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The challenges of integrating entrepreneurship education in the vocational training system

An insight from Tanzanias Vocational Education Training Authority
Severina P. Nkirina
St Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania
Abstract
Purpose This paper seeks to discuss the challenges faced when trying to integrate entrepreneurship education in the training system, with a particular focus on vocational training. Design/methodology/approach The data were collected through in-depth interviews, document reviews and focus group discussions. The respondents were drawn from VETA headquarters training director, centre managers, entrepreneurship instructors in the centre, and a section of nal year students who were purposively selected. Other stakeholders in vocational training in Tanzania were also consulted. Findings The ndings were organized around key themes of the research as per the set objectives. The emerging views showed some of the following issues as the major challenges facing the authority in its effort to integrate entrepreneurship training in the programme: time too limited to cover the core subjects; Form iv leavers and standard vii trainees have different understanding levels; nancial/budgetary constraint; few instructors with relevant skills; lack of role models of successful former trainees who are practising entrepreneurs; course too theoretical, lacking the component of eld studies; and the course too boring compared with other mainstream courses. Research limitations/implications The sample size was too small to be wholly reliable for generalizing the ndings to a similar problem. However, the insights gained are a crucial basis for further research and give some variables to be investigated on their signicance in shaping entrepreneurship training, especially in a developing country like Tanzania. Originality/value The research provides knowledge that was lacking as far as entrepreneurship training and vocational training are involved. Other studies, especially in Tanzania, focused on the quality of technical training and the infrastructural resources rather than business-related skills. Keywords Entrepreneursialism, Vocational training, Integration, Education, Tanzania Paper type Research paper

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Received 5 January 2009 Revised 24 March 2009 Accepted 2 July 2009

Introduction and background The increased enrolment in primary schools in most developing countries especially due to the current pressure to attain education for all, most governments are faced with the challenge of providing further opportunity for learning or alternative preparation for the labour market and life challenges. Vocational education and training has been considered an important remedy to skill deciency among most of the unemployed youth in Tanzania. Other countries have also developed a system whereby vocational skills are imparted in a coordinated manner and further proposed the integration of entrepreneurship in the formal school system (Nkanza, 2005; EC, 2004).

Journal of European Industrial Training Vol. 34 No. 2, 2010 pp. 153-166 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0309-0590 DOI 10.1108/03090591011023998

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The need for entrepreneurship education It has been argued that entrepreneurial skills can be both learned and experientially acquired or they can be inuenced considerably through strategic measures such as business education, (Gibb, 1988, 1998; EC, 2004; Namusonge, 2006). However, though entrepreneurship education has been considered a vital ingredient to economic survival of a country, it has been poorly embedded into the training system with some times no meaningful impact. Research evidence from Tanzania alludes to this view (Olomi, 2007; Ngumbi, 2004; Kahindi, 1996). Other surveys have shown the need for graduates to possess business awareness skills as highly desired by employers but they lack this in most graduates. In other countries researchers have pointed the need to integrate entrepreneurship and business education into the vocational and technical training institutions as well as building capacity for income generation, (Okuo, 2002). In the same research it is proposed that there is need to provide material support and funds for making eld trips for classes that learn entrepreneurship. NCGE also recommends the same after conducting a literature review on entrepreneurship training all over the world (NCGE, 2004). This shows that teaching entrepreneurship needs careful planning and hence the need for this study to expose some of the challenges encountered and their impact to the program overall output. The case for Tanzania Tanzania is located in East Africa and it is the biggest among the East African countries Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. It is bordered and shares the waters of three of the great lakes in Africa. That is, Lake Tanganyika is located on the western border, Lake Victoria on the North West and Lake Malawi on the South West. Tanzania is a well-endowed country with valuable natural resources yet it is among the poorest in the world. Entrepreneurship education has been earmarked as one of the strategies to be employed to remedy this situation and empower the population to tap on the massive resources in the country for the betterment of their lives. Further, Tanzania has a population of approximately 38 million and a population growth rate of 1.83 per cent. Of these 44 per cent are between of 0-14 years. Youth unemployment rate stood at 15 per cent as per the current labour force survey report. With this young population and low education levels, poverty is likely to bite for long unless strategic measures are taken. One such measure has been the informal sector which provides employment to a considerable percentage of the population, with 40 per cent of Tanzanias households confessing to have some informal activities to supplement their household budgets. The total unemployment rate stood at 11.7 per cent in 2006. To address this situation, various measures have been taken by the government and other development partners in Tanzania and one such move has been the promotion of business training to empower the small business operators and the vocational education trainees who have often found themselves in the informal sector after formal wage employment has proved difcult to come by. The government has further strengthened institutions providing business training and other support services. The organizations included here are Vocational Education Training Authority (VETA), which oversees the vocational training system in Tanzania, University of Dares Salaam Entrepreneurship Development Center (UDEC),

