CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Wire Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM) is a non-traditional process of material removal from electrically conductive materials to produce parts with intricate shapes and profiles. This process is done by using a series of spark erosion. These sparks are produced between the work piece and a wire electrode (usually less than 0.30 mm diameter) separated by a dielectric fluid and erodes the work piece to produce complex two and three dimensional shapes according to a numerically controlled pre-programmed path. The sparks produce heating and melt work piece surface to form debris which is then flushed away by dielectric pressure. During the cutting process there is no direct contact between the work piece and the wire electrode. The wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) has become an important non-traditional machining process because it can machine the difficult-to-machine materials like titanium alloys and zirconium which cannot be machined by conventional machining processes. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is a specialized thermal machining process capable of accurately machining parts with varying hardness or complex shapes, which have sharp edges that are very difficult to be machined by the main stream machining processes. The development of new advanced engineering materials and the need to meet demand for precise and flexible prototype and low-volume production of components have made wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) an important manufacturing process. The basic mechanism of metal removal in WEDM is identical to conventional EDM. Instead of moving electrode (as in EDM), the electrode in this process is a moving wire of copper or brass. A vertically oriented wire is fed into the work piece continuously travelling from a supply spool to a take up spool. For this purpose a hole is pre-drilled in the work piece, through which the wire electrode will pass. A constant gap between tool and work piece is maintained with the help of computer controlled positioning system.
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This system is used to cut through complicated contours especially in difficult-tomachine materials. This process gives a high degree of accuracy and a good surface finish. Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM) is a widely accepted nontraditional material removal process used to manufacture components with intricate shapes and profiles. It utilizes a continuously travelling wire electrode made of Cu, brass or tungsten of diameter 0.05 -0.3mm, capable of achieving very small corner radii. The wire is kept in tension using a mechanical tensioning device reducing the tendency of producing inaccurate parts. During the WEDM process, the material is eroded ahead of the wire and there is no direct contact between the work piece and the wire electrode, eliminating the mechanical stresses during machining. In addition, the WEDM process is able to machine exotic and high strength and temperature resistant materials and eliminates the geometrical changes occurring in the machining of heat-treated steels. WEDM equipment first appeared in the early 1960s, and performed simple machining utilizing the phenomenon of electrical spark. The first five-head WEDM arrived in the United States in December, 1980. In todays WEDM it is possible to program wire to follow a complex path in two axes. Hence, it is possible to use this machine tool for making dies for stamping, fine blanking and extrusion as well as 2-D through holes. It is possible to tilt the wire in position other than perpendicular to X and Y axes. It is possible to perform 3-D cutting using WEDM in which two additional axes have been introduced. The drive motors which tilt the wire towards the front or back and left or right are controlled by the programmed commands in CNC WEDM.

1.2 PRINCIPLE OF WEDM

WEDM is a process of repetitive sparking cycles. A series of electrical pulses generated by pulse generator unit is applied between the work-piece and travelling wire electrode. During spark discharge, there is flow of current across the wire electrode-work piece gap. Energy contained in tiny spark discharge removes a fraction of work material. Duration of each spark is very short. Large number of such time spaced tiny discharges between the work piece and wire electrode cause the electro-erosion of work piece material. The entire cycle time is usually few micro-seconds. The frequency of sparking
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is as high as thousands of sparks per second. The area over which a spark is effective is also very small. However, temperature of the area under the spark is very high. As a result, the spark energy is capable of partly melting and partly vaporizing material from localized area on both the electrodes, i.e. work piece and tool. The material is removed in form of craters which spread over the entire surface of the work piece. Particles eroded from the electrode are known as debris. Figure 1.1 illustrates the various terminologies of WEDM cycle.

Fig. 1.1 An illustration of on-time, off-time, pulse-time and duty cycle. In this process a pulsed DC power supply is applied between work-piece and wire electrode. It results in the intense electrical field at the location where surface irregularity provides the narrowest gap. Negatively charged particles (electrons) break from the cathode surface and move towards the anode surface under the influence of electric field forces. During this movement in inter-electrode gap, the electrons collide with the neutral molecules of dielectric, which is injected from a nozzle in the machining area. In this process, electrons are also detached from these neutral molecules of the dielectric resulting in still more ionization. The ionization soon becomes so intense that a very narrow channel of continuous conductivity is established. In this channel, there is a continuous flow of considerable number of electrons towards the anode and that of ions towards the cathode. Their kinetic energy is converted into heat energy, resulting in heating of anode due to the bombardment of electrons and heating of cathode due to the
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bombardment of ions. Thus, it ends up in a momentary current impulse resulting in a discharge which may be an arc or a spark. The spark energy raises the localized temperature of the wire electrode and work piece to such a high value that it results either in melting, or melting as well as vaporization of small amount of material from the surface of both electrodes at the point of spark contact. In fact, due to evaporation of dielectric the pressure in the plasma channel rises to a very high value (say, 200 atm.) and it prevents the evaporation of superheated metal. As soon as the off- time of pulse starts, the pressure drops instantaneously allowing the superheated metal to evaporate. The amount of metal eroded from the work piece and wire electrode will depend upon the contributions of electrons and ions, respectively.

1.3 WORKING OF WEDM

WEDM is a specialized thermal machining process capable of accurately machining parts which have varying hardness, complex shapes and sharp edges that are very difficult to be machined by traditional machining methods. The practical technology of WEDM process is based on the conventional EDM sparking phenomenon utilizing the widely accepted non-contact technique of material removal. In WEDM material is eroded from the work piece by a series of discrete sparks occurring between work piece and wire electrode separated by a stream of dielectric fluid, which is continuously fed to the machining zone with the help of nozzle. Figure 1.2 shows schematic representation of WEDM machining process. The dielectric fluid is used to remove debris and heat from the machining zone. The dielectric fluid which is used in this process is de-ionized water which has low viscosity, no fire hazards, high cooling rate and high MRR. That is why water is used as dielectric in most of the WEDM system. However, todays WEDM process is commonly conducted on work pieces that are totally submerged in tanks filled with the dielectric fluid. Such submerged method of WEDM promotes temperature stabilization and efficient flushing especially where the work piece has varying thickness. The WEDM process makes use of electrical energy generating a channel of plasma between the cathode and anode and turns it into thermal energy at a temperature in the range of 8000-12000 C or as high as 20000 C initializing a substantial amount of melting and vaporizing of material on the surface of each pole. When the pulsating direct

current power supply occurring between 20000 and 30000 Hz is turned off, the plasma channel breaks down. This causes a sudden reduction in temperature allowing the circulating dielectric fluid to implore the plasma channel and flush the molten particles from the pole surfaces in the form of debris.

Fig. 1.2 Schematic representation of WEDM cutting process. WEDM uses a thin wire continuously feeding through the work piece, which enables part of complex shapes to be machined with high accuracy. A varying degree of taper ranging from 15 for a 100 mm thick to 30 for a 400 mm thick work piece can also be obtained on the work surface. The servo system maintains the gap between wire and the work piece which varies from 0.025 to 0.05 mm. WEDM power supply senses the voltage between the electrodes and then sends the relevant signals to the servo system which maintains a desired gap between the electrodes. WEDM eliminates the need for pre-shaped electrodes, which are commonly required in EDM to perform the roughing and finishing operation. In the case of WEDM, the wire has to make several machining
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passes along the profile to be machined to obtain the required dimensional accuracy and surface finish quality. The dimensional accuracy is of the order of 7 m or even lower in some cases. WEDM uses de-ionized water instead of hydro-carbon oil as dielectric fluid. The de-ionized water is not suitable for conventional EDM as it causes rapid electrode wear, but its low viscosity and rapid cooling rate make it ideal for WEDM. Filtration of dielectric fluid before re-circulation is highly essential so that a change in its insulation qualities during the process is minimal.

1.4 WIRE-CUT EDM MACHINE

There are four basic elements of WEDM machine tool, the power supply system, the positioning system, the drive system and the dielectric system. All the four basic sub systems are distinct from conventional EDM.

