Unit 1 Projectile: Motion of a ball thrown at a velocity v at an angle to the ground.

d. v sin 90 - v cos Initial horizontal velocity = v cos Ignoring air resistance, the only force acting on the ball during its flight is gravity. This gives a downward acceleration that only affects the vertical component of velocity. In a horizontal direction there is no acceleration. It means horizontal velocity remains constant. Projectile will follow a curved or parabolic path through the air. The distance the ball travels will depend on horizontal velocity and the time of flight. The time of flight depends on the vertical velocity. The horizontal and vertical motions of an object are independent.

Experiment to show the independence of horizontal and vertical motion. A ruler end two coins are set up as shown in diagram. Press on the roller and tap the end so that coin. A falls vertically while coin B is projected sideways. The vertical acceleration of each coin is exactly the same even through one is horizontally as well as vertically. This means that they hit the floor at exactly the same time. Problem: A stone is thrown over the edge of a cliff with a horizontal velocity of 15 m/s the cliff is 150 m high. Ignoring any air resistance and taking g = 10 ms2. Calculate: (a) (b) (c) The time it takes for the stone to reach the ground The distance it lands from the foot of the cliff, The magnitude of the stones velocity when it hits the ground.

To find velocity of trolley using tilled runway: 1

To PC

Detector

To P.C Runway is set up as friction compensated way.

A card of measured length is put on the top of trolley and use a timer to measure how long the card takes to pass through a light. When the trolley passes the light gate. The card blocks the light beam for some time. Using the time taken to block and the length of the card, the speed is calculated.

Force: Types of forces: (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Gravitational forces Electrostatic forces Electromagnetic Nuclear forces

Gravitational force: The two bodies without being in contact exert force on one another. These are gravitational force. Gravitational forces act at a distance Gravitational forces occurs between all bodies of all sizes and attract them together. Gravitational forces between two bodies are equal and opposite.

Example: When space craft moves around the earth, earth pulls the space craft at the came time space craft pull the earth with equal and opposite force. Electrostatic forces: 2

Force between two charge objects is called electrostatic force; like changes repel, unlike charge attract. Electromagnetic forces: Force between two magnets or one magnet and another magnetic material is called magnetic force. Einstein suggests that electrostatic and magnetic forces are just the same type of force viewed from different positions. His theory of special relativity made it possible to understand them as a single force called electromagnetic force. Nuclear forces: There are forces that act inside the nucleus of an atom which are neither gravitational nor electromagnetic. Electrostatic repulsion alone would cause the positively charged protons in the nucleus to fly apart the strong nuclear force birds them together. In beta decay when a neutron decays to a proton, with the emission of an electrons. The nuclear forces act ovary very small distances and are often referred to as short range forces. Contact forces: When two objects are in contact and exerts force on ones another then the force is called contact force. When we push a car, pick up book, push a cork into a bottle. All the forces involved when the objects are in direct contact are electrostatic (electromagnetic). For example, when we push something, the electrons of out hand and repels the electrons on the outside of the body we are pushing. Frictional force, forces on bodies moving through liquids and air resistance are all contact forces. Tension: When a wire or string is structured then that wire exerts a tension on the objects. Tension Were

Load

Normal contact forces: Normal contact force

Normal contact force is perpendicular to surface acting to the object from the surface.

ground

Drag forces: Friction in fluids (liquid and gas) is called drag. Drag forces try to prevent motion between objects and fluids. Drag forces depend on (i) Speed of moving object (ii) Surface area (iii) Viscosity Free-body force diagram: Free body force diagrams are a neat and effective way to show the forces on a body. They are diagrams of a single body, showing the forces on that body only. Examples: Object (block)

earth

block pulls earth up Free body force diagram of earth:

Free body force diagram of block:

earth pulls object down. 4

Free body force diagram when an object is at rest on the earth.

block

earth

Free body force diagram of the block:

earth pulls the object down with gravitation force

earth pushes the object up with a contact force (Normal contact force) Free body force diagram of the earth: mass pushes down with a force

mean pulls earth with a gravitational force.

Aerodynamic lift:

lift forces are essential for flight. The wings of birds and aircraft have a special shape called aerofoil.

Because of the shaper air move faster over it upper surface than its lower surface. 5

The resulting pressure difference creates the lift force. Why do aeroplanes need to move at high speed for take off?

It aeroplane moves at high speed the air over the wing moves faster, as a result pressure above the wing decreases. To climb into the sky the lift forces must be greater than the weight of the plane.

When the plane at a certain attitude move with constant speed or climb with construct speed. Then resultant force is zero. It means weight = life force.

Forward force given by engine = drage force or air resistance.