which offers consultancy services to SME related issues, and College of Business Education (CBE) which offers business training and entrepreneurship development. Further, the government has urged VETA to include entrepreneurship education to be offered alongside technical training to prepare the trainees to be se lf employed. This has led to the integration of entrepreneurship education into the vocational training system. Since the move to embed entrepreneurship education along the vocational training, no real study has been undertaken to evaluate its success or its challenges. This paper though based on exploratory study is aimed at bridging this knowledge gap. Moreover, despite emphasis and claim that VETA has been fully integrated entrepreneurship education in all their programs, research has shown little or no impact of the training in promoting/ inuencing entrepreneurial behaviour among former and current trainees of VET centers, (Kahindi, 1996; Ngumbi, 2004; VETA, Lake Zone, 2006; Olomi, 2007). This paper therefore has evaluated the reasons in the form of challenges that might have led to poor performance of VETA graduates in the eld of enterprise development. It sheds light into the challenges that one is likely to face when actually designing an entrepreneurship program to be tted in another totally different program. Vocational training system in Tanzania Vocational education can be traced way back in the 1960s. The system was operated as National Vocational Training Division (NVTD) under the ministry of labour and manpower development. NVTD was established in 1974 under the provisions of the 1972 vocational training Act. Due to operational problems plaguing NVTD, a task force was formed to investigate it. This led to various recommendations to save system. Out of this VETA Vocational Education Training Authority was created through the 1994 vocational education Act. The overall objectives of the 1994 Act was to create an efcient, demand driven national training system capable of responding to the needs of the labour market. VETA has been in existence for the last ten years and one would expect they have developed programmes that respond to changing labour market characterized by unemployment, and low industrial growth rate. The expected outcome would be trainees who are: . Capable of using their technical skills to create their own employment in case wage employment is not secured within reasonable waiting time. . Self-motivated and people who can work with minimum supervision. . Workers conscious of the need to produce quality goods and services for a wider market range in a competitive environment. Statement of the problem Vocational Education Training System in Tanzania ejects over a 100,000 graduates from over 800 centers countrywide, into the labour market. This accounts for approximately 14 per cent of the new entrants into the Tanzanian labour market every year. Due to the shrinking labour market, and slow growth of the industrial sector, this workforce cannot be entirely absorbed in the formal wage employment. The result of this scenario has been high unemployment among VET graduates with some opting to join self employment which they are ill prepared. The problem has been worsened by

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the expansion of universal primary and secondary education which the government has managed to increase tremendously in line with the millennium development goals. As Ngumbi (2004) and Gibb (1988), argued, educational institutions should provide more relevant forms of education designed to promote self-reliance and responsible entrepreneurial capacity for self employment and community development to reduce unemployment and to revitalize national development. Entrepreneurship education is in this light aimed at providing vocational trainees with the skills necessary to make them self employed in future. VETA has taken the initiative to address this need but still research evidence shows no tangible results of these efforts. The government and VETA have highly underscored the need to promote entrepreneurship and in deed VETA has incorporated entrepreneurship and life saving skills in its training programme to address the unfolding state of affairs. However, research evidence shows little or no effect of the entrepreneurship training among VET graduates and trainees, with some former trainees actually citing lack of entrepreneurial skills and knowledge as a factor contributing to their unemployment (VETA Lake Zone, 2006; Olomi, 2007; Ngumbi, 2004; Kahindi, 1996). Though entrepreneurship has been underscored in VETA document, and with the contradicting views, no study has been conducted to nd out the challenges that VETA faces in pursuit of entrepreneurship program and how these challenges affect the output of the program in general. Unless one points out problems inherent in something, possible remedy might not be developed. This study embarked on exploring the challenges facing VETA in its efforts to integrate entrepreneurship education in the vocation training system in Tanzania that could be contributing to the reported poor entrepreneurial drives. Study objectives This paper is based on ndings of an exploratory research conducted in 2007 and 2008 in Dar Salaam and Mwanza two of the biggest cities in mainland Tanzania. The study involved major stakeholders of vocational training management in the Tanzanian education system. The following specic objectives were addressed: . Identify challenges facing VETA in the process of offering entrepreneurship education along side other vocational subjects. . Describe the teaching and learning environment of entrepreneurship in the VETA training institutions. . Assess the perceived importance of entrepreneurship education as compared to the other mainstream courses of the vocational centres. . Recommend on the way forward for improving entrepreneurship education in Tanzania and more so in the VETA training system. The overall question that the paper sought to address was; is integration of entrepreneurship education in an already existing education program a smooth ride or are there important challenges, of which one needs to be aware? Purpose of the study Entrepreneurship education has been lauded for reviving economies and speeding economic growth through creation of employment and provision of goods and services