1.4.1 Power Supply System

WEDM power supply system comprises of electric pulse generator, motor driver units for positioning system and CNC controller. It differs from conventional EDM power supply system basically in pulse frequency which is about 1 MHz that results in reduced crater size and better surface finish. Such high frequency ensures that each spark removes as little material as possible, thus reducing the size of crater. The diameter of wire in WEDM is small that limits its current carrying capacity to a small value. Due to this limitation, the WEDM power supplies are really built to deliver not more than 20A of current. Power supply converts alternating current (AC) into pulsed direct current (DC) to produce sparks between the wire electrode and work piece. It is also capable to control the parameters like voltage, current, duration and frequency of pulse, duty cycle and electrode polarity.

1.4.2 Positioning System

Usually positioning system is a CNC two axes table. However, it operates in adaptive control mode so that in case wire approaches very near to the work piece, or the gap is bridged by debris and causes short circuit, the positioning system should be capable to sense it. Instantaneously, it should move back to re-establish proper cutting conditions in the gap. The WEDM machine tool (figure 1.4) comprises of main work
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table (X, Y) on which the work piece is clamped, an auxiliary table (U-V) and wire drive mechanism. The main table moves along X and Y axes, in steps of 5 micron, by means of servo motors, and also the U-V table in steps of 5 micron, by means of servo motors. U & V axes are parallel to X & Y axes respectively. As material removal or machining proceeds, the work table carrying the work piece is displaced transversally along a predetermined path which is stored in the controller. The path specifications can be supplied to the controller through floppy disk from part programming system or directly through the controller key board.

Fig. 1.3 Schematic representation of WEDM machine positioning system.

1.4.3 Wire Drive System

A travelling wire which is continuously fed from spool is caused to travel through the work piece and goes finally to the waste-wire box. Along its travelling path, the wire is supported under tension, between a pair of guides which are disposed on both sides of work piece. Lower wire guide is stationary whereas the upper wire guide is supported by
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U-V table. The upper wire guide can be displaced transversally, along U-V axes, with respect to the lower wire guide. It can also be positioned vertically along Z axis by moving the vertical arm. In order to produce taper machining, the wire electrode has to be tilted. This is achieved by displacing the upper wire guide with respect to the lower wire guide. The desired taper angle is achieved by simultaneous control of movement of X-Y table and UV table along their respective predetermined paths stored in the controller. The path information of X-Y table and U-V table is given to the controller in terms of linear and circular elements via NC program. This system serves two purposes continuously delivers fresh wire, and always keeps the wire under tension so that it moves in the machining zone as a straight wire. The latter requirement is important from the point of view of quality of machined surface. It also minimizes the wire-breaks during machining. As it moves towards take up spool, the wire passes through series of tensioning rollers.

1.4.4 Dielectric System

The dielectric system consists of dielectric fluid, reservoir, filters, pump and delivery devices. While the machining is continued, the machining zone is continuously flushed with water passing through nozzles on both sides of the work piece. The spark discharge across the work piece and wire electrode causes ionization of the water which is used as dielectric medium. 1.4.4.1 Purpose of dielectric Dielectric fluid plays an important role in the WEDM process. Because of a high dielectric strength, the dielectric medium prevents premature discharge between the electrodes until a low discharge gap is established between them. Continuous dielectric flow in the discharge gap helps in carrying away the debris formed during the discharge and ensures a proper flushing. Also, dielectric medium cools the machining zone by carrying away excess heat from the tool electrode and the work piece.

1.4.4.2 Properties of dielectric The most important properties of dielectric are its dielectric strength, viscosity, thermal conductivity and thermal capacity. Dielectric strength characterizes the fluids ability to maintain high resistivity before spark discharge and the ability to recover rapidly after the discharge. High dielectric strength leads to a lower discharge gap which in turn leads to a low gap resistance. Hence, high discharge currents may flow leading to a higher material removal rate. Also, fluids with high dielectric strength need lower time for the recovery of dielectric strength. Thus, low pulse-off times are sufficient. This not only improves the MRR but also provides better cutting efficiency because of a reduced probability of arcing. Liquids with low viscosity generally provide better accuracies because of a better flow ability of the oil leading to improved flushing. Also, the sideward expansion of the discharge plasma channel is restricted by high viscosity fluids. This focuses the discharge energy over a small region and leads to a deeper crater which reduces the surface finish. Dielectric fluids with high thermal conductivity and thermal heat capacity can easily carry away excess heat from the discharge spot and lead to a lower thermal damage. 1.4.4.3 Types of dielectric Selection of dielectric medium is an important consideration for WEDM performance. Mineral oils are commonly used as the dielectric medium for die sinking EDM operations. Mineral oils exhibiting high dielectric strength and a low viscosity are preferred because of their higher performance. For safety reasons oils with a high flash point are usually used. Kerosene is one such oil which is used commonly for EDM. Water based dielectrics are used almost extensively for WEDM operations. Water has a high specific heat capacity which leads to a better cooling effect required for wire cut operations. To prevent chemical reactions, de-ionized water is used in such applications. In comparison to mineral oils and water, air has the lowest dielectric strength, viscosity, thermal conductivity and thermal capacity. A low viscosity air medium favors higher cutting accuracy and better surface finish. However, low dielectric constant suggests a lower MRR with air medium. Low thermal capacity and thermal conductivity suggests higher thermal damage of work piece. Overall it seems that using air as dielectric may be
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a better alternative for improving some of the process performance such as surface finish and accuracy at the expense of the MRR.

1.5 FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE ROUGHNESS

The effect of some important input parameters on Surface roughness (SR), material removal rate and accuracy is discussed below.

1.5.1 Discharge Current

The discharge current is a measure of the power supplied to the discharge gap. A higher current leads to a higher pulse energy and formation of deeper discharge craters. This increases the surface roughness (SR) value. Similar effect on SR is produced when the gap voltage is increased.

1.5.2 Pulse-On Time

Machining takes place only during the pulse-on time. When the wire electrode is at negative potential, material removal from the anode (work piece) takes place by bombardment of high energy electrons ejected from the wire surface. At the same time positive ions move towards the cathode. When pulses with small on times are used, material removal by electron bombardment is predominant due to the higher response rate of the less massive electrons. However, when longer pulses are used, energy sharing by the positive ions is predominant and the material removal rate decreases. When the electrode polarities are reversed, longer pulses are found to produce higher SR.

1.5.3 Pulse-Off Time

A non-zero pulse off time is a necessary requirement for WEDM operation. Discharge between the electrodes leads to ionization of the spark gap. Before another spark can take place, the medium must de-ionize and regain its dielectric strength. This takes some finite time and power must be switched off during this time. Too low values of pulse-off time may lead to short-circuits and arcing. A large value on the other hand
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increases the overall machining time since no machining can take place during the offtime. The SR is found to depend strongly on the spark frequency. When high frequency sparks are used lower values of SR are observed. It is so because the energy available in a given amount of time is shared by a larger number of sparks leading to shallower discharge craters.

1.5.4 Flushing Pressure of Dielectric

Apart from the electrical parameters, pressure of the dielectric may have an effect on the process performance during WEDM. Velocity of the dielectric jet is directly proportional to the inlet dielectric pressure. A high velocity gas jet would lead to better flushing of debris from the discharge gap thus improving surface finishing values. Forced flow of dielectric also helps in reducing the time required for recovery of dielectric strength of the medium since fresh and previously non-ionized medium is continuously supplied to the gap. This leads to higher process stability. Also, it is found that the dielectric strength of dielectric is dependent on the pressure and increases with an increase in the pressure.

1.5.5 Wire Tension Setting

This is the gram equivalent load with which the continuously fed wire is kept under tension so that it remains straight between the wire guides. While the wire is being fed continuously appropriate wire tension avoids the wire deflection from its straight path. The wire deflection is caused due to spark induced reaction forces and dielectric pressure. 1.6 CAUSES OF UNSTABLE MACHINING IN WEDM The different reasons for unstable machining are as follows:1. Insufficient wire tension or variation in tension during machining 2. Improper setting of gap voltage 3. Unstable dielectric flow 4. Scratches of wire guides, energizing current pickups and nozzles 5. Insufficient dielectric cooling of the energizing current pickup

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6. Insufficient dielectric flow on contact area of lower energizing current pickup and wire 7. Loose electrical connections of the work tank 8. Conductivity is either high or low than required 9. Improper flushing of debris during machining which causes short circuits

1.7 ADVANTAGES OF WEDM PROCESSES 1. Tool manufacturing and storage is not required. 2. Inspection time is reduced, due to single piece construction of dies with high positioning accuracy. 3. Cycle time is shorter for die manufacturer, as whole work is done on one machine. 4. Heat treatment distortions are totally avoided. 5. Economical, even for small batch production, including prototypes, as most of the programming can be done easily. 6. Unmanned machining operations are possible. 7. It can cut hardened materials. 8. Intricate shapes can be cut easily. 9. Very small kerfs width and cutting forces with high accuracy and good surface finish. 10. Avoids rejection, due to initial planning and checking the program.

