Application of Tracers in Arid Zone Hydrology (Proceedings of the Vienna Symposium, August 1994). IAHS Publ. no.

232, 1995.

57

Isotope hydrogeology and water balance assessment near the Nile in Sudan
M. A. GEYH
Niedersachsisch.es Landesamt fur Bodenforschung, PO Box S10153, D-30631 Hannover, Germany

K. FROEHLICH
Isotope Hydrology Section, Department of Research and Isotopes, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramerstrasse 5, PO Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria

B. TH. VERHAGEN
Schonland Research Centre, Witswatersrand University, Johannesburg, South Africa

Abstract Hydrogeological studies with numerical modelling of the Nubian sandstone aquifer near Khartoum have been conducted for future groundwater development, proposing considerable infiltration of Nile river water. This concept appeared to be confirmed by piezometric levels and environmental tritium gradients. It was concluded that present day groundwater pumping, plus projected increases, are balanced by this infiltration. Isotope hydrological and hydrochemical observations led, however, to a different postulate. The high tritium values observed have been interpreted as a result of downward seepage of irrigation water. On this basis a simplified transport model was devised assuming that during the last pluvial some 6000 years ago, groundwater level stood at about the present land surface. Following this, it declined due to evaporation and regional drainage into the Nubian sandstone aquifer. The subsequent more modest infiltration from the river is roughly in balance with lateral groundwater drainage. Planned increases in groundwater exploitation at some distance from the Nile will therefore mine "fossil" groundwater. HYDROGEOLOGICAL SITUATION In cooperation with the Geological and Mineralogical Resources Department, Khartoum, the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Hannover, Germany, carried out hydrogeological studies including isotope hydrological analyses, in the Khartoum Province from 1976 to 1978. The Institute of Environmental Physics of the University of Heidelberg, Germany, previously carried outpaleohydrogeological investigations in this area (Sonntag, 1985). The investigation area is located along the eastern side of the Nile near Khartoum. The southern part adjacent to the Blue Nile east of Khartoum extends about 40 km eastward. The northern part abuts the Nile north of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles and covers an area 10 km wide and 30 km long (Fig. 1). In the investigation area, the major aquifer lies in the Nubian sandstone. It reaches a thickness of about 400 m and overlies the basement which consists of crystalline rocks. Pleistocene deposits of the Nile ("Gezira formation") cover the Nubian sandstone near

58

M. A. Geyh et al.

the river (Fig. 2). The groundwater of the Gezira formation is in hydraulic contact with the Nubian sandstone. Near the Nile the gradient of the groundwater table varies between 1:500 and 1:1500. Five kilometres further away the gradient approximates to 1:1500 (Fig. 1). The groundwater table reaches a level of 375 m a.s.l. near the Nile. Thirty to forty kilometres away from the Nile there are two depressions where the groundwater table decreases to 345 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1; Civita et al., 1975). The groundwater can only flow west from these depressions as in the eastern and northern direction there is the

70

50

55,3 769

14

C-value

(pi

well No.

.-36S~piezometric line (m a.s.l.) 5km

Fig. 1 Piezometric map of the upper part of the phreatic groundwater zone north of Khartoum and 14C values of various sampling sites (Profile A-B, Fig. 2).

Isotope hydrology and water balance assessment near the Nile in Sudan

59

after Krampe et al. 1979 |-;:o.i;.:?:'| 193^1

0
L

sand or sandstone clay or mudstone

2
1

4 km
1

Fig. 2 Geological profile north of Khartoum (A-B, Fig. 1).

