Sie sind auf Seite 1von 8

Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Thermoeconomic optimization and exergy analysis of CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration systems


Omid Rezayan, Ali Behbahaninia*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, No. 19, Pardis Street, MollaSadra Ave., Vanak Sq., P.O. Box 19395-1999, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 29 March 2010 Received in revised form 15 November 2010 Accepted 12 December 2010 Available online 21 January 2011 Keywords: Refrigeration Cascade system Ammonia CO2 Exergy Optimization

a b s t r a c t
In this paper, thermoeconomic optimization and exergy analysis are applied to a CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration cycle. Cooling capacity, ambient temperature and cold space temperature are constraints of the optimization procedure. Four parameters including condensing temperature of ammonia, evaporating temperature of carbon dioxide, condensing temperature of carbon dioxide and temperature difference in the cascade condenser are chosen as decision variables. The objective function is the total annual cost of the system which includes costs of input exergy to the system and annualized capital cost of the system. Input exergy to the system is the electricity consumption of compressors and fans, and the capital cost includes purchase costs of components. Results show that, optimum values of decision variables may be found by trade-off between the input exergy cost and capital cost. Results of the exergy analysis for each of the system components in the optimum state are also given. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In low temperature applications including rapid freezing systems and storage of frozen food where the evaporation temperature of the evaporator lies within a limit of 30  C and 55  C, as in industrial refrigeration where there is a high temperature difference between the heat source and the heat sink, it is not economical to use a single stage refrigeration system, since a high pressure ratio, high output pressure and temperature of the oil will result in a low volumetric efciency and a low coefcient of performance of the system. Moreover, using a refrigerant in a wide temperature interval, results in reduction of evaporator pressure and higher suction volume and condenser pressure. Instead, for these applications, two-stage compression and cascade refrigeration systems can be used. Two-stage compression systems contain the same refrigerant for both high temperature and low temperature circuits, while cascade systems have different refrigerants for these two stages. Cascade systems can reach lower temperatures in comparison to two-stage systems. Nowadays, many manufacturers tend to use natural refrigerants due to environmental problems and harmful effects of uorocarbons. CO2/NH3 cascade system uses ammonia in the high temperature

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 98 21 88677272; fax: 98 21 88677273. E-mail address: alibehbahaninia@kntu.ac.ir (A. Behbahaninia). 0360-5442/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.022

cycle and carbon dioxide in the low temperature cycle. Ammonia is a natural refrigerant with a pungent smell and it is toxic and to some extent, ammable. At a temperature below 35  C, it has a vapor pressure lower than atmosphere pressure which may cause air leakage into the system. This is why it cannot be used in the low temperature circuit [1]. In contrast, carbon dioxide is a non-toxic, non-ammable gas with a positive vapor pressure at temperatures below 35  C which makes it a suitable choice for low temperature cascade cycle [2]. So far, numerous methods have been developed for thermodynamic optimization of cascade refrigeration cycles. Ratts and Brown [3] used the entropy generation method to analyze the cascade cycle. In their work, relationships were developed for the specic heat and temperature ratio terms and the results were investigated for a cascade system in two reduced temperatures of 0.684 and 0.681, with the refrigerant R-134a and nally, the optimum temperature distribution was found. Bhattacharyya et al. [4] demonstrated optimization results for a C3H8/CO2 cascade system. Lee et al. [2] determined the optimum temperature in a cascade condenser, maximized the coefcient of performance and minimized the exergy destruction of the system, using the evaporation temperature of carbon dioxide, condensation temperature of ammonia and temperature difference in the cascade condenser as decision variables. In another analysis, Bhattacharyya examined the internally reversible two stage cascade cycle in order to determine the optimum intermediate temperature regarding the exergy and

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

889

Nomenclature Ai Ac,o Afr Ao c C Cel Ctotal di do _ Ex FP G H _ m _ Q Rp Rw s T U _ W Inner heat transfer area (m2) Free ow area (m2) Frontal surface area (m2) Outer heat transfer area (m2) Unit cost of exergy ($ kW1) Cost ($) Unit cost of input exergy ($ kW1 h1) Total annual cost of plant ($) Inner diameter (m) Outer diameter (m) Rate of exergy (kW) Constant coefcient Mass velocity (kg m2 s1) Period of operation per year (hour) Mass ow rate (kg s1) Heat transfer rate (kW) Pressure ratio Wall thermal resistance (kW1) Entropy (kJ kg1 K1) Temperature ( C or K) Overall heat transfer coefcient (Wm2 K1) Power (kW)