1.8 DISADVANTAGES OF WEDM PROCESSES 1. Higher capital cost of machine setup 2. Recast layer 3. Electrolysis can occur in some materials 4. Slow cutting rates 5. Not applicable to very large work piece 6. Not applicable for non conductive materials

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1.9 APPLICATIONS OF WEDM PROCESSES:The process is ideal for stamping die components. It is often possible to fabricate punch as well in same cut. Other tools and parts with intricate outline shapes such as lathe form tools, extrusion dies, flat templates and almost any complicated shapes can be produced. It has been extensively used for machining of exotic materials used in aero space industries, refractory metals and hard carbides. It is possible to control tolerances very effectively. The process is also used for fabrication of press tools and electrodes for use in other areas of EDM.

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CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is a specialized thermal machining process capable of accurately machining parts of hard materials with complex shapes. Parts having sharp edges that pose difficulties to be machined by the main stream machining processes can be easily machined by WEDM process. Technology of the WEDM process is based on the conventional EDM sparking phenomenon utilizing the widely accepted noncontact technique of material removal with a difference that spark is generated at wire and work piece gap. Since the introduction of the process, WEDM has evolved as a simple means of making tools and dies to the best alternative of producing micro-scale parts with the highest degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. The main goals of WEDM manufacturers and users are to achieve a better stability and higher productivity of the WEDM process. As newer and more exotic materials are developed, and more complex shapes are presented, conventional machining operations will continue to reach their limitations and the increased use of the WEDM in manufacturing will continue to grow at an accelerated rate. In recent years an extensive research has been carried out on WEDM relating to improving performance measures, optimizing the process variables, monitoring and controlling the sparking process, simplifying the wire design and manufacture, improving spark efficiency by various researchers. Some of the work related to the present study is discussed in the following paragraphs. Williams and Rajurkar [1991] described that the main goals of WEDM manufacturers and users are to achieve a better stability and high productivity of the process i.e. higher machining rate with desired accuracy and minimal surface damage. Surface roughness profiles were studied with stochastic modeling and analysis methodology to better understand the process mechanism. Scanning electron microscopic examination highlighted important features of machined surfaces in WEDM.

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Dauw and Albert [1992] reported an analysis of the six contributing factors. Attention is given in particular to one of these factors, the wire tool itself. Tine several types of wire are compared from their metallurgical aspect. Their physical composition and relative performance are analyzed and a cost to performance ratio is given for a series of wires considered. As a conclusion, it is shown that the wire tool, although often considered as an evident EDM accessory has influenced very substantially the EDM wire cutting performance. Since the commercial introduction of wire EDM on the market, end 1969 begins 1970, the overall performance of the wire EDM has undergone a tremendous evolution. Six major contributing factors have been responsible for this important change. One of these, the wire tool electrode has been improving substantially yielding an enormous increase of the overall performance (cutting speed, cutting accuracy, precision, cost etc). Prasad and Mishra [1993] determined the temperature distribution in the material of the wire in order to predict failure due to thermal load. In the present work, a simple computational model is developed which will give the temperature values for varying magnitudes of parameters, viz., input power, pulse-on time, wire velocity

and wire diameter. It is reported that the optimum control of these parameters will help in preventing thermal failure, thus obtaining better utilization of the process. A finitedifference thermal model to predict the temperature distribution along the wire for the WEDM process in the zone of the discharge channel is proposed. The power is presumed to be dissipated in a single spark through a volumetric heat source present within the wire over the discharge channel width, which, in turn, is calculated from the available literature. The temperature distributions are calculated by varying the values of different pertinent parameters: input power (50300 W), pulse-on time (10200 s), wire velocity (0.510 m/min) and wire diameter (0.10.3 mm). Luo [1995] analyzed the technical requirements of fast-cutting WEDM. Based on a synthesis of experimental results and pulse energy analysis, an energy-distribution diagram concerning the correlation between cutting speed and comprehensive machining conditions has been established to determine a suitable parameter combination for a stable fast-cutting process. High power density and high pulse density are found to be
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two basic requirements for a constant high cutting speed. Harmful energy loss has to be reduced; otherwise the wire temperature becomes too high due to the dissipated heat. According to the energy-distribution diagram, machining conditions such as cutting width, wire diameter and wire travelling speed are also considered in increasing the cutting speed. After an optimization of the energy distribution in fast-cutting WEDM, a 4-fold improvement in cutting speed has been achieved whilst the wire service life remains almost unchanged. The achievements described have practical significance in enhancing die productivity as well as in transferring WEDM into a general cutting alternative. Spedding and Wang [1997] made an attempt at modeling the process through Response Surface Methodology and Artificial Neural Networks. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) technology has been used widely in production, aerospace/aircraft, medical and virtually all areas of conductive material machining. Its complexity and stochastic nature have stimulated numerous attempts to model it accurately. A response surface model based on a central composite rotatable experimental design, and a 4-16-3 size back-propagation neural network has been developed. The pulse-width, the time between two pulses, the wire mechanical tension and the injection set-point are selected as the factors (input parameters); whilst the cutting speed, the surface roughness and the surface waviness are the responses (output parameters). The two models are compared for goodness of fit. Verification experiments have been carried out to check the validity of the developed models. It is concluded that both models provide accurate results for the process. Magara et al [1998] carried out an investigation on the dynamic wire vibration mechanism and a mathematical model was derived. This model is compared with experimental results. The measured displacement of a wire electrode in machining a thin plate is analyzed with impulsive force measured through impulse response by a single discharge. The force acting on the wire depends on the direction of the wire movement in vibration. In WEDM, it is very important to restrain the vibration of the wire electrode for the improvement of machining accuracy. A 3rd order system equation for the WEDM system is derived considering material removal and vibrational features of the
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system. As the discharge circuit suddenly changes according to gap condition, this vibration system is essentially nonlinear. Simulation of WEDM is performed with the modelled system. Huang et al [1999] made an attempt to unveil the influence of the machining parameters (pulse-on time, pulse-off time, table feed-rate, flushing pressure, distance between wire periphery and work piece surface) on the machining performance of WEDM in finish cutting operations. The gap width, the surface roughness and the white layer depth of the machined work piece surface are measured and evaluated. Based on the Taguchi quality design method and numerical analysis, it is found that the pulse-on time and the distance between the wire periphery and the work piece surface are two significant factors affecting the machining performance. Mathematical models relating machining parameters and performance are established by regression and non-linear programming using the Feasible-direction algorithm to obtain the optimal machining parameters. A strategy of optimal multi-cut WEDM process planning from rough to finish cutting operations, including the number of machining operations and their corresponding machining-parameters setting for each operation, has been proposed. Experimental results show that the proposed approach can achieve better performance than that achieved by a well-skilled operator. A better surface quality and dimensional accuracy value can be obtained in less machining time. Puri and Bhattacharya [2003] carried out an extensive study of wire lag phenomenon in WEDM and established the trend of variation of geometrical inaccuracy caused due to wire lag with various machine control parameters. In this research study, all the machine control parameters are considered simultaneously for machining operation which comprised a rough cut followed by a trim cut. The objective of study was to carry out an experimental investigation based on the Taguchi method involving thirteen control factors for given machining criteria, such as average cutting speed, surface finish characteristics and geometrical inaccuracy caused due to wire lag. Guo et al [2003] adopted a method of computer simulation to study the vibration of the wire electrode under the action of successive discharges, by which the effect of wire fluctuation on the distribution of the discharge points is also analyzed. In wire
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electric discharge machining, the vibration of the wire electrode has a significant influence on the performance and stability of the machining process. The results show that the discharge points can be distributed much more evenly along the span of the wire when an optimum condition is reached between discharge energy, discharge frequency, wire tension and wire span. Under such a condition, it is possible that the hazard of wire breaking can be avoided. Simao et al [2003] Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a widely used process in the mould / die and aerospace industries. Following a brief summary of the process, the paper reviews published work on the deliberate surface alloying of various work piece materials using EDM. Details are given of operations involving powder metallurgy (PM) tool electrodes and the use of powders suspended in the dielectric fluid, typically aluminium, nickel, titanium, etc. Following this, experimental results are presented on the surface alloying of AISI H13 hot work tool steel during a die sink operation using partially sintered WC / Co electrodes operating in a hydrocarbon oil dielectric. An L8 fractional factorial Taguchi experiment was used to identify the effect of key operating factors on output measures (electrode wear, work piece surface hardness, etc.). With respect to micro hardness, the percentage contribution ratios (PCR) for peak current, electrode polarity and pulse on time were ~24, 20 and 19%, respectively. Typically, changes in surface metallurgy were measured up to a depth of ~30 m (with a higher than normal voltage of ~270 V). Fleischer et al [2004] stated that with the development of wire electrical discharge grinding (WEDG) it has become possible to produce very small electrodes or products like ejection pins or cores for mould inserts. A new field for WEDG is production of milling tools for micro-cutting. The Institute of Production Science of University of Karlsruhe and the Institute of Industrial Science of University of Tokyo, Centre for International Research on Micro-Mechatronics, developed together a way to produce these milling tools in tungsten carbide with CNC controlled EDM machines. This research has shown the potential of the machining of micro-cutting tools with a diameter smaller than 100 m which is at the moment size of smallest commercial milling tool in tungsten carbide by micro-EDM.
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Cogun and Tosun [2004] carried out an investigation on the effect and optimization of machining parameters on the kerf (cutting width) and material removal rate (MRR) in WEDM operations. The experimental studies were conducted under varying pulse duration, open circuit voltage, wire speed and dielectric flushing pressure. The settings of machining parameters were determined by using Taguchi experimental design method. The level of importance of the machining parameters on the cutting kerf and MRR is determined by using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The optimum machining parameter combination was obtained by using the analysis of signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. The variation of kerf and MRR with machining parameters is mathematically modeled by using regression analysis method. The optimal search for machining parameters for the objective of minimum kerf together with maximum MRR is performed by using the established mathematical models. Lung et al [2004] reported results of experiments with ultra thin wires as electrode. An appropriate manufacturing process to cover the growing need for an accurate small tool is electro-discharge-machining with thin wires i.e. WEDM. Until now only a few scientific works have been dealing with cutting by WEDM using wires with a diameter below 50 m. The materials of the wires are tungsten with high tensile strength and melting temperature and brass-coated steel wire. Typical ultra thin wire diameters are 20, 25, 30 and 50 m. The process forcesuntil now often neglectedare becoming significant because of the small tension forces on the wire and the low wire weight. A special set-up to use 20 and 25 m wires with an existing machine which can run wires up to 30 m was designed and constructed. Different wire types and diameters as well as electrical parameters were tested in several series of experiments. The process forces on the thin wires were measured with a special measuring device. The measuring sensor was positioned at the place where the discharges take place and was electrically isolated in order to prevent measuring interference. An electrical circuit was adapted onto the machine in order to allow just one single discharge to occur. The craters were located on the pre-ground work piece surface and their dimensions were measured with an optical microscope.