to wide range of the population and in a wider range of locations. There is no doubt that entrepreneurship can be learnt and that entrepreneurial tendencies can be sharpened through training (Gibb, 1988; Namusonge, 2006; Harper and Finnegan, 1998). However more often than not proponents of entrepreneurship education do not give clear indication on what really needs to be in place for a successful course in entrepreneurship and especially where the course is being offered alongside existing courses. As it has been pointed out, in other researches, program developers planning to integrate entrepreneurship education to the existing programs need to ensure that the receiving program caters for the need of the same targets groups. It is also proposed that entrepreneurship programs need to be comprehensive and in-depth to be effective. This raises the question on how effective and comprehensive the entrepreneurship offered at VETA is. Further Langford and Flynn-Kahn, 2007, recommends that different partners and resources could be considered to help design a desirable program. On the same note it is highly recommended that individuals who have successfully started their enterprises could be included in the program to give the trainees some practical tips and as well motivate trainees to consider being self employed. This research also recommends the same. This study therefore seeks to ll this gap by identifying problems likely to be faced when integrating entrepreneurship in the education system and give recommendations of what needs to be done for a good out come. The study was an exploratory one and had the aim of trying to establish challenges faced when embedding entrepreneurship education in the VETA system. The study was planned to form a basis for further research on the role of VETA in integrating entrepreneurship education in the vocational training system in Tanzania. The variables developed in this study will be tested for statistical signicance in the further study. Two centres were selected to form a basis for further research that would involve more centers in the country. The two centres are among the oldest in Tanzania and are located in two big cities of mainland Tanzania. Their location is also strategic in that one is in the North while the other is more to the southern part of Tanzania. Literature review The role entrepreneurship education plays in an economy cannot be overemphasized. The need to embed entrepreneurship education in the formal education system is a concern of most policy makers and scholars as well. This is due to the perceived benets of entrepreneurship such as fostering skills and attitudes that are necessary for successful living among the youth. Entrepreneurship education further provides the youth with enterprising skills, enables them to build condence as well as feel connected to the adults in their communities and develop a sense of self worth (Flynn-Khan, 2007; Namusonge, 2006). Research on entrepreneurship abound. From the age of McClelland (1961), the Austrian economist Schumpeter (1934) to the current works of Gibb, among others. Though research on effects of education on entrepreneurial tendencies is scattered, there is enough evidence to conclude that education positively impacts on entrepreneurship. For example NCGE records that research has shown that start-up founders are more educated than the general population. Education has been noted to inuence entrepreneurial feasibility and desirability among high school students (Namusonge, 2006; NCGE, 2004; Gibb, 1988).