impermeable basement. Thus, it was proposed that groundwater reverses its flow at depth, crossing underneath the Nile ("Nile-roll"; Bender et ah, 1983) and, finally, discharges in the marshlands of Dongola, situated some 450 km northwest of Khartoum. The concept of "Nile-roll" is based on the observation of different transmissivities (950 and 80 m day"1, respectively) in the lower and upper part of the aquifer. The intermediate layers are less permeable, especially near the Nile where the water levels of neighbouring dug wells and boreholes can differ by up to 2 m. In the study area the mean annual precipitation is about 150 mm (IAEA, 1981). In view of the high potential evaporation, recent recharge seems to be negligible but cannot be completely excluded (Verhagen, 1985). ISOTOPE HYDROLOGICAL AND HYDROCHEMICAL RESULTS The 2H/180 plot for the groundwater samples followed 2H = 8 180 + 8. Almost all the values lay between the locally relevant precipitation lines of Addis Ababa and Khartoum. The mean isotopic compositions of the White and the Blue Nile overlapped the scattering range of the groundwater, reflecting mixing of water from these two sources (Verhagen et al., 1991). Groundwater close to the Nile exhibited contemporary tritium values in a range typical for bomb-produced tritium in the Nile water. About 4-5 km further away, the tritium values became undetectable (Fig. 3). Near the Nile, groundwater contained 14C up to 114 pMC in 1986 (Fig. 1). This was in accordance with the tritium results and indicates surface water infiltration. In addi-

60
3

M. A. Geyh et al.
H (TU) o o

100

50

\ \

A.

o o o 2

o 3 4

iO

distance from Nile river (km)

Fig. 3 3 H values of groundwater samples versus distance from the Nile (broken curve indicates the boundary of Nile water infiltration by 1976).

tion, it gave evidence that in the study area the pre-bomb 14C initial content could be assumed to be about 100 pMC. In the southern part of the study area, the distance of the sampling points from the Blue Nile reaches more than 10 km and the 14C values dropped to below 50 pMC. The lowest 14C value was observed at the 136 m deep well No 912. This groundwater sample was probably pumped from the lower aquifer zone with a more depleted 14C value (Fig. 4). With a few exceptions, the mineralization of the groundwater was rather low. The

AV VB - profile section
O 74.4 - 14 C (pmc)

^3ss_, - piezometric lines (m a.s.l.)

I
Fig. 4 Profile section AB of the isohypsic map (according to Krampe et al. (1979) east of Khartoum with 14C values (pMC).

Isotope hydrology and water balance assessment near the Nile in Sudan

61

bicarbonate content ranges from 140 to 400 mg l"1. Cl~ and SOJ ions reach values of up to about 600 and 2500 mg l"1, respectively. The NO J content of shallow groundwater ranges up to 90 mg l"1 and correlates with the electric conductivity (EC) of the water samples (Fig. 5). INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS Tritium, stable isotopes and hydrochemistry The high tritium values observed in samples collected in 1976 were interpreted as being indicative of infiltration of Nile water into the upper aquifer (Krampe et al, 1979) with a maximum distance from the Nile of about 4 km since 1963 (3H detection limit). From this, a mean tracer velocity was estimated to be vT = 4000 m /13 year = 308 m year"1. Assuming an effective porosity ne = 0.1-0.15, one obtains aflowrate of 31-46 m year"1. However, the corresponding value derived from Darcy's law calculated with the adopted regional hydraulic conductivity K of 5 x 10"5 m s"1 and a hydraulic gradient h/l = 0.007 was vDL = K x dh/dl = 11 m year"1. The disagreement between the two results is evident. The discrepancy disappears with the assumption (Verhagen et al., 1991) that the hydrochemical and isotopic composition of the groundwater of the upper part of the phreatic aquifer at distances of 1.5-4 km from the Nile is mainly determined by the infiltration of irrigation and rainwater. The arguments are: (a) Samples exhibiting high tritium values were taken from dug wells which tap only the uppermost layer of the aquifer. (b) Clear evidence of infiltration of mineralized irrigation water is obtained by the plot of EC and NO J vs the distance from the Nile (Fig. 5). Considering the good correlation between EC and the NO3 contents, fertilizers seem to be the major

400-

(6000 BP end of pluvial period) level of Nile '"-.43700 BPJ..,375 m<

345 m a.s.l.

piezometric surface assumed measured calculated * * *

(AD 1978)

20

30

distance from Nile river (km) Fig. 5 NO J content and EC-values versus distance from the Nile river.

