir is a complex matter. One way of predicting performance is to simulate the reservoir depletion by a laboratory study using a highpressure cell. Modern models are also available to reservoir engineers as compositional reservoir simulators. Condensate Fluids Development of reservoirs that contain condensate hydrocarbon fluids requires engineering methods that are significantly different from crude oil or dry gas reservoirs. Condensate fluids production is predominantly gas from which liquid or distillate is condensed. Typically, distillate API gravity is higher than 45 API, while the gas-oil ratio can range from 5000 to 100,000 SCF/bbl (890 to 18,000 m3/m3). The liquid content ranges from 10 bbl/MMSCF (56 m3/Mm3) for very lean condensate systems to 200 or more bbl/MMSCF (1100 m3/Mm3) for rich ones. Gas condensate lies between that of a volatile oil and a dry gas. Thus, the methane mole fraction is normally between 0.75 and 0.90, in contrast to 0.95 for dry gas and less than 0.70 for volatile oil. The mole fraction of the heavy components (C7+) is several times larger than that for a dry gas.

The figure shows that if the reservoir P and T are such as to place the reservoir in the single-phase gas region (Point E), the reservoir fluids will remain single-phase as the reservoir is depleted isothermally. This is so because the isothermal line will never cross the two-phase region. A reservoir at (point A), fluid is single-phase. However, as the P declines, a point B is reached at which the first drop of liquid appears. Liquid saturation increases as the P declines, until it reaches a max. of over 10%. Upon further decline in pressure this process is reversed, and if point D is achieved all the liquid disappears. This reversal of typical behavior, condensation of fluids as the pressure declines, gives rise to the term retrograde

condensation.

Retrograde condensation may result in a considerable loss of valuable hydrocarbons. For all practical purposes, the condensed liquid phase is lost to production. Its volume is very seldom large enough to form a saturation above the critical value required for liquid flow. Thus, as the pressure falls below the dewpoint value, the gas produced is progressively deficient in recoverable liquid content. Because of this, care should always be exercised to maintain the pressure of such reservoirs above the dewpoint value. The compressibility factor, z, can be determined from pseudore duced pressure and temperature correlations. This requires the availability of proper correlations representing relatively large portions of high molecular weight components in the mixture. A highly important property of a condensate system in any enhanced process employed to recover such fluids is miscibility. (Miscibility exists when two fluids are able to mix in all proportion without any interface forming between them.) In general, a condensate reservoir gas is miscible with any dry hydrocarbon gas. For systems near the dewpoint, miscibility should be determined by laboratory measurements made with a high degree of accuracy in order to define the phase behavior in the region of interest. (Miscibility will be covered in the module dealing with miscible EOR processes.) Calculations of Initial Gas and Condensate in Place Calculations of initial gas and condensate in place require the use of the real gas equation of state, with some modifications. First we calculate volumetrically the volume of gas condensate per volume of reservoir:

where: 379.4 = volume of one mole, SCF/mole, G = gas condensate volume, SCF/acre-ft = reservoir pressure, psia, V = gas volume per reservoir volume, ft3/acre-ft z = the gas deviation factor, R = the gas constant (10.73), TR = reservoir temperature, (R) From the produced surface gas-oil ratio, Rs (scf of dry gas per bbl of condensate), the number of moles of gas and condensate by

Where: ng = mole of produced gas per bbl of produced liquid n0 = moles of condensate in one bbl = density of condensate, lb/ft3 M0 = molecular weight of condensate, lb-mole

AND The fraction of gas in the condensate under reservoir conditions is

The volume of the gas in place per acre-ft is: V = G

fg and the initial distillate in place = G (l - fg).

The molecular weight of the tank oil (M0), if not known, may be estimated by using the following formula developed by Cragoe (1929):

where

o is the oil-specific gravity.

The above calculations are illustrated in Example 1. Example 1 Given: Reservoir pressure = 2700 psia / Reservoir temperature = 200F / Porosity = 0.20 Interstitial water saturation = 0.15 Oil gravity at 60F - 45 API / Daily stock tank oil = 200 bbl / Daily separator gas = 3000 MSCF / Daily stock tank gas = 100 MSCF / The gas deviation factor at reservoir conditions z = 0.8 Calculate the initial gas and distillate in place per acre-ft

Hydrocarbon pore volume/acre ft, V = 43560

0.2

(1-0.15) = 7405 ft3

G=

= 1339 MSCF/acre ft.