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Scholars and policy makers have further recommended that learning institutions consider embedding entrepreneurship across the institution and to drive such a course as a core part of the student experience (NCGE, 2004; Rateng, 2006; Gibb, 1988). A further recommendation from research is for education institutions offering entrepreneurship training to rethink on the modalities of doing so if any meaningful impact has to be achieved. Otherwise as it is now in Tanzania entrepreneurship training has not really shown any recognizable benet to those studying it (Olomi, 2007; Ngumbi, 2004). It is clear that research on entrepreneurship education has been more inclined towards inuence of the program and little has been done especially in Tanzania to highlight the challenges involved. An analysis of studies involving vocational education reveals that the researches have concentrated on the technical training aspect and the infrastructure, (Kahindi, 1996; Gultekin, 2006; Shrestha, 1998). This research therefore bridges this knowledge gap and paves way for further research to establish the weight of the challenges identied in hindering success of entrepreneurship education along side other courses. Theoretical foundations Literature on entrepreneurship education shows that some common approaches cut across with following being some of them as listed by (NCGE, 2004); interactive-based learning, use of role models, links with business, which is explained by social learning/self efcacy theories. However more emphasis is placed in experiential learning and most scholars recommend this approach which is also proposed in the current research. This research basis its arguments on self-efcacy and social learning theories as explained by Bandura (1997). It believes that entrepreneurship education is worth investing in there is a need to understand why trainees entrepreneurial inclinations do not seem to change even with the introduction of entrepreneurship in the training program. This is done in the form of investigating challenges that various stake holders perceive in the process of integrating entrepreneurship in the training program. Based on the literature reviewed these challenges are discussed as the themes which were developed from interviews with the various participants. The literature helped in selecting relevant themes. Research design and methodology This research was of exploratory nature. The research aimed at collecting various ideas on what are the possible challenges that VETA faces in integrating entrepreneurship education in the vocational training system in Tanzania that could be contributing to the negligible impact of the program as evidenced by previous studies. This design has been recommended by scholars for its richness in enabling the researcher to gather insights into a problem when preparing for a more detailed study (Robson, 2002) as quoted in Saunders et al. (2003). Further this was not meant to be a conclusive research but rather a preliminary study for large scale survey that would involve more stake holders of the vocational training in Tanzania. This design tted the needs for the study. Three strategies have been proposed for conducting exploratory research which was followed in this study: (1) a search of the literature; (2) talking to experts in the eld; and (3) conducting focus group discussions.

Study population sampling procedure The population of this study was purposefully selected based on investigation done to establish the role each played in the implementation of training program in VETAsystem. The people selected were categorized as shown in Table I. The total population studied comprised 70 persons who were contacted using different methods as proposed by the exploratory research design. Snowball and judgemental sampling were used to select cases to include in the sample. Snowball sampling was used in such a way that; the director of training introduced me to the center managers who further introduced me to the unit heads who in turn called the instructors in the unit and the instructors selected class representatives for me. The other respondents were identied individually. Instrumentation/contact method The methods used in this research have been used by other researchers and proved useful. Gaskill has used these techniques and was satised (Gaskill, 2001). She particularly commends the use of focus group as a valuable tool to gain insight into a problem. Saunders et al. (2003) also recommends these strategies for qualitative research. A brief discussion of the techniques as used in the study is given below. Document review This method was used to select respondents from VETA structure. Directors, center managers and other stakeholders were identied this way. Course contents were also reviewed and curriculum designers identied for further interviewing. In-depth interviews This method was employed with the center managers, director of training, director UDEC, Resource centre manager at ILO, and Principal of Morogoro Tutor Training College. These people were personally interviewed by the researcher in their ofces and on the phone for clarity of some points. Group interviews A focused group discussion was held with instructors in the staff room and the researcher guided the discussion and took records of the proceedings. An assistant was selected from each centre and briefed to help in note taking and elaborating some
Institution/unit VETA Head Ofce UDEC MVTTC Dar RVTSC Related subjects unit The Registry Entrepreneurship unit The trainees in the center International Labour Organization Total Contact person(s) Director of Training Director of the Center Principal Center managers Unit head and instructors Registrars Coordinators 2nd years (40/14) Director, resource centre Respondents 1 1 1 2 6 2 2 50 1 70