62

M. A. Geyh et al.

source of EC and also NOJ, Cl" and SO4 contents. (c) The Nile water has a HCO J content of 60-130 mg l"1 while for the groundwater of the dug wells it is < 350 mg l"1. If the latter stems from the Nile, a hydrochemical process must exist which results in a considerable increase in the HCO J content. Such a process is unknown in the saturated zone. The bicarbonate content of infiltrating irrigation water may increase during seepage into the unsaturated zone. Radiocarbon The 14C values decreased during ageing of the groundwater with increasing distance. The oldest sample from deep well no. 912 had a conventional 14C age of about 18 000 years BP. The other samples from the upper groundwater horizon had expected conventional 14C ages of 6200 and 1500 years. These groundwaters can be interpreted as mixtures or as having been formed during, and in part after, the latest pluvial age of 6000 or 4000 years BP, or as mixtures. With these results one can try to reconstruct the palaeohydrogeological situation during the last millenium which still seems to be influencing the present hydraulic state. In order to do this, a profile section in the isohypsic map of the groundwater table according to Krampe et al. (1979) was considered, which shows several 14C sampling points (Fig. 6). In the course of the long pluvial periods covering several millenia (beginning 10 000 years BP and lasting to approximately 6000 or 4000 years BP, Geyh & Jkel, 1974), the groundwater level rose to the surface of the terrain. With the onset of the arid climate the groundwater level in the Nubian sandstone began to fall extensively until it reached today's level of approximately 60 m below the surface (Sonntag, 1985). The distance between the deepest part of the depressions in the groundwater surface and the terrain about 34 km from the Nile does actually reach this value. It is only near the Nile that the hydraulic potential of the groundwater surface remains at the pluvial level (Fig. 6). At the beginning of the arid phase, the lowering was mainly caused by evaporation. After a relatively short period, the evaporation became negligible. Consequently, further lowering must have occurred through infiltration into the deeper lying Nubian sandstone. By applying the geohydraulic relationship: dh dQ ,n n = ~-^-ve (1) dt dx where h is the thickness of the aquifer; ve = evaporation rate; n = porosity; and Q = integral of the filter velocity over the aquifer thickness, the duration of the evaporation period can be estimated. At the centre of the depression of the groundwater level, i.e. 34 km from the Nile, dd/dx = 0 and equation (1) yields: At, = -Ah,
e

(2)

The values of At, associated with a given partial lowering Ah, have been taken from the evaporation curve for sand soils (Fig. 26 in Sonntag, 1985). The summation of these time intervals gives a total time of 700 years during which the evaporation rate was

Isotope hydrology and water balance assessment near the Nile in Sudan
NOjImg/l) 100 - i

63

Nile

5 km

distance from Nile river (km) Fig. 6 Hydrogeological section through the profile AB (Fig. 4) showing the groundwater table for various palaeosituations.

greater than 0.5 mm year"1 and the groundwater level had fallen to approximately 10 m under the surface. The further lowering by 50 m with a negligible rate of evaporation took place through infiltration into the deep Nubian sandstone at a rate of 50 m/ 5300 year to 50 m/ 3300 year or 10-15 mm year"1. Therefore, the further lowering of about 15 m down to the level of the Nile lasted about 1600-1000 years. Until this time (3700-2300 years BP) the aquifer discharged into the Nile. Afterward, the water table fell below the level of the Nile and thus, Nile water infiltrated the aquifer. This concept provides the basic geohydraulic data to simulate the present hydraulic regime between the Nile and the area of depressions. From the model of non-stationary discharge into a graben (Busch & Luckner, 1972) it follows: dZ dt
=

1 d2Z^b a QXI

(3a) (3b)

Z(x,f) = <(x,0)-<K-V)

a = JL = Jh.
Kh KhQ

= -L
Ka

(3c)

In these equations vs is the average vertical infiltration velocity; and <t>(x, 0) and <j>(x, t) are the Girinski potential at t = 0 (groundwater table at the level of the Nile, i.e. 3700 to 2300 years BP) and t, respectively. For a phreatic aquifer with a flat base, the Girinski potential is given by:

64

M. A. Geyh et al.

4>(x, f)

hz(x,t)

,2

( 4a )
(4b)

h(x,t) = \\hl-2Z(x,t)

The solution of equations (3a)-(3c) for the boundary and initial conditions Z(0, 0 = 0 and Z(x, 0) = 0 is, according to Busch & Luckner (1972): Z(x,t) = V-lr\ x-*L-}*LT 2r x3 U K with: 4 ^
7T
2

Sin[<2i

~ l> Wexp[-(2i-1) 2 (fltft

(2/ -1)3

(5)

_4/
7T ja 0
2

(6)

^ is the "decay constant" of the groundwater table. The relationship between the arithmetic term Z(x, t) and the measurable groundwater level h(x, t) follows from equation (5): Q(x,t) = K ^ A (7) dx To simulate the spatial temporal course of h(x, f) and Q(x, t), the size of r, vs, K, n and h must be known. In the above case, r = 34 km. When n and h are known, v can be s determined, analogous to equation (2): v, = ^ (8)

where A is the vertical difference between the level of the Nile and the bottom of the depression in the groundwater surface. According to Fig. 6, A is 35 m. tp represents the time elapsed since commencement of Nile infiltration, thus tp = 3700 years for a pluvial end at 6000 years BP. The parameter K can be determined as follows. By definition: A = hQ - h(r, and thus, using equation (4b), one arrives at: Z(r,tp) = ^-h0A (10) (9)

According to equations (5) and (6), Z(r,tp) and tk are functions of K. Therefore, Kcan be determined numerically from the transcendental equation (10). The calculation of h(x, t) and Q(x, t) permits the simulation of the spatial-temporal course of the 14C values. Equation (11) applies for the 14C balance of a small volume element (height h(x, t) and length Ax) in the aquifer under consideration: di.hCAx) nt -, = -^nthCAx-vs-LCAx-C(Q+AQ)+(C-AQ at ne change in time radioactive decay vertical loss horizontal gain (H)

Isotope hydrology and water balance assessment near the Nile in Sudan

65

Equation (11) includes both the effective porosity ne (applies to the liquid transport), and the total porosity nt (is valid for the 14C transportation). If one performs the partial differentiation with respect to time t and replaces dh/dtin equation (9): AQ = agfeflAx ox Equation (12) converts into: C(x,t+At) = C(x,0exp-(AA0and AC = C(x,t)-C(x-Ax,t) (12)

[(n/ne -l)AQ-Q] C(x, t)+Q C(x - Ax, t) nfi(Ax/At)

(13)

which allows the numerical determination of the spatial-temporal 14C distribution. A solution to this transport problem is shown in Fig. 7. The porosities ne and nt were assumed to be 0.1 and 0.15, respectively. The best fit of the calculated h(x, t) has been
14

C (pmc)

h 0 =50 m

VA \

V\

-1750 before Chr. -

980 BC

\ \

240 B C 500 A D -

a.s.l
(b) 380-] 370 360 350
depth discharge to the Nubian sandstone 1mm/a

h 0 = 50 m
1750 before Chr.980 BC

500 AD 1980 AD

340330-

q (m2/a)
(C) 30-1

h 0 = 50 m

15 20 25 30 distance from Nile along the profile A - B (km)

Fig. 7 14C, calculated groundwater table, and discharge versus distance from the Nile for various times after adjustment of the groundwater table to the level of the Nile River; thickness of the aquifer, and increasing distances between springs: (a) calculated and measured 14C values (pMC); (b) groundwater table (m a.s.l.); (c) groundwater discharge q in m3(year m) .