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Ahmet and ayda [2004] adopted an experimental investigation of the machining characteristics of AISI D5 tool steel in wire electrical discharge machining process. During experiments, parameters such as open circuit voltage, pulse duration, wire speed and dielectric fluid pressure were changed to explore their effect on the surface roughness and metallurgical structure. Optical and scanning electron microscopy, surface roughness and micro hardness tests were used to study the characteristics of the machined specimens. Taking into consideration the experimental results, it is found that the intensity of the process energy does affect the amount of recast and surface roughness as well as micro cracking, the wire speed and dielectric fluid pressure not seeming to have much of an influence. Leao and Pashby [2004] they presented a literature survey on the use of dielectric fluids that provide an alternative to hydrocarbon oil. It has been reported that water-based dielectrics may replace oil-based fluids in die sink applications. Gaseous dielectrics such as oxygen may also be the alternative. Nonetheless, these need further research in order to be commercially viable. Electrical discharge machining became a commercial process after the discovery of the importance of the dielectric fluid, which affects factors such as productivity and quality. Health, safety and environment are also important factors, particularly when oil-based fluids are used.

Hewidy et al [2005] highlighted the development of mathematical models for correlating various WEDM machining parameters of Inconel 601 material such as: peak current, duty factor, wire tension and water pressure with the metal removal rate, wear ratio and surface roughness. This work has been established based on the response surface methodology (RSM). Using WEDM technology, complicated cuts can be made through difficult-to-machine electrically conductive components. The high degree of the obtainable accuracy and the fine surface quality make WEDM valuable. The right selection of the machining conditions is the most important aspect to take into consideration in processes related to the WEDM of Inconel 601 material. Inconel is one of the recent materials that is developed to be hard, strong and temperature resistant.

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Kuriakose and Shunmugam [2005] developed a multiple regression model to represent relationship between input and output variables and a multi-objective optimization method based on a Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) was used to optimize WEDM process. WEDM is one of the important non-traditional machining processes, which is used for machining of difficult-to-machine materials and intricate profiles. Being a complex process, it is very difficult to determine optimal parameters for improving cutting performance. Cutting velocity and surface finish are most important output parameters, which decide the cutting performance. There is no single optimal combination of cutting parameters, as their influences on the cutting velocity and the surface finish are opposite in nature. A non-dominated solution set has been obtained and reported. Mahapatra and Patnaik [2006] described the development of a model and its application to optimize WEDM machining parameters. This paper outlines the development of a model and its application to optimize WEDM machining parameters. Experiments are conducted to test the model and satisfactory results are obtained. The methodology described here is expected to be highly beneficial to manufacturing industries, and also other areas such as aerospace, automobile and tool making industries. Sanchez et al [2006] presented a new approach to the prediction of angular error in wire-EDM taper-cutting. A systematic analysis of the influence of process parameters on angular error is carried out using Design of Experiments (DOE) techniques. A quadratic equation for the prediction of angular error that takes into account electrical parameters and part geometry is derived. Validation results reveal a dominant influence of the mechanical behaviour of the wire, rather than that of EDM regime. Following this assertion an original finite element model (FEM) to describe the mechanical behaviour of soft wires, typically used in taper-cutting operations, has been developed taking into account non-linear phenomena such as contact mechanics, plastic behaviour, stressstiffening and large displacements. Both the results of DOE techniques and FEM simulation have been validated through experimental tests in industrial conditions. Kanlayasiri and Boonmung [2007] presented an investigation of the effects of machining variables on the surface roughness of WEDMed DC53 die steel. In this study,
21

the machining variables investigated were pulse-peak current, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, and wire tension. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique was used to find out the variables affecting the surface roughness. Assumptions of ANOVA were discussed and carefully examined using analysis of residuals. Quantitative testing methods on residual analysis were used in place of the typical qualitative testing techniques. Results from the analysis show that pulse-on time and pulse-peak current are significant variables to the surface roughness of WEDMed DC53 die steel. The surface roughness of the test specimen increases when these two parameters increase. Lastly, a mathematical model was developed using multiple regression method to formulate the pulse-on time and pulse-peak current to the surface roughness. The developed model was validated with a new set of experimental data, and the maximum prediction error of the model was less than 7%. Menzies and Koshy [2008] presented the proof of hybrid WEDM process that utilizes a wire embedded with electrically non-conducting abrasives as machining speed and surface integrity continue to be issues of focus in current WEDM research. Material removal in this process is realized through electrical erosion that is augmented by two body abrasion. This is shown to bring about a significant improvement in removal rate and generate surfaces with minimal recast layer, in comparison to WEDM process. Tehrani and Haddad [2008] carried out a surface roughness (Ra), roundness and material removal rate (MRR) study on the cylindrical wire electrical discharge turning (CWEDT). The material chosen in this case was AISI D3 tool steel due to its growing range of applications in the field of manufacturing tools dies and moulds. This study was conducted only for the finishing stages to investigate the influence of four design factors power, voltage, and pulse off time and spindle rotational speed, over the three previously mentioned response variables. In this case, a 22 32 mixed full factorial design, has been selected considering the number of factors used in the present study. The resolution of this factorial design allows us to estimate all the main effects, factor interactions and pure quadratic effects of the four design factors selected to perform this study. For MRR, Ra and roundness, regression models have been developed by using the response surface methodology (RSM).
22