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issues from the respondents especially when a different opinion was raised. This method was also used with the trainees from the different courses and who had studied the entrepreneurship course. Data analysis The data gathered in this research was strictly qualitative and was analysed using the recommended techniques. Meanings were derived from the data as was found logical. Kombo and Tromp (2006) propose use of themes and content to analyze qualitative data. Content analysis was therefore highly used in this research whereby the researcher identied certain ideas and word categories that emerged from the discussions. This was in line with what the literature says of qualitative data analysis (Saunders et al., 2003; Kombo and Tromp, 2006). The exercise though tedious involved reading through the data to establish categories, which in turn formed the basis of the discussion. The weight that was placed on each category or theme was judged by the frequency with which it was mentioned by the various respondents. However quantication of the data was avoided and narrative description was used instead. Gaskill (2001) used the same approach. Findings and discussion After analysis the data was grouped in categories within the objectives and discussed. These were organized as the challenges facing VETA when offering entrepreneurship education along side mainstream courses. They were selected based on their agreement with the literature review and that they were within what is expected to be in place for a successful entrepreneurship education program. Many respondents felt that though it is important to have entrepreneurship integrated in the training system a lot need to be done to make it effective and produce the intended results. There are numerous challenges that face entrepreneurship training. Respondents cited the following as the most disturbing that need to be addressed with the programme planning and implementation. The challenges cited below are also the ones that every respondent mentioned or implied in the discussions. Time factor The course being currently offered-KAB requires that it be taught for two hours (120 minutes) a week while the scheduled time for every course in VETA centers is one and half hours (90 minutes). The end result is poor coverage of the topics or failure to complete the course all together. Related to this is also the fact that entrepreneurship training starts in the nal year of training making it difcult for the trainees to appreciate and absorb the concepts of the subject. It was also reported that the course was hurriedly conducted to complete the syllabus before the students prepared for nal examinations. The course being too general For easier understanding and application of knowledge gained, there is need to adopt the course to the various areas of specialization for the trainees. This will make students more comfortable with the subject and it will also sharpen their creativity and innovativeness.

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The course being too theoretical and lacking the practical component The trainees and the instructors all agreed that there is a need to incorporate people that are in business in the discipline the trainees are pursuing in the training sections so as to share experiences and make it more practical. Success stories can enable the students to view the subject differently. Furthermore the practicing entrepreneur knows what the anticipating trainees need to be aware of. Financial strain The course was treated as other courses and received the same amount of budget like other courses. This was not enough to allow trainees to go out to see entrepreneurs in practice or even start model businesses for practical learning. This view was highly shared among all the participants especially the center managers and unit heads. Training of instructors Trainers in entrepreneurship had very little training in the discipline with only two weeks of training. The trainers were also handling other subjects in the unit such as HIV/AIDS, Mathematics and English. They were also few in number compared to the number of students in the centers. For example Dar es Salaam centre though it had a student population in the tune of 2000 had only one tutor who had been trained in entrepreneurship. The entrepreneurship activities coordinator was trained in development and not business related eld. However it was discovered that efforts are being made to address through a joint training venture between NUFIC organization and Morogoro Vocational Teachers Training College where by entrepreneurship trainers are being developed in new teaching methods to impart entrepreneurship skills. This project is in progress though the respondents criticized its over dependence on the donor. Lack of role models in entrepreneurship The trainees felt that they needed more role models to encourage them and motivate them to become entrepreneurs as themselves. The respondents felt this can also help to demystify the eld of entrepreneurship. In relation to this is the idea of bringing real world of business to class. The trainees and trainers were of this view. This view has been raised in other ndings (Namusonge, 2006; Gaskill, 2001; Langford and Flynn-Kahn, 2007). Cultural values From the Ujamaa times, many Tanzanians view the government as the provider of goods and services. Capitalism is viewed with a negative attitude. This has led many people to be less aggressive, indifferent to enterprise development and generally have continued to view entrepreneurship as a foreign phenomenon that needs to be discouraged or left to given tribes such as the Chaggas and Kurias. However this is slowly changing and people are realizing the need to be engaged in some income generating activities. Testing the subject The participants in this research felt that they were not well prepared in techniques to test the trainees mastery of the subject of entrepreneurship. They felt the tests and examinations were not enough to tell whether trainees understood or whether they had