66

M. A. Geyh et al.

found for h = 50 m. There is remarkably good agreement between the measured 14C values and the simulated curve for 1980 AD. Finally, for the present infiltration per m of bank of the Nile a value of Q(0, tp) = 30 m3 (year m)"1 and for K a value of 1.3 X 10"5 m s"1 was obtained. If one assumes the end of the last pluvial period to be 4000 years BP, the values become 40 m3 (year m)"1 and K = 1.8 x 10-5 m s"1. Doubling the porosity values (ne = 0.2; nt = 0.3), one arrives at (2(0, f) = 80 m3 (yearm)"1 and a K value of 3.6 X l O ^ m s 4 . As higher porosity and an even later ending to the last pluvial period can be discounted, the present infiltration to the east of the Nile along the profile in question is in the range of 30-80 m3 (year m)"1 with a specific lvalue for this area of 1-4 x 10"5 m s"1. These calculations were carried out under the assumption of negligible superficial recharge after the most recent pluvial period. This result is in considerable disagreement with the results obtained by Bender et al. (1983). Their estimate of the annual infiltration to the eastern bank of the Nile was 175 x 106 m3 (year m)"1 relating to a distance of 50 km. About 90 % of this water is estimated to percolate directly (vertically) into the Nubian sandstone, the remaining 17.5 x 106 m3 year"1, or 350 x m3 (year m)"1, infiltrating to the east of the Nile. This is one order of magnitude more than all former estimates. An explanation is that one is not dealing with a steady state hydraulic situation based on hydraulic parameters derived from very limited observations (Bender et al., 1983), but with a groundwater resource whose initial state (at the end of the last pluvial) is quite well understood from the torso of a decaying fossil. Further investigation yields the observation that the groundwater fell by about 10 m due to groundwater pumping of 19 x 106 m3 year"1 since 1978. If one assumes that the drop of the groundwater table occurred within an area of 5 by 50 km, the water volume pumped amounts to 5000 x 50 000 x 10 x 0.1 = 250 x 106 m3. This value can be compared with 190 x 106 m3 actually pumped during the last 10 years. Based on these estimates, only 20 x 106 m3 infiltrated from the Nile base within this period. Hence, fossil groundwater mining dominates the groundwater pumping in the Khartoum area. REFERENCES
Bender, H., Hobler, M. &Krampe, K. -D. (1983) Groundwater resources evaluationand possibilities of their development in the area of the three towns (Khartoum Province, Sudan). In: Groundwater in Water Resources Planning I, 55-65. UNESCO & IHA, Koblenz. Busch, K. F. & Luckner, L. (1974) Geohydraulik. Enke, Stuttgart. Civita, M., de Vivo, B. & Pierattini, D. (1975) Lineamenti idrogeologici e caratteristiche delle acque sotterranee della provincia di Khartoum (Sudan). Industria mineraria Srie II26, 594-612. Geyh, M. A. & Jakel, D. (1974) Sptpleistozne und holozane Klimageschichte der Sahara aufgrund zugnglicher 14CDaten. (Late Pleistocene and Holoceneclimatic history of the Saharausing accessible 14C dates). Z. Geomorphol. N.F. 18, 83-98. IAEA (1981) Statistical treatment of environmentalisotopedatainprecipitation.4.E/17'i2c/i.,Re/?. Series 206. IAEA, Vienna. Krampe, K. -D., Zaepke, J., Hobler, M. etal. (1979) Sudanese German Exploration ProjectTechnical ReportII: Groundwater Resources in Khartoum Province A-C. unpublished. Geological and Mineral Resources Department (GMRD), Khartoum & BGR, Hannover. Sonntag, C. (1985) Ein zeitabhngiges Modell der Palowsser in der Ost-Sahara aufgrund von Isotopendaten (Time dependent model for paleo water in the Eastern Sahara based on isotope data). Dr Thesis, Berlin. Verhagen, B. Th. (1985) Isotope geohydrology: Some hydrochemical and water supply insights into the Kalahari. In: Proc. Seminar Mineral Exploration of the Kalahari Bulletin 29, 278-293; Publ. Geol. Survey, Lobatse. Verhagen, B. Th, Geyh, M. A., Froehlich, K. & Wirth, K. (1991) Isotope Hydrological Methods for the Quantitative Evaluation ofGround Water Resources in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas. ForschungsberichtedesBundesministeriumsfur WirtschaftlicheZusammenarbeit85. Welforum Verlag, Cologne.