Yan and Fang [2008] suggested a closed-loop wire tension control system for Micro-WEDM to guarantee a smooth wire transport and a constant tension value. In order to keep smooth wire transportation and avoid wire breakage during wire feeding, the reel roller is modified and the clip reel is removed from the wire transport mechanism. A genetic algorithm-based fuzzy logic controller is proposed to investigate the dynamic performance of the closed-loop wire tension control system. Experimental results demonstrate that the developed wire transport system can result in satisfactory transient response, steady-state response and robustness. Wire tension as well as wire feed should be controlled tightly for the geometry and corner accuracy of WEDM. The proposed genetic algorithm-based fuzzy logic controller can obtain faster transient response and smaller steady-state error than a PI controller. Habib et al [2009] suggested that in WEDM, effective exclusion of debris from the machined kerf is very important to obtain a stable machining performance. The purpose of this study is to investigate the fluid flow in the kerf and better jet flushing conditions of working fluid from the nozzles. The flow field and the debris motion in the kerf were analyzed by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation, comparing with the observation by high-speed video camera. The influence of flow rate of working fluid from nozzles and the nozzle stand-off distance on flow field in the kerf and debris particle motion were discussed. Newton et al [2009] conducted on an experimental investigation to determine the main WEDM parameters which contribute to recast layer formation in Inconel 718. It was found that average recast layer thickness increased primarily with energy per spark, peak discharge current, and current pulse duration. Over the range of parameters tested, the recast layer was observed to be between 5 and 9 m in average thickness, although highly variable in nature. The recast material was found to possess in-plane tensile residual stresses, as well as lower hardness and elastic modulus than the bulk material. Inconel 718 is a high nickel content super alloy possessing high strength at elevated temperatures and resistance to oxidation and corrosion. The non-traditional manufacturing process of wire-electrical discharge machining (WEDM) possesses many advantages over traditional machining during the manufacture of Inconel 718 parts.
23

However, certain detrimental effects are also present and are due in large part to the formation of the recast layer. Eva et al [2009] presented the design and development of a real-time monitoring and diagnostic system for diagnosing the degraded behaviour in wire-electro discharge machining (WEDM). The detection in advance of the degraded behaviour is crucial since this can lead to the breakage of the cutting tool (the wire), reducing the process productivity and the required accuracy. This work presents the design and development of a real-time monitoring system that alerts the degraded behaviour. It can detect different types of degraded behaviours that have been previously identified during the analysis phase. The present paper proposes a flexible real-time platform based on a commercial data acquisition board that can be easily configured for different purposes. It has been applied to develop a real-time monitoring and diagnostic system that uses virtual sensors to diagnose the degradation of the process. The results of this work show a satisfactory performance of the presented approach. Singh and Garg [2009] investigated the effects of various process parameters of WEDM like pulse on time (TON), pulse off time (TOFF), gap voltage (SV), peak current (IP), wire feed (WF) and wire tension (WT) to reveal their impact on material removal rate of hot die steel (H-11) using one variable at a time approach. The optimal set of process parameters has also been predicted to maximize the material removal rate. Hassan et al [2009] conducted experimental work to quantify the effect of some of the main WEDM parameters on the surface texture of AISI 4140 steel. 2D surface measurements were taken on all WEDM samples and 2D surface characterization has been carried out in order to calculate the different surface texture parameters. In this work, the surface characteristics caused by WEDM were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) The Wire Electro Discharge Machining (WEDM) process is a violent thermal process where literally thousands of electrical discharges are produced in a fraction of a second in order to erode a certain volume of metal. The process is most used in situations where intricate complex shapes need to be machined in very hard materials (such as hardened tool steel). However, the process generates surfaces that have poor

24

properties such as high tensile residual stresses, presence of micro-cracks and microvoids. These properties vary with different levels of the main machining parameters. Yan and Liu [2009] described the development of a high-frequency power supply for surface quality improvement of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM). A novel fixed pulse-width modulation pulse control method is proposed to generate highfrequency and short-duration pulse control signals. A spark gap model using a resistance capacitance (RC) circuit and a Zener diode is proposed for circuit design and simulation analysis. Tests revealed that the developed power supply using anti-electrolysis circuitry and digital signal processor-based pulse control circuit can provide very low discharge energy pulses with a frequency of 4.4 MHz, discharge duration of 90 ns and a peak current of 1.2 A. Experimental results demonstrate that a pulse duration ratio (defined as a ratio between pulse duration of positive polarity and that of negative polarity) of three can reduce the electrolytic effect of tungsten carbide for the machining conditions of high discharge frequency beyond 500 kHz. Tomura and Kunieda [2009] clarified the mechanism of electromagnetic force applied to the wire electrode in WEDM. This electromagnetic force is caused not only by DC component but also by AC components of the discharge current supplied to the wire. They developed and used a two-dimensional finite element method (FEM) program to analyze the electromagnetic field taking into account electromagnetic induction. Assuming that trapezoidal pulse current is supplied to the wire distributions of the current density and magnetic flux density were analyzed and changes in the electromagnetic force applied to the wire were calculated. Wire movement when the electromagnetic force alone was applied to the wire was also calculated. The calculated wire movement agreed with the measured wire movement when pulse current actually used in WEDM was supplied to the wire, clarifying the mechanism of electromagnetic force generation.

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CHAPTER-3 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY (RSM) AND CENTRAL COMPOSITE DESIGN

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO RSM

Response surface methodology (RSM) is defined as a collection of mathematical and statistical methods that are used to develop, improve, or optimize a product or process. The method was introduced by Box and Wilson in 1951. The main idea of RSM is to use a sequence of designed experiments to obtain an optimal response. It comprises statistical experimental designs, regression modelling techniques, and optimization methods. Most applications of RSM involve experimental situations where several independent (or control) variables potentially impact one or more response variable. The independent variables are controlled by the experimenter, in a designed experiment, while the response variable is an observed output of the experiment. Fig. 3.1 illustrates the estimated relationship between a response variable and the two independent variables x1 and x2.

Fig. 3.1 An example of a response surface.

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In many applications of RSM, a sequential process is performed. At the start, a researcher may have numerous control factors that are being studied. In order to determine initially which of these factors has an impact on the response variable, a screening design is often performed. This will potentially reduce the number of factors that need to be investigated in further experimentation. A researcher hopes to eliminate unimportant factors before investing time and money in a more elaborate experiment (i.e., second-order design). An existing screening design can also be augmented with additional design points in order to estimate a second-order (or response surface) model. Another potential step in RSM is the method of steepest ascent. This is an optimization technique that will allow one to move iteratively toward an optimum set of experimental conditions. This is often implemented when the researcher is initially experimenting in a suboptimal region. It would not be very prudent to invest in a largeand perhaps costlyexperiment unless one feels that the region of optimum is either inside the design region or very close to the periphery. After a region of interest has been defined, a second-order (or response surface) design is used to estimate a second-order model. This provides an approximation of the true response surface over the region of interest, allows the optimum operating conditions to be chosen, and permits one to gain a better understanding of the estimated response surface. The most extensive applications of RSM are in the particular situations where several input variables potentially influence some performance measure or quality characteristic of the process. This performance measure or quality characteristic is called the response. The input variables are sometimes called independent variables, and they are subject to the control of the scientist or engineer. The field of response surface methodology consists of the experimental strategy for exploring the space of the process or independent variables, empirical statistical modelling to develop an appropriate approximating relationship between the yield and the process variables, and optimization methods for finding the values of the process variables that produce desirable values of the response. In this report we will concentrate on the second strategy: statistical