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just memorized notes. This is a concern in other countries too as noted by Todd and Scott (2007). They also felt class room structure was not set up for hands on learning and testing as well. The challenges discussed agree with Gibbs seven challenges to creating an environment within which trainees can experience a process akin to entrepreneurial learning, (Jones, 2006). These challenges can be mitigated through counselling and research in the eld of business development and through constant follow up on trainees. Training of the instructors The interviewed respondents agreed that the instructors handling entrepreneurship need to be well trained and refresher courses considered for updates on new and effective training methods be given to the instructors. Though this need is being addressed, it has to be well coordinated and efforts need be made to employ entrepreneurship experts from onset. Most of the instructors currently are not trained well in entrepreneurship with all interviewed respondents just having a two weeks or just a month of training. In fact even the coordinator of entrepreneurship activities was not trained in entrepreneurship but in community development. On top of these ndings other areas that showed a need to be addressed are such as the fact that Morogoro Vocational Teachers Training College had started training instructors on Entrepreneurship after an interested donor approached them, this is dangerous given that most donor initiated projects have a tendency to die once donors divert attention; lack of a general policy guiding entrepreneurship development in the VETA system including monitoring and evaluation; the importance placed on entrepreneurship being not visible in the organization structure of VETA for example for it to be placed under related subjects which are not treated as core aspects of the centers was quite reducing its possible attractiveness to the trainees as well as to the instructors. The researcher in addition noted that the materials used in teaching entrepreneurship were not addressing the needs of this level of trainees whom mostly had primary school level of education. The trainers also had their own limitation most of them being under-trained in the discipline and lacking required enthusiasm of entrepreneurs. The course materials were in English while medium of instruction was Kiswahili. The materials ended up loosing the intended meaning and reduced its emphasis when translated into Kiswahili. Another visible nding was the overwhelming tasks placed before VETA such that it tended to leave out important details of some programmes such as customized entrepreneurship courses for the various trades being offered. Related to this was conict of interest between the various donors wishing to support entrepreneurship program in the vocational system. Further, the researcher found out that there is a very weak link between the industry and the training centers making apprenticeship programme which is an integral part of entrepreneurship training impractical. The danger inherent in this approach was that it led to students reading for the purposes of passing the examination and not really learning a skill that can be used later in the eld. Conclusion and recommendations This research found out that integrating entrepreneurship education into the education system is not an easy task and careful planning need to be in place for any tangible

results. Although VETA has been able to introduce entrepreneurship education in the vocational training, there is a lot more to be done. A lot of effort needs to be expended in the training of instructors in entrepreneurship. This will go along way in improving the quality and intense of training. Treating entrepreneurship in a more special way such as giving it a full pledged unit instead of placing it under other related subjects as is the case now. It was suggested that the coordinator of entrepreneurship in the centers be in charge of the entrepreneurship development programme in the centers to give it a look of seriousness in the organization and to enable the problems relating to the subjects to be addressed adequately and with the urgency that they deserve. Incorporating the component of practicing business people especially those that are former trainees of VETA, to share experiences and show that it is possible to venture into self employment successfully. This aspect will also give the trainees a chance to learn through case studies and also awaken their creativity once they know that others have succeeded in similar endeavours. Some topics can be facilitated effectively by those who have already ventured in the entrepreneurship than just giving theory. The respondents also highly emphasized the need to have a well coordinated unit offering business development services that takes care of all entrepreneurship development needs from pre-start up all through the growth and succession stage. These will not only guide trainees on the process of starting a business, but also work with them as they meander in self employment and business management. This has worked elsewhere with businesses that have had somebody to counsel their owners and managers, having shown remarkable growth in sales. This is attested to by a report of K-MAP (Kenya Management Assistance Programme) even though the organization is no longer operational; Barclays bank business club among others (Pratt, 1998; Wanjumbi, 2006). Besides in Tanzanian Government policy paper on SMEs, business development services are highly emphasized as a strategy to stimulate entrepreneurship (URT, 2003). Need for role models and support systems. One of the most important factors inuencing entrepreneurs in their career path is their choice of role models. Role models serve in a supportive capacity as mentors. An entrepreneur needs a strong support and advisory system in every phase of the new venture. VETA needs to put a supportive system in place to ensure that the trainees who wish to venture in self employment are adequately encouraged and helped to continue with the ventures. Entrepreneurs need to establish a strong network of moral support and professional support network to provide condence, support and information (CIPE, 1998). Such a system is currently lacking in VETA and need to be put in place to ensure that graduates and trainees have somebody to turn to in case of difculties and a way of getting relevant information when necessary. In relation to this, there is also a need to network with other organisations and institutions working in entrepreneurship development initiatives to avoid duplication of efforts and to link and network trainees for the services and information offered by these institutions in a more and organized way. One such institution is the University of center for entrepreneurship- (UDEC), which not only conducts research in the eld of entrepreneurship but also, runs business development services, which ranges from counselling networking and offering professional advice. Financing was one of the challenges that VETA entrepreneurship programmes face. A strategy need to be put in place which addresses the question of sustainable