= 155.6 = 0.8 62.4 = 50

AND

Volume of gas/acre ft = 96 1339 = 1285.4 MSCF(36.4 103 m3) Volume of condensate/acre ft = 1339-1285.4 = 53.6 MSCF (1.5 103m3) In other words, each acre foot of reservoir contains 1339 MSCF of gas, of which 96% will be produced as gas at the surface, and the remainder of which will be liquid condensate at the surface. If fluid remains single-phased gas in the reservoir, its performance may be calculated as described. However, when reservoir temp. and pres conditions place the gas in the two-phase region, a liquid phase will develop when the pressure falls below the dewpoint value (retrograde condensation). Prediction of performance then becomes complex. Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoirs Performance One way of predicting the performance is to simulate the reservoir depletion by a lab study. A fluid sample is placed in a high press cell at reservoir P and T. The P is then decreased by "producing" the cell, simulating reservoir depletion. The volume of the cell is kept constant, simulating the constant pore volume of the reservoir. The P decrease is achieved by removing incremental amounts of gas. The condensate phase is not removed because it normally forms an immobile phase in the reservoir. Measured liquid recovery from an analysis of the removed gas volumes gives the expected liquids recovery under depletion.

Another way is by use of equilibrium ratios. An equilibrium ratio, K, is the ratio of the mole fraction of any hydrocarbon component in the gas phase to the mole fraction of the same component in the liquid phase. Equilibrium ratios are functions of pressure and composition, not easy to define for complex multicomponent retrograde systems. When K values are available from a lab. analysis, the engineer can calculate the distribution of any component in the gas and liquid phases as a function of pressure and temperature. Modern methods of reservoir engineering rely on compositional reservoir simulators to predict performance. These models use an equation of state to calculate phase behavior. Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoirs Pressure Maintenance by Gas Cycling Retrograde condensation may cause a significant fraction of the liquid content of the gas condensate to be left in the reservoir. Distillates are a very valuable part of the accumulation. Because of this, pressure maintenance above the dewpoint during the exploitation of the reservoir is commonly practiced. One way of maintaining pressure is by injecting the dry gas component of the produced wet gas. This is what is left of the produced wet gas after the liquid has been removed at the surface. This operation is called gas cycling. The injected dry gas partially maintains reservoir pressure and at the same time becomes miscible with oil and drives the wet gas toward the producing wells. However, in some cases, the volume of the dry gas component will represent only a fraction of the produced gas volume. In such a case, if the injection volume is not supplemented with additional gas, a gradual decline of the reservoir pressure may take place, and liquid loss may result. The degree of gas volume augmentation will depend on the pressure level of the reservoir relative to the dewpoint value. Recovery from cycling operations depends on the cycling efficiency of the operation. This value is the product of three efficiencies: the areal sweep, EA; the vertical sweep, EI; and the microscopic displacement, ED. The areal sweep efficiency is a function of the location of the wells and their rate of production and injection, and the heterogeneity of the reservoir. It is the area swept by the injected gas divided by the total area of the reservoir. The invasion or vertical ef ficiency, EI, is a strong function of stratification and the permeability variation among the reservoir layers. EI is the portion of a vertical section of the reservoir contacted by the injected fluid, divided by the hydrocarbon area in all layers behind the injected fluid front. If a highly permeable layer (a "thief" zone) exists, dry gas will channel through it to the producing well, resulting in a low EI value. Use of Material Balances Laboratory-obtained data from the constant-volume cell described previously may be used to predict gas condensate reservoir performance. The data give in crements of gross gas produced as a function of pressure as well as the liquid in each increment of gas. Thus, total gross gas and liquid production in percent of initial gas in place as a function of pressure may be calculated. Also total liquid recovery can be obtained. If a volumetric estimate for the initial gas condensate in place is available, the laboratory data may be used to give incremental recovery of gas and liquid as a function of pressure. On the other hand, if cumulative gas production for a known average reservoir pressure is given, then the laboratory data may be used to calculate the initial gas in place and subsequent recovery. For example, assume that at an average reservoir pressure of 3000 psia, G p MMscf of gas had been produced. From laboratory depletion data at 3000 psi, the total incremental gas recovery is some percent (say, X) of the initial gas in place. Thus, initial gas in place in the reservoir may be calculated by

MMSCF (34) Knowing G, and the percent gas recovery and liquid condensation with pressure from laboratory data, reservoir performance calculation is straightforward.

Pressure Maintenance by Water Drive Some gas condensate reservoirs are under active water drive. The water influx may be sufficient to maintain the reservoir pressure above its dew-point value in some cases. If not, it may have to be augmented by water injection. Ultimate recovery is still controlled by the three recovery efficiencies described earlier. However, in the case of water displacing gas, E D is considerably smaller. Water tends to trap gas, resulting in a poor displacement ef ficiency. Assuming E1 and EA are the same, recovery by water drive is normally lower than that by gas cycling by about 20%. It should also be noted that E1 may not be the same as that for gas cycling because of the difference in density between water and dry gas. Water tends to segregate to the bottom of the perforated interval while gas will override the top. Permeability distribution in the various layers determines whether EVS for a water drive is less than, equal to, or greater than EVS for gas cycling. Again, reservoir simulators are the best available tools to accurately predict performance in complicated reservoir situations.