27

modelling to develop an appropriate approximating model between the response y and independent variables, 1, 2,,k In general, the relationship is y = f (1, 2,,k.) + (3.1)

Where the form of the true response function f is unknown and perhaps very complicated, and is a term that represents other sources of variability not accounted for in f. Usually includes effects such as measurement error on the response, background noise, the effect of other variables, and so on. Usually is treated as a statistical error, often assuming it to have a normal distribution with mean zero and variance 2. Then E(y) = = E [f (1, 2,,k.)] + E () = f (1, 2,,k.) (3.2)

The variables 1, 2,,k in Equation (3.2) are usually called the natural variables, because they are expressed in the natural units of measurement, such as degrees Celsius, pounds per square inch, etc. In much RSM work it is convenient to transform the natural variables to coded variables X1, X2Xk, which are usually defined to be dimensionless with mean zero and the same standard deviation. In terms of the coded variables, the response function (3.2) will be written as =f (X1, X2Xk) (3.3)

Because the form of the true response function f is unknown, we must approximate it. In fact, successful use of RSM is critically dependent upon the experimenters ability to develop a suitable approximation for f. Usually, a low-order polynomial in some relatively small region of the independent variable space is appropriate. In many cases, either a first-order or a second order model is used. The first-order model is likely to be appropriate when the experimenter is interested in approximating the true response surface over a relatively small region of the independent variable space in a location where there is little curvature in f. For the case of two independent variables, the firstorder model in terms of the coded variables is = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2
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(3.4)

The form of the first-order model in Equation (3.4) is sometimes called main effects model, because it includes only the main effects of the two variables X1 and X2. If there is an interaction between these variables, it can be added to the model easily as follows: = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 12 X1X2 (3.5)

This is the first-order model with interaction. Adding the interaction term introduces curvature into the response function. Often the curvature in the true response surface is strong enough that the first-order model (even with the interaction term included) is inadequate. A second-order model will likely be required in these situations. For the case of two variables, the second-order model is = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 11 X12 + 22 X22 + 12 X1X2 (3.6)

This model would likely be useful as an approximation to the true response surface in a relatively small region. The second-order model is widely used in response surface methodology for several reasons 1. The second-order model is very flexible. It can take on a wide variety of functional forms, so it will often work well as an approximation to the true response surface. 2. It is easy to estimate the parameters (the s) in the second-order model. The method of least squares can be used for this purpose. 3. There is considerable practical experience indicating that second-order models work well in solving real response surface problems.

3.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN RSM

The following steps are involved in RSM for developing an empirical model through a sequential program of experimentation 1. At first some ideas are generated concerning which factors or variables are likely to be important in response surface study. It is usually called a screening experiment. The objective of factor screening is to reduce the list of candidate variables to a
29

relatively few so that subsequent experiments will be more efficient and require fewer runs or tests. The purpose of this phase is the identification of the important independent variables. 2. The experimenters objective is to determine if the current settings of the independent variables result in a value of the response that is near the optimum. If the current settings or levels of the independent variables are not consistent with optimum performance, then the experimenter must determine a set of adjustments to the process variables that will move the process towards the optimum. This phase of RSM makes considerable use of the first-order model and an optimization technique called the method of steepest ascent (descent). The first step in obtaining the optimum response settings, after the important factors have been identified, is to explore the region around the current operating conditions to decide what direction needs to be taken to move towards the optimum region. Usually, a first order regression model (containing just the main effects and no interaction terms) is sufficient at the current operating conditions because the operating conditions are normally far from the optimum response settings. The experimenter needs to move from the current operating conditions to the optimum region in the most efficient way by using the minimum number of experiments. This is done using the method of steepest ascent. In this method, the contour plot of the first order model is used to decide the settings for the next experiment, in order to move towards the optimum conditions. 3. At this point the experimenter usually wants a model that will accurately approximate the true response function within a relatively small region around the optimum. Because the true response surface usually exhibits curvature near the optimum, a second-order model (or perhaps some higher-order polynomial) should be used. Once an appropriate approximating model has been obtained, this model may be analyzed to determine the optimum conditions for the process. This sequential experimental process is usually performed within some region of the independent variable space called the operability region or experimentation region or region of interest. It is possible that a number of responses may have to be optimized at the same time. For example, an experimenter may want to maximize strength, while keeping the number
30

of defects to a minimum. The optimum settings for each of the responses in such cases may lead to conflicting settings for the factors. A balanced setting has to be found that gives the most appropriate values for all the responses.

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF RSM

1. RSM offers a large amount of information from a small number of experiments. Indeed, classical methods are time consuming and a large number of experiments are needed to explain the behavior of a system. 2. In RSM it is possible to observe the interaction effect of the independent parameters on the response. 3. It ensures the difference between predicted response and the observed response is as small as possible. 4. It allows design to be built up sequentially. 5. It provides for pure error estimation. 6. It requires a minimum number of design points. 7. It gives a satisfactory distribution of information throughout the region of interest.

3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF RSM

1. Large variations in factors can be misleading (errors, no replication). 2. Critical factors may not be correctly defined or specified. 3. Range of levels of factors to be narrow or wide--optimum cannot be defined. 4. Over reliance on computersmake sure the results make good sense.

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF RSM

To determine the factor levels that will simultaneously satisfy a set of desired specifications To determine the optimum combination of factors, that yields a desired response and describes the response near the optimum

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To determine how a specific response is affected by changes in the level of the factors over the specified levels of interest To achieve a quantitative understanding of the system behaviour over the region tested To produce product properties throughout the region - even at factor combinations not actually run To find conditions for process stability In recent years it is being applied successfully in other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, and economy

3.6 CENTRAL COMPOSITE DESIGN

The most popular response surface design is the central composite design (CCD). A CCD has three groups of design points: (a) Factorial points (b) Axial points (c) Center points

CCD's are designed to estimate the coefficients of a quadratic model. All point descriptions are in terms of coded values of the factors. 3.6.1. Factorial Points The two-level factorial part of the design consists of all possible combinations of the +1 and -1 levels of the factors. For the two factor case there are four design points: (1, -1) (+1, -1) (-1, +1) (+1, +1). 3.6.2. Star or Axial Points The star points have all of the factors set to 0, the midpoint, except one factor, which has the value +/- Alpha. For a two factor problem, the star points are (-Alpha, 0), (+Alpha, 0), (0, -Alpha), (0, +Alpha)

32

The value of alpha determines the location of the star points in a central composite design. Its expressed in terms of the coded values assigned to the low and high levels of the factors: from (-1 to 1). Alpha is usually somewhat larger than 1. There are several ways of calculating an appropriate alpha, based on the statistical property to be optimized.

Spherical: This will produce a design where the axial points lie in a sphere with the factorial points.

Orthogonal Quadratic: Another alpha value applies when the design is blocked. It will try to make the blocks orthogonal to the independent factors in the second degree model so the blocks will not influence their determination. Orthogonality means that the model terms and block effects can be estimated independently with no correlation.

Rotatable: Rotatability implies that the variation in the response predicted by a model will be constant at a given distance from the center of the design.

Face Centered: Setting alpha equal to 1 creates a Face-centered central composite design. This is desirable because it is only a three-level design, and ensures that the axial runs will not be any more extreme values than the factorial portion. The value for Alpha is calculated in each design for both rotatability and

orthogonality of blocks. The experimenter can choose between these values or enter a different one. The default value is set to the rotatable value. Another position for the star points is at the face of the cube portion on the design. This is commonly referred to as a face-centred central composite design. We can create this by setting the alpha value equal to one, or choosing the Face Centred option. This design only requires three levels for each factor.

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Fig. 3.2 Schematic representation of central composite design (CCD).