3 4 5 6 7 8 C Cas cas.cond Comp Cond CL D E Exp H L MC ME Tot

Saturated liquid state of carbon dioxide Saturated state of carbon dioxide Saturated vapor state of ammonia Superheated vapor state of ammonia Saturated liquid state of ammonia Saturated state of ammonia Condensing Cascade Cascade condenser Compressor Condenser Cold refrigerated space Destruction Evaporating Expansion valve High temperature circuit Low temperature circuit Condensing temperature of LTC Evaporating temperature of HTC Total

Subscripts 0 Ambient 1 Saturated vapor state of carbon dioxide 2 Superheated vapor state of carbon dioxide

Greek symbol hm Mechanical efciency he Electrical efciency hS Isentropic efciency r Density (kg m3) m Viscosity (Pa.s) 3 Rational efciency

maximum refrigeration load [5]. Ma et al. [6] analyzed the cascade refrigeration system in olen plants from the exergy and thermodynamic points of view. In their analysis, the two methods of pinch analysis and exergy analysis were used to improve the total exergetic efciency of the system. Getu and Basnal [7] analyzed the CO2/ NH3 cascade refrigeration system to optimize its operational and design parameters. Subcooling, superheating and evaporation temperatures in ammonia and carbon dioxide circuits were the parameters they considered in their analysis. In this work the multi-linear regression method was used to develop the mathematical relationships for the optimum coefcient of performance, optimum evaporation temperature of ammonia, and optimum mass ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide in the cascade cycle. In all the abovementioned papers the objective function is a thermodynamic one which results in maximizing the coefcient of performance or minimizing entropy generation or exergy destruction. Although this method results in a higher efciency, it also may lead to an excessive increase of costs of the system. Thermoeconomic optimization is a method in which decision variables are found by trade-off between the capital cost and energy cost. This method has successfully been applied to single stage refrigeration cycles [8e11] and for the rst time in this paper is applied to a cascade refrigeration cycle. In this present work, rst thermodynamic and exergy analyses are carried out and then, heat exchangers are designed. Later, decision variables are changed simultaneously using direct search method and the thermoeconomic objective function (annual cost of the system) which includes the cost of electricity consumption in compressors and fans and also the capital cost (purchase equipment cost) of the system, is minimized. Finally, optimum values for geometrical design and thermal parameters including saturation temperature of condenser and evaporator, saturation temperatures in cascade condenser, temperature difference in cascade condenser,

powers of compressors and fans and surface areas of heat exchangers are obtained through minimizing the objective function. 2. Thermodynamic and exergetic analysis A schematic diagram of CO2/NH3 refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 1. This refrigeration system includes two separate circuits, one high temperature circuit (HTC) with ammonia as the refrigerant and the other one, low temperature circuit (LTC) with carbon dioxide as the refrigerant. These two circuits are thermally coupled using a heat exchanger called cascade condenser which acts as an evaporator for the HTC and a condenser for the LTC. The condenser _ rejects the heat Q H at the condensing temperature TC to the ambient which is at the temperature T0. The evaporator of the _ system absorbs a refrigerated load Q L from the cold space which has the temperature TCL. TME and TMC are the evaporation and condensation temperatures of ammonia and carbon dioxide, respectively. DTcas TMC TME is the cascade condenser temperature difference. The Tes diagram of the cycle is presented in Fig. 2. The governing equations including energy and exergy balance for components may be written as follows: - For evaporator:

_ _ Q L mL h1 h4 _ ExD;evap  1 T0 _ _ _ Q L mL ex4 ex1 W fan;evap TCL 

(1) (2)

- For LTC compressor:

_ _ m h h1 m h h1 _ W LTC;comp L 2S L 2

hS hm he

hm he

(3)

890

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

_ _ _ ExD;cas:cond mL ex2 ex3 mH ex8 ex5


- For HTC compressor:

(8)

_ _ m h hS m h h5 _ W HTC;comp H 6S H 6

hS hm he

hm he

(9)

_ _ _ ExD;HTC;comp mH ex5 ex6 W HTC;comp


- For HTC expansion valve:

(10)

h7 h8 _ _ ExD;HTC;exp mL ex7 ex8


- For condenser:

(11) (12)

_ _ Q H mH h7 h6 _ ExD;cond  1  T0 _ _ _ Q H mH ex6 ex7 W fan;cond T0

(13) (14)

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system.