Newtons laws of motion: 1st law: If there is resulting force acting on object; 4N If its at rest, it will stay at rest if is moving, it keeps on moving at constant velocity. at rest Inertia: It is the tendency of any object to remain at its own position; Rest object wants to remain at rest, moving object wants to keep on moving. It depends on mass. 4N

Newtons second law: Momentum: The mass and velocity of an object determine its momentum. Momentum = mass velocity = mv Unit : kg m/s It is a vector quantity. The greater an objects momentum, the more force needed to stop it. 2nd law: The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it. The change in momentum takes place in the direction of that force: mv mu t (v u ) F m t v u = a] F = k m a. [ t F Using definition of 1 N force, we can prove K = 1, One newton is the force, which is applied on 1 kg mass and produces |m/s2 acceleration. F = K. ma 1=K1.1 K=1 F=kma F = 1. m a F = m a Impulse : The change in momentum is called impulse. Impulse measures the effect of a force. The quantity force time is known as impulse. It is measured in Ns. F= mv mu t

F t = mv mu It t is greater than force needed is less that is why catching a cricket ball hands are taken backward to increase time. Newtons third law: To every action force there is an equal but opposite reaction. The forces do not cancel out because the forces act on different bodies. 7

When any one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exert a force on the first body. One force can not occur without other. Newtons third law pairs: Two forces in a Newton pair always act on different bodies. Newtons third law pairs: Important points about Newtons third law pair, has the same magnitude acts along the same line but in opposite directions acts for the same time. acts on a different object is of the same type . (eg. two contact forces two gravitational forces).

Difference between Newton I and Newton III.

object

earth

Free body force diagram of the object:

earth pulls down

earth pushes up The man is in equilibrium; The upward force on him is equal to the downward force. But these forces are not a Newtons III pair. There are a number of reasons 1st, the upward force from the earth and the down ward force from the earth both act on the same body, the man. But according to neutron III, the forces act on different bodies. 2ndly the upward force on the man is a contact force and the downward force is gravitational. With a Newtons III pair, the forces one of the same type.

Thirdly; These two forces are only equal when the man is in equilibrium, if the man is above the earth contact force does not act but gravitational force is still present. With a Newton III pair the forces are always equal and opposite and one force can not occur without the other. Some important differences between Newton I and Newton III. Newton I (i) A law about the forces on a single body (ii) Concerns any number of forces (iii) The forces can be different type (iv) It two forces and body in equilibrium, forces are equal and opposite (v) Only applies when a body is in equilibrium. Newton III (i) A law about a pair of forces on two different bodies (ii) Always concertis two forces only (iii) Always the same type of forces. (iv) Forces always equal and opposite (v) Always applies.

Sketching kinematics graphs

The displacement-time graph for a bouncing ball looks familiar enough (Figure 8.2). But the situation is complicated, and a good one in which to practise sketching velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs from a displacement-time graph. Figures 8.2 to 8.7 guide you through this process. Notice that the displacement is never zero (Figure 8.2), because the centre of the ball never touches the ground. The velocity is zero where the gradient of the displacement-time graph is zero. First, mark these points (Figure 8.3). At points like A (Figure 8.4), the gradient of the displacement-time graph is large and positive; so is the velocity. At points like B, the slope of the displacement-time graph is large and negative; so is the velocity. When the ball is contact with the ground (Figure 8.5). i.e. during the brief bounces, the gradient changes rapidly from negative to positive; so ,,,,,,,,,, in velocity.

Figure 8.4 The velocity is large and positive at points like A, and large and negative at points like B

Figure 8.5 When the ball is in contact with the ground, the velocity changes 9 rapidly

While the ball is in the air (Figure 8.6), the gradient of the velocity-time graph is constant and negative; so is the acceleration. The acceleration is constant because it is equal to the acceleration of gravity. The acceleration is negative because it is downwards and we are using a sign convection that says upwards is positive.

Figure 8.6 While the ball is in the air, the acceleration is constant and negative

Figure 8.7 During the brief bounces, the acceleration is large and positive

During the brief bounces (Figure 8.7), the velocity changes a large amount from negative to positive as the ball changes direction. This is a large positive change of velocity in a short time. The large and positive acceleration is caused by the force of the ground on the ball. The gradient the velocity-time graph is large and positive, so is the acceleration is greater than the downwards acceleration of gravity. Conservation of Energy: Set-up the apparatus as in Figure 30.1. As the mass falls and loses potential energy, both the mass and the glider gain kinetic energy. Calculate the potential energy lost by the mass in pulling the glider to the light gate. Use the light gate and card to measure the speed of the mass and glider and calculate the kinetic energy they gain. Compare the potential energy lost with the kinetic energy gained. Repeat using different masses and release heights.

Figure 30.1 Using a falling mass to accelerate an air track glider. 10

Gain and loss of energy If the air track and pulley in Figure 30.1 are very smooth, the kinetic energy gained by the glider and mass is very nearly equal to the potential energy lost by the mass failing. Of course the connecting string and pulley gain some energy. If you calculate their kinetic energy as well, then you find that the potential energy lost by the mass is even more closely equal to the kinetic energy of the moving parts. In experiments like this, where there. is an exchange between potential energy and kinetic energy, you seem to end up with the same amount of energy at the end as you had in the beginning. Conservation of Momentum: Use spring buffers on the gliders as In Figure 31.1. Send them towards each other so that they collide gently and bounce off each other. Find the total kinetic energy before the collision and afterwards.Repeat for a range of speeds. Replace the spring buffers with plasticine so that the gliders stick together after colliding. Again determine the kinetic energy before and after the collision.

Figure 31.1 Two gliders on an air track before collision

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