3.6.3. Centre Points Centre points, as implied by the name, are points with all levels set to coded level 0 -- the midpoint of each factor range: (0, 0). Center points are usually repeated 4-6 times to get a good estimate of experimental error (pure error). A central composite design (CCD) is a type of response surface design that will give us very good predictions in the middle of the design space. The factorial points contribute to the estimation of linear terms and two-factor interactions. Factorial points are the only points which contribute to estimation of the interaction terms. The axial points contribute to the estimation of quadratic terms. In the absence of axial points, only the sum of the quadratic terms can be estimated. The centre runs provide an internal estimate of pure error and contribute towards the estimation of quadratic terms. The number of factorial runs depends on the type of factorial design used and the number of factors. A minimum design resolution is required for the factorial fraction. For a full factorial, there are 2 k factorial points. The number of axial points is 2k and the number of centre runs depends on the number of factors. For up to four factors, three to five centre runs are sufficient. Higher number of centre runs is preferable if there are more than four factors. The axial points lie at a distance of from the centre point (zero level for all factors). The value of generally varies from 1 to k. In the 34

coded space, axial points are obtained by taking level for one factor and the zero level for all other factors. Each factor is varied over five levels: (axial points), 1 (factorial points) and the centre point.

3.6.4 Blocking in Central Composite Designs Central composite designs may be carried out in blocks. Blocking is advantageous when all of the experiments cannot be carried out in one day or with one batch of material. The factorial points can be divided in such a way that the blocked effect is eliminated before computation of the model. The first one or more blocks consist of the factorial design with some center points. The remaining block consists of the star points with additional center points. Blocking schemes vary depending on the design and the number of factors. A sample blocking selection for a central composite design with 4 factors is shown below. 1 Block: 30 experiments 2 Blocks: 20 experiments, 10 experiments 3 Blocks: 10 exp., 10 exp., 10 exp. 1 block is really no blocking. 2 blocks split the design into the factorial portion and the star points. For 3 blocks the factorial design portion is split into two blocks while the star points make up the third block.

3.7 STEPS IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1. Defining the independent input variables and desired responses with the design constraints. 2. Adopting the CCD to plan the experimental design. 3. Performing the regression analysis with the quadratic model of response surface f. 4. Calculating the statistical analysis for the independent input variables and finding which parameter significantly affects the desired responses.

5. Obtaining the optimal design parameters with the design constraints. 6. Conducting confirmation experiment and verifying the optimal design parameters settings.
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CHAPTER-4 EXPERIMENTATION
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
RSM methodology with central composite design is selected for experimentation. In this work four factors are taken as input parameters, and the effect of these parameters on SR is ascertained. The details of RSM and central composite design are given in chapter 3.

4.2 PROCESS PARAMETERS FOR STUDY

There are various process parameters of WEDM affecting the machining characteristics. On the basis of literature review and some pilot investigations (not reported here), the following process parameters have been selected for study in the range shown in table 4.1
Table 4.1 Process parameters with their ranges.

S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Input Parameters Pulse on time (Ton) Pulse off time (Toff) Peak current (IP) Servo voltage (SV)

Range 100-135 machine units 30-65 machine units 70-230 Amps 10-70 Volts

4.3 MACHINE TOOL

The experimental study was performed on ELECTRONICA SPRINTCUT WEDM machine (Figure 4.1) installed at AMT Lab of the Department. WEDM is a four axes machine and capable to control all four axes simultaneously. The machine performs multiplicity of operations in one setup.

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Fig. 4.1 CNC ELECTRONICA SPRINTCUT WEDM MACHINE. Technical specifications of machine tool

Design Table size Max.work piece height Max. work piece weight Main table traverse (X, Y) Auxiliary table traverse (u, v) Max. taper cutting angle Max. wire spool capacity Wire electrode diameter Dielectric
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Fixed column, moving table 440 x 650 mm 200 mm 500 kg 300, 400 mm 80, 80 mm 30/50 mm 6 kg 0.25 mm (Std.) ,0.15, 0.20 mm (Optional) Deionised water

4.4 WORK PIECE MATERIAL

The work piece material is a high carbon high chromium (HCHCr) die steel with excellent wear resistance, hot toughness and good thermal shock resistance. The chemical composition of the material is shown in table 4.2

Table 4.2 Composition of work piece material.

S.NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

MATERIAL CARBON SILICON MAGANESE SULPUR PHOSPHORUS NICKEL CHROMIUM MOLYBDENUM COPPER IRON

PERCENTAGE 2.02 0.33 0.37 0.027 0.026 0.062 11.55 0.023 0.009 Rest

4.5 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The experimental work is carried out as per the Central Composite Design using RSM methodology. The design is prepared with the help of Design expert software version 8.0.3 which is used to create experimental designs. The design is shown in table 4.3

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Table No. 4.3 Experimental Design Factor 1 A: Ton Machine units 125 105 125 125 105 105 125 105 115 105 105 105 125 125 115 125 105 115 125 105 115 135 115 115 105 105 125 125 125 95 Factor 2 B: Toff Machine units 55 30 63 52 63 40 40 63 52 40 40 63 40 63 52 63 40 52 40 63 52 52 52 63 52 63 52 52 40 40 Factor 3 C: SV Volts 20 10 50 30 10 50 10 50 30 10 10 10 50 50 30 10 50 30 10 50 30 30 30 30 30 70 30 20 20 20 Factor 4 D: IP Amp 230 70 70 150 70 70 70 230 150 230 70 230 70 230 150 70 230 120 230 70 120 150 230 150 150 150 230 230 230 120

Std

Run

Block

17 18 5 8 3 2 15 12 14 9 10 13 11 1 16 6 20 7 19 4 27 30 24 26 21 28 22 25 23 29

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3

Based on the experimental design as given in table 4.3 the specimen were prepared and the values of selected machining characteristics i.e. SR are reported in table 4.4

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Table No. 4.4 Experimental Design with Response Data Std Run Block Factor 1 A: Ton Machine units 125 105 125 125 105 105 125 105 115 105 105 105 125 125 115 125 105 115 125 105 115 135 115 115 105 105 125 125 125 95 Factor 2 B: Toff Machine units 55 30 63 52 63 40 40 63 52 40 40 63 40 63 52 63 40 52 40 63 52 52 52 63 52 63 52 52 40 40 Factor 3 C: SV Volts 20 10 50 30 10 50 10 50 30 10 10 10 50 50 30 10 50 30 10 50 30 30 30 30 30 70 30 20 20 20 Factor 4 D: IP Amp 230 70 70 150 70 70 70 230 150 230 70 230 70 230 150 70 230 120 230 70 120 150 230 150 150 150 230 230 230 120 Response SR m 2.48 1.39 1.22 1.72 0.75 1.39 2.62 0.39 1.67 1.52 1.24 0.99 1.7 1.6 1.53 1.01 1.02 1.55 3.37 0.12 1.45 1.27 1.56 1.65 1.3 1.33 1.75 2.57 2.21 1.15

17 18 5 8 3 2 15 12 14 9 10 13 11 1 16 6 20 7 19 4 27 30 24 26 21 28 22 25 23 29

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3 DAY 3

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CHAPTER-5 ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

5.1 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT WITH RESULTS

The effect of the input parameters on response in WEDM process has been examined. The input parameters are Pulse on time (Ton), Pulse off time (Toff), Servo voltage (SV) and peak current (IP). The experiments have been performed on high chromium high carbon steel with a wire of diameter 0.2 mm and the obtained data has been analyzed using design expert software. 5.1.1 Effect of Pulse on time on SR It can be seen from fig. 5.1 that surface roughness increases with the increase in pulse on-time. The reason for deteriorating surface finish lies in the fact that the discharge energy per spark increases with increase in pulse on-time, and this results in deeper craters.

Fig 5.1 Effect of Ton on SR. 41

5.1.2

Effect of Pulse off-time on SR It can be seen from fig. no. 5.2 that as the pulse off-time increases, the surface roughness decreases. The improved finish is due to decreased energy per spark at high value of pulse off time.

Fig 5.2 Effect of Toff on SR.

5.1.3

Effect of Servo Voltage on SR It can be seen from fig. 5.3 that there is not much influence of servo voltage on SR.

Fig 5.3 Effect of SV on SR. 42

5.1.4

Effect of Peak Current on SR It can be seen from fig. 5.4 that surface roughness increases very slightly with increase in peak current.