_ _ _ ExD;LTC;comp mL ex1 ex2 W LTC;comp


- For LTC expansion valve:

(4)

Where in equations (3) and (9) hmhe is the combined mechanical and compressor motor efciency and is equal to 0.93 and hS, the isentropic efciency, for screw compressors is determined using the following equations. For the HTC compressor [12]:

hS 0:00097 R2 0:01026 RP 0:83955 P


(5) (6)
For the LTC compressor [13]:

(15)

h3 h4 _ _ ExD;LTC;exp mL ex3 ex4


- For cascade condenser:

hS 0:00476 R2 0:09238 RP 0:89810 P

(16)

The total exergy input to the system, total power of compressors, evaporator fan and condenser fan is equal to:

_ _ _ Q M mH h5 h8 mL h2 h3

(7)

_ _ _ _ _ Exin W HTC;comp W LTC;comp W fan;cond W fan;evap


And the total exergy output, or exergy of products is:

(17)

_ _ Exout Q L

 T0 1 TCL

(18)

Finally, exergy destruction and exergetic efciency of the overall system can be obtained by [14]:

_ _ _ ExD;tot Exin Exout

(19)

3 1 _ D;tot Exin
3. Heat exchanger design procedure

_ Ex

(20)

Fig. 2. Tes diagram of CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system.

Since the thermal area and pressure loss are among the factors affecting the annual cost of a system, thermal design of a heat exchanger is of essential importance. The cascade cycle includes air-cooled condenser and evaporator that are compact air-cooled heat exchanger and the cascade condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger. In order to design heat exchangers one needs to consider parameters like tube diameter, the number of tube rows and shell thickness as constants. Moreover, heat exchangers are divided into two categories of single-phase and two-phase. Since two-phase heat transfer coefcients are functions of refrigerant

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

891

Convection heat transfer coefcients for air on tube bundles, CO2, and NH3 as two-phase ows may be found in references [15e18]. Finally, the air side pressure drop for the compact tubeen heat exchanger is equal to [19]:

" " G2 Ao ri DP f 1 2ri Ac;o rm

Ac;o Afr

!2 #

ri 1 ro

# (23)

ri, ro and rm are air density at inlet, outlet and mean values, respectively, and f is the friction coefcient and is dened in Ref. [19].
4. Thermoeconomic optimization Thermoeconomic is an orderly method which combines concept of exergy method with those belonging to economic analysis. Optimization methods which were previously used were mostly based on minimizing thermodynamic objective functions such as entropy generation or work loss which lead to optimization of coefcient of performance, but can also increase the annual cost of the system. The purpose of thermoeconomic optimization is to reach a trade-off between capital costs and costs of the input exergy of the system. In other words, in this method, the objective is either to minimize the unit cost of the product of the system for a xed output product or maximize the output product for a xed total cost of the system. Regarding the abovementioned issues, the thermoeconomic objective function includes costs involving exergy input and capital costs in monetary units. Therefore, one can write the relationship between product cost and the total cost of the system as follows [20]:
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the optimization procedure. Table 1 Characteristics of basic system. Cooling capacity Ammonia condensing temperature Carbon dioxide evaporating temperature Carbon dioxide condensing temperature Cascade condenser temperature difference Ambient temperature Cold refrigerated space temperature Operating period Period of operation per year Annual interest rate Electricity cost 40 kW 45  C 55  C 0 C 10  C 25  C 45  C 15 years 6570 h 8% 0.07 $kW1 h1

Ctotal

_ co Exout

_ ci Exin

X
m

zm

(24)

quality, heat exchangers are designed in quality intervals of 0.1, in which two-phase heat transfer coefcients are taken as constant. Finally, the total heat transfer area is the sum of heat transfer areas of heat exchangers which have been designed in these intervals:

Where Ctotal is the total annual cost of the system, co is the unit cost _ of product exergy, ci is the unit cost of input exergy, Exout is the _ annual exergy rate for output products, Exin is the annual exergy rate from external sources, Zm is the annual cost of capital expenditures and other associated cost for the system (subscript m represents the number of components of the system). In cascade refrigeration system, the input exergy to the system is only electrical energy. Therefore, the unit cost of exergy input will be equal to the unit cost of electricity, while the product of this system is cooling capacity. In engineering economics, the unit of time interval chosen for capital cost is usually taken as a year. The capital cost in a year is obtained using the capital recovery factor (CRF) [20]. It can use the following relationship to estimate capital costs or purchase equipment costs of the system components [21]:

Ao

_ Q Uo DT

(21)

_ 0:46 CHTC;comp 9624:2W HTC;comp _ 0:46 CLTC;comp 10167:5W LTC;comp _ 0:76 Ccond 1397A0:89 629:05W fan;cond o;cond

(25)

Which Uo is the overall heat transfer coefcient based on external heat transfer area dened as:

(26)

Uo

Ao 1 1 Ao RW Ai hi ho

(22)

(27)

Table 2 Input design parameters of condenser and evaporator. Component Condenser Evaporator Outside diameter (m) 0.0127 0.0159 Tube thickness (mm) 0.889 0.889 Fin thickness (mm) 0.25 0.25 Fin density (n m1) 300 200 Longitudinal pitch (m) 0.0497 0.0497 Lateral pitch (m) 0.057 0.057 Number of tube rows 6 6

892 Table 3 Input design parameters of cascade condenser. Outside diameter (m) 0.025 Tube thickness (mm) 1.65

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

Tube pitch (m) 0.0381

Number of tube passes 2

_ 0:76 Cevap 1397A0:89 629:05W fan;evap o;evap Ccas:cond 2382:9A0:68 o;cas:cond

(28) (29)

Where CHTC,comp, CLTC,comp, Ccond, Cevap, and Ccas.cond are equipment cost for the ammonia circuit compressor, carbon dioxide circuit compressor, condenser, evaporator, and cascade condenser in dollar unit, respectively. Combining equations (17), (25)e(29) the total annual cost of the system can be written as follows:

Ctotal CHTC;comp CLTC;comp Ccond Cevap Ccas:cond :CRF h _ _ Cel :H W HTC;comp W LTC;comp i _ _ 30 W fan;cond W fan;evap
In which the capital costs of expansion valves are neglected. 5. Optimization procedure In thermoeconomic optimization of CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system, decision variables are ammonia condensing temperature TC, carbon dioxide evaporating temperature TE, carbon dioxide condensing temperature TMC and the temperature difference in cascade condenser DTcas. Based on the above thermodynamic and thermoeconomic equations, optimization procedure is shown in Fig. 3. 6. Results and discussion A case study is examined for the basic design of the cascade refrigeration cycle and its parameters are given in Table 1. Tables 2
Fig. 5. Variations of the annual cost of the system in terms of variations of carbon dioxide evaporation temperature (TC 45  C, TMC 0  C, DTcas 10  C).

and 3 show input design parameters of condenser, evaporator and cascade condenser. Fig. 4 shows the effect of changing TE, carbon dioxide evaporation temperature on costs of components of the cascade refrigeration system. It can be seen that by reducing TE, the cost of the carbon dioxide circuit compressor and its cost of electricity consumption increase which is a result of pressure increase in the compressor. The cost of the evaporator decreases due to increase in the logarithmic temperature difference between evaporation temperature and the cooled space temperature. Costs of air-cooled condenser and cascade condenser also increase as a result of _ _ increasing Q H and Q M . Also the cost of ammonia circuit compressor changes due to a small change in the mass ow rate of ammonia.

Fig. 4. The effect of variations of carbon dioxide evaporating temperature on costs of system components (TC 45  C, TMC 0  C, DTcas 10  C).

Fig. 6. Effect of variations of ammonia condensing temperature on costs of system components (TE 55  C, TMC 0  C, DTcas 10  C).

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895

893

Fig. 7. Variations of total annual cost of the system versus variations of ammonia condensing temperature (TE 55  C, TMC 0  C, DTcas 10  C).

Fig. 9. Variations of the total system annual cost versus variations of carbon dioxide condensing temperature (TE 55  C, TC 45  C, DTcas 10  C).