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sources of funds for promoting entrepreneurship training in all vocational training institutions whether government sponsored or private owned. Training needs to be more practical oriented than theory with a component of hands on experience where possible to make student more realistic and creative in developing problem solving skills. Further research need to be conducted in the entire training system in Tanzania to show how far VETA has been able to ensure that entrepreneurship is really being taught in all vocational centers especially those that are privately owned. Research by Olomi found out that some trainees though they were in their nal year they had not taken an entrepreneurship course (Olomi, 2007). This agrees with Ngumbis ndings that of the ten studied centers, only two taught entrepreneurship to their trainees (Ngumbi, 2004). Impact studies also need to be conducted regularly to help uncover weaknesses in time so that corrective measures can be taken. In line with this is the need to follow up on former trainees to give feedback on programme strengths and weaknesses. Implications for academic institutions and future researchers This research has identied areas of concern that future researchers can embark on. First there is need to conduct a survey of the entire vocational training system in Tanzania to establish how entrepreneurship is actually being handled. Second there is need to follow up on former trainees and nd out how graduates are putting there entrepreneurship skills into use. Thirdly, there is a need to assess the relevance of the training materials being used in comparison to the technical skills being pursued by the trainees. Higher learning institutions should consider partnering with local communities in developing entrepreneurial skills and initiatives to supplement the effort of other stakeholder like the case of VETA in Tanzania. Limitations of the study This research was exploratory and even though the ndings are relevant to a wide range of situations, it would be dangerous to generalize it to other education systems. A more rigorous study is needed to establish the weight of these ndings as far as integrating entrepreneurship education on an existing system is concerned.
References Bandura, A. (1997), Self-efcacy: The Exercise of Self Control, W.H. Freeman, New York, NY. CIPE (1998), Strengthening the voice of business, Economic Reform Today, No. 4. European Commission (EC) (2004), The European Agenda for Entrepreneurship, EC, Brussels. Flynn-Khan, M. (2007), Financing Entrepreneurship Programs for Youth Transitioning out of Foster Care, The Finance Project.Org, available at: www.Financeproject.org/practice/risk. asp (accessed May 2009). Gaskill, L. (2001), A qualitatitive investigation into development relationships for small business apparel retailers: networks, mentors, and role models, The Qualitatitive Report, Vol. 6 No. 3, available at: www.Nova.educ/ssss/QR/QR 6-3/ gaskill html Gibb, A. (1988), Stimulating Entrepreneurship and New Business Development, ILO, Geneva.

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Todd, M. and Scott, L. (2007), Beyond the lemonade stand: involving your community in entrepreneurship education, available at: www.Ncreal.org URT (2003), Small and Medium Enterprise Development Policy, Ministry of Industry, Dar es Salaam. VETA Lake Zone (2006), Lake Zone Centres baseline study results, Lake Zone News Letter, February. Wanjumbi, M.J. (2006), The impact of education & training on entrepreneurship development in Nairobi: a case of study of the Barclays Bank Business Club Initiative, paper presented at the 3rd International Entrepreneurship Conference in USIU, Nairobi. Further reading ILO/World Bank Report (2006), The Internet WWW Google Search, Vocational Education and Training in Tanzania, 14 August. Microsoft (2004), Encarta Encyclopaedia Britannica, Microsoft, Seattle, WA. Ndunguru, B. and Gold, E. (2000), Integrated Training for Entrepreneurship Promotion INTEP: Reaching the Target Group in the Informal sector, Internet le 14, VETA, Dar es Salaam, August 2006. Pfander, B. and Gold, E. (2000), Concepts and approaches of vocational training in the informal sector: Tanzanian case, GTZ, VETA, Dar es Salaam. Tanzania National (n.d.), Education Plan/Policy: Vocational Education and Training, Development Plan, available at: www.org.gotz URT (2004), Economic Survey, Ofce of The President and Privatization, Government Printer, Dar es Salaam. URT (2005), Poverty and Human Development Report: Research and Analysis Workshop, Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, Dar es Salaam. URT (2006), MKUKUTA status Report: Progress towards the goals for growth, social wellbeing and governance in Tanzania, available at: www.repoa.or.tz/documents_storage/Res earch_and_Analysis/Status_Report_www.repoa.or.tz/documents_storage/Research_and_ Analysis/Status_Report_2006_Complete_Document.pdf About the author Severina P. Nkirina is a doctoral candidate in at Kenyatta University in Kenya. She is the Head of Marketing and Entrepreneurship Department at St Augustine University of Tanzania. She holds an MBA in Marketing and Management from Kenyatta University and BA in Social Sciences from the same University. Her research interest is in entrepreneurship, micronance and marketing for small businesses. Severina Nkirina can be contacted at: nkirinasp@yahoo.com

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