Fig 5.4 Effect of IP on SR

5.2 3-D GRAPH OF EFFECTS OF MACHINING PARAMETERS ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS

The effects of process parameters are taken two at a time on SR as shown in figures 5.5-5.7 Fig. 5.5 shows the 3-D response surface of effects of Ton and Toff on SR. It revealed that as Ton increases the SR increases and as Toff increases SR decreases. This is because as Ton increases, crater size increases and as Toff increases the crater size decreases.

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Fig 5.5 3-D graph of Effect of Ton and Toff on SR.

Fig. 5.6 shows the 3-D response surface of effects of IP and SV on SR. It revealed that as IP increases the SR increases and as SV increases SR slightly decreases. This is because as IP increases, crater size increases and as SV increases crater size decreases.

Fig 5.6 3-D graph of Effects of IP and SV on SR. 44

Fig. 5.7 shows the 3-D response surface of effects of Ton and IP on SR. It revealed that as Ton increases the SR increases and as IP increases SR increases.This is because as Ton and IP increases crater size increases which results in increased SR.

Fig 5.7 3-D graph of Effects of Ton and IP on SR.

5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS:The experimentation was carried out according to the design and the analysis was accomplished using design expert software version 8.0.3. The analysis of variance for SR using software is given in table 5.1

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Table 5.1 ANOVA for Response Surface Linear Model

Source Block Model A-Ton B-Toff C-SV D-IP Residual Cor Total

Sum of Squares 0.24 7.73 3.74 1.88 0.34 0.75 4.44 12.41

df 2 4 1 1 1 1 23 29

Mean Square 0.12 1.93 3.74 1.88 0.34 0.75 0.19

F-Value

p-value

F Value Significant

10 19.34 9.74 1.74 3.88

<0.0001 0.0002 0.0048 0.2000 0.0611

The Model F-value of 10 implies the model is significant. There is only a 0.01% chance that a "Model F-Value" this much magnitude could occur due to noise. p- values less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case A,B,C,D are significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to support hierarchy), model reduction may improve our model.

5.3.1 OPTIMIZATION OF RESULT USING DESIRABILITY 5.3.1.1 Desirability Function Desirability is an objective function that ranges from zero outside of the limits to one at the goal. The numerical optimization finds a point that maximizes the desirability function. The characteristics of a goal may be altered by adjusting the weight or importance. For several responses and factors, all goals get combined into one desirability function. The value is completely dependent on how closely the lower and upper limits are set relative to the actual optimum. The goal of optimization is to find a good set of conditions that will meet all the goals, not to get to a desirability value of 1.0. Desirability is simply a mathematical method to find the optimum value. According to desirability the solutions reported are in table 5.2
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Table 5.2 Solutions according to desirability. S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Ton 125.00 125.00 124.94 125.00 124.92 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 124.55 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 124.74 124.05 125.00 125.00 125.00 123.63 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 123.08 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 124.93 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 Toff 58.24 59.11 58.04 58.27 58.35 57.83 56.67 57.48 60.43 57.65 57.81 56.36 56.16 56.66 56.83 55.86 57.39 57.02 55.54 61.96 55.40 56.55 52.79 54.28 51.86 52.29 54.29 53.32 51.52 50.17 51.21 49.16 49.40 49.36 48.90 52.25 51.59 50.87 47.30 45.18 43.10 42.43 SV 10.00 10.01 10.00 10.56 10.00 10.00 10.00 12.25 10.00 13.32 10.00 10.03 10.00 10.00 15.52 10.00 14.47 10.00 10.00 10.00 19.02 10.95 10.06 22.66 10.00 10.00 10.01 26.91 10.00 10.04 10.00 10.01 10.00 10.00 15.01 33.52 33.52 36.60 10.04 10.00 10.02 10.00 IP 228.56 230.00 229.65 229.91 229.68 222.86 229.98 229.87 229.60 229.98 230.00 214.62 210.17 207.07 230.00 202.86 230.00 229.99 196.56 229.93 229.99 229.97 174.69 229.99 165.94 164.64 230.00 229.97 155.44 155.03 149.58 143.15 137.55 131.85 150.60 229.99 230.00 229.97 105.73 96.68 75.25 71.68
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SV 0.339559 0.340288 0.340745 0.342289 0.344504 0.348087 0.348601 0.349799 0.354519 0.359591 0.359907 0.361932 0.363587 0.374057 0.386848 0.400487 0.404205 0.405974 0.413518 0.419186 0.429167 0.436249 0.436699 0.439971 0.444512 0.449121 0.459975 0.469785 0.48827 0.508295 0.525443 0.526434 0.582487 0.58604 0.599926 0.603175 0.604684 0.610489 0.62987 0.632674 0.654877 0.658264

Desirability 0.501 Selected 0.501 0.501 0.501 0.501 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.499 0.499 0.499 0.499 0.499 0.499 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.498 0.497 0.497 0.497 0.497 0.497 0.496 0.496 0.495 0.495

S.No. 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Ton 125.00 125.00 125.00 124.99 119.86 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 125.00 120.11 119.63 113.91 105.35

Toff 42.10 47.30 42.30 40.95 49.22 44.86 44.61 44.04 43.37 40.37 31.97 30.00 40.96 53.50

SV 10.00 49.69 15.00 12.75 10.00 54.52 56.87 58.97 61.25 69.99 10.00 69.98 10.00 10.00

IP 71.79 230.00 77.33 70.01 229.88 230.00 229.98 224.85 230.00 206.06 70.01 70.00 70.00 230.00

SR 0.666325 0.670914 0.701626 0.73292 0.742085 0.743394 0.754211 0.789313 0.79511 0.7958 0.848339 0.938379 1.04567 0.666325

Desirability 0.495 0.495 0.495 0.495 0.495 0.494 0.494 0.493 0.493 0.491 0.488 0.468 0.462 0.418

The optimal values of process parameters and response (SR) using desirability are as shown in ramp graphs (Fig.5.8-5.12).

Fig. 5.8 The optimum value of Ton from desirability.

Fig. 5.9 The optimum value of Toff from desirability.

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Fig. 5.10 The optimum value of SV from desirability.

Fig. 5.11 The optimum value of IP from desirability.

Fig. 5.12 The optimum value of SR from desirability. 5.3.1.2 Mathematical model for SR Correlation between the four input process parameters - Pulse on time (Ton), Pulse off time (Toff), Servo voltage (SV), peak current (IP), and the SR has been ascertained through response surface methodology.
Final Equation in Terms of Coded Factors

SR= +1.95 + 0.23 * A - 0.36 * B - 0.10 * C + 0.10 * D

(5.1)

49

Final Equation in Terms of Actual Factors

SR = -1.40167+0.036017*Ton-0.027419*Toff-6.92017E-003*SV+2.51571E-003*IP (5.2) 5.3.1.3 Confirmation Experiments Three confirmation experiments were conducted at the pridicted optimal setting of the process parameters and there average values have been reported in table 5.3 Table 5.3 Point prediction at optimal value of response (SR) Response Prediction 95% CI low 95% CI high 95% PI low 95% PI high Actual value (average of three confirmation experiments.) 0.3485

SR

0.339559

0.17325

0.852369

0.703733

1.38285

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CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 CONCLUSIONS:The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental study: 1. When the pulse on time the surface roughness increases. 2. When pulse off time is increased the surface roughness decreases. 3. When servo voltage is increased the surface roughness decreases. 4. When peak current is increased the surface roughness increases. 5. The mathematical model for SR is SR = -1.40167+0.036017*Ton-0.027419*Toff-6.92017E-003*SV+2.51571E-003*IP 6. The optimum value of four process parameters are as given below The optimum value of Ton = 105 The optimum value of Toff = 63 The optimum value of SV = 70 The optimum value of IP = 70 7. The optimum value of SR is 0.339559 m.

6.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

Analysis of the results obtained from the current work suggests several feasible extensions to the research. Some of them are listed below:

1. The process parameters can be increased for investigation. 2. Multiple response optimizations should be carried out instead of single response study. 3. In this work de-ionized water is used as dielectric. It would be interesting to compare the process performance of other gaseous dielectrics. 4. In terms of applications, the WEDM process may be implemented for micromachining. Not much work has been done in this field so far and it would require building up a knowledge base for the process at the micro-level to make Wire Electric Discharge Micromachining feasible.
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