Fig. 5 shows that an optimum TE may be found with trade-off between system components costs that minimized the total annual cost of the system. Fig. 6 shows the effect of changing TC, ammonia condensing temperature on costs of components of the cascade refrigeration system. As can be seen, by increasing TC, the cost of air-cooled compressor decreases due to the increase of the logarithmic temperature difference between condensation temperature and ambient temperature. On the other hand, the cost of ammonia circuit compressor and its consumed electricity cost show an increasing trend due to increase of the pressure ratio. Costs of other system components do not change considerably. Fig. 7 shows a minimum point for the objective function by changing TC.

Fig. 8 shows the effect of changing TMC, carbon dioxide condensing temperature on costs of components of the cascade refrigeration system. As can be seen in the gure, by increasing TMC, the cost of carbon dioxide circuit compressor and its energy consumption increase which is due to the increase of pressure ratio. On the other hand, since DTcas is held constant, increasing TMC results in increasing TME, evaporation temperature of ammonia, and it also reduces the pressure ratio in the ammonia circuit compressor which results in a reduction of its costs. By increasing TMC, evaporator cost shows a decreasing trend, while condenser cost shows an increasing trend. Since the logarithmic temperature difference at the cascade condenser is constant, its cost also remains constant. Fig. 9 shows that a minimum has been

Fig. 8. Effect of variations of carbon dioxide condensing temperature on costs of system components (TE 55  C, TC 45  C, DTcas 10  C).

Fig. 10. Effect of variations of cascade temperature difference on costs of system components (TE 55  C, TC 45  C, DTMC 10  C).

894

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895 Table 5 Exergy destruction in components of the cascade cycle in the optimum state. Component Condenser Cascade condenser Evaporator HTC compressor LTC compressor HTC expansion valve LTC expansion valve Total _ ExD kW 16.653 5.071 3.151 9.119 10.25 2.901 2.578 49.723 Exergy destruction (%) 33.49 10.19 6.35 18.33 20.61 5.83 5.2 100

Table 5 shows different values of exergy destruction in different parts of the cascade cycle. As can be seen in the table, the highest value of exergy destruction belongs to the condenser which is caused as a result of heat transfer with nite temperature difference. After that, compressors of the cycle have highest values of exergy destruction, due to the compression process. The lowest amount of exergy destruction happens in expansion valves due to the throttling process. 7. Conclusion
Fig. 11. Variations of annual cost of the system versus variations of the cascade temperature difference (TE 55  C, TC 45  C, DTMC 10  C).

found by carrying out a trade-off between the costs of system components. Fig. 10 shows the effect of changing DTcas, the temperature difference between the condensation temperature of carbon dioxide and evaporation temperature of ammonia on costs of components of the cascade refrigeration system. It can be seen that by increasing DTcas, cost of the cascade condenser decreases due to the increase of logarithmic temperature difference in the heat exchanger. On the other hand, increasing DTcas results in reduction of TME, increase of pressure ratio in ammonia circuit compressor and consequently, increase of cost of the compressor and its energy consumption. By increasing the power of the ammonia compressor, the load of condenser and, therefore, its costs, increase. Fig. 11 shows that an optimum point can be found by carrying out a trade-off between costs of the system. Finally, decision variables are changed simultaneously to nd a minimum for the objective function. Table 4 shows optimum values of decision variables, factors effecting component costs and the total annual cost in comparison to the base case. According to this table, one can conclude that the cost of the system in the optimum state compared to the base case for the same cooling capacity (constant output product) has had a reduction of 9.34 percent.
Table 4 Results of thermoeconomic optimization compared to the base case design. Parameter TC ( C) TE ( C) TMC ( C) DTcas ( C) TME ( C) Ao,cond (m2) Ao,evap (m2) Ao,cas.cond (m2) _ W HTC;comp kW _ W LTC;comp kW _ W fan;cond kW _ W fan;evap kW Ctotal ($) Base case 45 55 0 10 10 687.7 221.8 107.2 26.52 31.72 2.233 0.5239 12,0531 Thermoeconomic optimized 56.27 56 8.095 3.446 11.54 494.8 218.2 169.7 35.35 24.11 3.012 0.5389 10,9242

In this paper, a method for thermoeconomic optimization of the CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration cycle is presented. The proposed method covers both thermal and economical aspects of the system design and component selection. In order to optimize the system, the annual cost of the system was introduced as an objective function, which included annualized capital and electricity costs of the system components. This objective function was then minimized to nd the optimal design point of the system. The conguration of optimization procedure was built with the four decision variables including condensing temperature of ammonia, evaporating temperature of carbon dioxide, condensing temperature of carbon dioxide and temperature difference in cascade condenser. Cooling capacity, ambient temperature and cold space temperature were chosen as constraints. The optimization process was carried out using Direct Search Method. Finally, irreversibility (Exergy destruction) for the CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration cycle components was determined based on derived equations. Results of the optimization showed that with a constant cooling capacity of 40 kW and compromising the above mentioned costs, a minimum was found for the objective function that reduced the annual cost of the system by 9.34 percent compared to the base case design. It is also demonstrated that while the other parameters were held constant, the optimum values for decision variables are TC 56.27  C, TE 56  C, TMC 8.095  C and DTcas 3.446  C. Finally, results of exergy analysis on the optimized system showed that the highest exergy destruction is in the condenser, valued 33.49 percent and the lowest value of exergy destruction is in the expansion valve of the carbon dioxide circuit valued 5.2 percent. As explained before, the total annual cost of the system was reduced by 9.34 percent with respect to the base case. The total annual cost may be reduced more by optimizing design parameters of the heat exchangers along with design parameters of the cycle. Furthermore, cascade refrigeration cycles with other couples of refrigerants may be optimized and compared with the present cycle. References
[1] Person A. New development in industrial refrigeration. ASHRAE Journal 2001;43:54e8. [2] Lee TS, Liu CH, Chen TW. Thermodynamic analysis of optimal condensing temperature of cascade-condenser in CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system. Refrigeration 2006;29:1100e8.

O. Rezayan, A. Behbahaninia / Energy 36 (2011) 888e895 [3] Ratts EB, Brown JS. A generalized analysis for cascading single uid vapor compression refrigeration cycles using an entropy generation minimization method. Refrigeration 2000;23:353e65. [4] Bhattacharyya S, Mukhopadhyay S, Kumar A, Khuruna RK, Sarkar J. Optimization of CO2-C3H8 cascade system for refrigeration and heating. Refrigeration 2005;28:1284e92. [5] Bhattacharyya S, Bose S, Sarkar J. Exergy maximization of cascade refrigeration cycles and its numerical verication for transcritical CO2-C3H8 system. Refrigeration 2007;30:624e32. [6] Ma M, MousaviNaeynian MS, Amidpour M. Exergy analysis of multistage cascade low temperature refrigeration systems used in olen plants. Refrigeration 2008;32(2):279e94. [7] Getu HM, Bansal PK. Thermodynamic analysis of an R744-R717 cascade refrigeration system. Refrigeration 2008;31:45e54. _ [8] Dinge H, Ileri A. Thermoeconomic optimization of simple refrigerator. Energy Resources 1999;23:949e62. [9] Sanaye S, Malekmohammadi HR. Thermal and economical optimization of air conditioning units with vapor compression refrigeration system. Applied Thermal Engineering 2004;24:1807e25. [10] Kopac M, Zemher B. Effect of saturation-temperature on the performance of vapor-compression refrigeration-cycle working on different refrigerants using exergy method. Energy Resources 2006;30:729e40.

895

[11] Selbas R, Kzlkan O, Sencan A. Thermoeconomic optimization of subcooled and superheated vapor compression refrigeration cycle. Energy 2006;31:2108e28. [12] Stocker WF. Industrial refrigeration handbook. New York: McGraw Hill; 1998. [13] Petter N, Filippo D, Havard R, Arne B. Measurements and experience on semihermetic CO2 compressors. In: Proceedings of the fth international conference on compressors and coolants, IIR, Slovak Republic. 2004. [14] Kotas TJ. The exergy method of thermal plant analysis. Florida: Krieger Publishing Company; 1995. [15] Kuppan T. Heat exchanger design handbook. New York: CRC Press; 2000. [16] Shah RK, Sekuli DP. Fundamentals of heat exchanger design. New Jersey: c John Wiley & Sons; 2003. [17] Kaka S, Liu H. Heat exchangers: selection, rating and thermal design. 2nd ed. Florida: CRC Press; 2002. [18] Bejan A, Kraus A. Heat transfer handbook. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2003. [19] Kays WM, London AL. Compact heat exchangers. 3rd ed. Blacklick, Ohio, USA: McGraw Hill; 1984. [20] Bejan A, Tsatsaronis G, Moran M. Thermal design and optimization. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1996. [21] Smith R. In: Chemical process: design and integration. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2005.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen