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CHAPTER 5

MODERN PHYSICS

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

(a) Composition
The central core of an atom is called as nucleus. The nucleus of any atom of an element has
two types of fundamental particles, i.e., protons and neutrons. Collectively all the particles
found within the nucleus are called nucleons.

(b) Charge
Nucleus owes its positive charge due to protons. Among all the elements, the nuclear charge
is minimum for the hydrogen and it is equal to the charge of 1 proton. Naturally occurring
element whose nuclear charge is maximum is uranium and it is equal to the charge of 92
protons.
The proton is a positively charged particle having a charge of + 1.6 10
-19
coulombs and
mass

kg. However, its mass is 1837 times greater than the mass of one
electron.
The neutron apparently has no electric charge, and its mass is slightly greater than the mass
of one proton.

(c) Representation of Nucleus
Mass number (A): It represents total number of nucleons present within the nucleus, i.e.,
the number of protons and neutrons. It is also known as mass number or atomic weight.
Atomic number (Z): It represents total number of protons, within the nucleus of an atom. It
is numerically equal to the number of electrons revolving around the nucleus. It is also
known as atomic number or proton number. It controls the chemical and physical
properties of an element.
N represents total number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.

Thus,
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons or A = Z + N

If X is the symbol of some element, such that A is its mass number and Z is its atomic
number then symbolically its nucleus is represented as
Z
X
A

For example, for oxygen A = 16 and Z = 8 and hence symbol for its nucleus is
8
O
16

It must be kept in mind that the superscript represents mass number and sub-script
represents atomic number.

(d) Mass of the nucleus
It is expressed in terms of the unit called atomic mass unit (a.m.u)
Atomic mass unit: the mass of molecules, atoms, nucleus and atomic particles is measured
in a unit called atomic mass unit. This is denoted by a.m.u. One atomic mass unit is one-
twelfth of the mass of a carbon

atom.
1 a.m.u = 1.66 10
-24
gm

(e) Size of nucleus
Radius of nucleus is used to measure the size of the nucleus. The unit used for measuring
the size of the nucleus is Fermi (F). 1 Fermi =

m
The radius of a nucleus is,


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Where R is radius of nucleus, A mass number and R
o
is a constant. R
o
= 1.2 Fermi

(f) Volume of nucleus
Since nucleus is considered to be spherical, its volume could be found by using the formula
for the volume of the sphere.
Therefore, volume of the nucleus = V =


V=


V=


V
Volume of nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number (A).

(g) Density of nucleus
As we know, density = mass/volume
Mass of nucleus = total no. of nucleons * mass of one nucleon
=A1 a.m.u
Volume of nucleus =


Density of nucleus =


Density of nucleus is a constant number; therefore we can say that it is independent of the
element.

Classification of atoms based on nucleons

1. Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms of same element having same atomic number, but different atomic
masses due to difference in number of neutrons in their nucleus.

Example of Isotopes:
a. Hydrogen has three isotopes,
1
H
1
Hydrogen (Protium),
1
H
2
Deuterium and
1
H
3
Tritium.
b. Chlorine has two isotopes, i.e.,
17
Cl
35
and
17
Cl
37
.
c. Oxygen has three isotopes, i.e.,
8
O
16
,
8
O
17
and
8
O
18

d. Uranium has two isotopes, i.e.,
92
U
235
and
92
U
238
.
e. Carbon has 3 isotopes, i.e.,
6
C
12
,
6
C
13
and
6
C
14


Here, it must be pointed out that practically every element has its isotopes. There are
about one thousand unstable isotopes of radioactive elements and 300 isotopes of stable
elements. Isotopes differs in their mass number, therefore, isotopes differ in physical
properties.

2. Isobars
Atoms of different elements, having same mass number, but different number of protons
(atomic number) are called isobars. Isobars differ in number of electrons, protons and
neutrons.
An isobars differs in atomic number as well as number of protons, they differ in physical as
well as in chemical properties.

Examples of Isobars
a.
18
Ar
40
and
20
Ca
40
are isobars
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b.
12
Mg
24
and
11
Na
24
are isobars.

3. Isotones
Atoms of different elements with same number of neutrons are called isotones. They differ
in number of electrons and protons.

Examples of isotones
14
Si
30
and
15
P
31



Forces inside the nucleus

There are two major forces present inside the nucleus
i. Electrostatic force: this is repulsive force between the protons. This force depends on
the charge on the nucleons. Electrostatic force impact is felt at larger distance.
ii. Nuclear force: this is an attractive force among the nucleons. The impact of nuclear
force is felt only at very small distances within the nucleus. Hence nuclear force is called
short range force. Nuclear force is independent of charge of nucleons.

As the nuclear force is stronger than electrostatic force the nucleons do not fly apart.

Mass defect & Binding energy

The difference between the expected mass and experimentally measured mass of nucleus is
called mass defect. It is denoted by m. It can be calculated as follows:
Mass defect (m) = (expected mass of nucleus) - (measured mass of nucleus)
m = (sum of masses of protons and neutrons) - (measured mass of nucleus)

When the nucleons are grouped together to form a nucleus, they lose a small amount of mass,
i.e., there is mass defect. This mass defect is released as radiant energy according to the
relation E = mc
2
;
Thus
Energy released = mass defect c
2
.
This energy is used to bind nucleons together in the nucleus; therefore it is called binding
energy.
The smallest unit of binding energy for one a.m.u is generally mentioned in terms of MeV.


Thus energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u of mass is 931.5 MeV.
If mass effect (m) is expressed in terms of a.m.u, then binding energy = m931.5 MeV

In nuclear reactions, the energy that must be radiated or otherwise removed as binding energy
may be in the form of electromagnetic waves, such as gamma radiation, or as heat.

Average Binding energy

Average binding energy is the energy required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus.
Binding energy per nucleon = Binding energy of the nucleus/ total number of nucleons

The stability of nucleus is understood in terms of binding energy per nucleons. More is the
binding energy per nucleon, more is the stability.

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Graph of Binding energy per nucleon and mass number A

The main observations from the graph are:
a. The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for lighter nuclei and increases with mass
number
b. The nuclei in the mass number range 40 to 120 are most stable as the binding energy
per nucleon is more in their case. The peak value appears around A =60. The maximum
binding energy per nucleon is for iron with a value of 8.7 MeV/nucleon.
c. For nuclei with mass number higher than 120, the binding energy per nucleon starts
decreasing. The nuclei below 7.6 MeV/ nucleon like
92
U
238
are unstable.

Stability of Nuclei

There are several factors affecting nuclear stability, many of which are reflected in the abundance curve:

a. As number of nucleon increases, attraction between nucleons increases also value of binding
energy increase, therefore stability of nuclei increases.
b. Magic numbers: Nuclei which have 2,8,20,28,50,82 and 126 number of neutrons or protons are
more abundant in nature than other nuclei. This suggests that these nuclei are more stable than
others. The above sequence of numbers is called Magic numbers.
c. Surface tension (unrequited bonds): smaller nuclei are less stable because they have High
surface/volume ratios.
d. Coulomb or electrostatic repulsion works against larger nuclei, because you pay a price stuffing
charge into a small volume. Although you always gain by adding more nucleons, but at large
distance nuclear force become weaker in comparison to electrostatic force

Just as every phenomenon tries to achieve stability, unstable nuclei try to achieve stability by throwing
out excess particles in the form of radiations. This gave rise to a phenomenon which was first observed
by Henry Becquerel. This phenomenon was called radioactivity by Madam Curie.

Radioactivity

The spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei with the emission of certain particles and
radiations is called radioactivity. It is the phenomenon due to which certain elements given out
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highly penetrating radiations spontaneously. The activity of a radioactive substance is defined
as the number of atoms disintegrating in one second. It is measured in various units. The SI
unit of radioactivity is Becquerel.
a. 1 Becquerel (1 Bq) = 1 disintegration per second.
b. 1 Curie (1 Ci) =

disintegration per second = activity of 1 gm of pure radium



Causes of Radioactivity
As the atomic number and mass number increases, the size of the nucleus also increases.
The increase in size leads to weakening of nuclear force and the repulsive force starts
playing a prominent role. In the element with atomic number Z=83 (Bismuth) the repulsive
force just exceeds the attractive nuclear force, making the nucleus unstable. Emission starts
occurring from such unstable nucleus and then tries to attain stability by emitting particles
from inside it. This process of emission is known as radioactivity.

Radioactive elements
The elements which give out high energy radiations on their own are called radioactive
elements.

Examples of Radioactive elements :
1. Uranium 2. Thorium 3. Radium 4. Polonium.

Becquerel Rays
The original name for the radiations give out by radioactive elements is Becquerel rays.
Properties of Becquerel rays:
a. They affect photographic plate.
b. They ionize the gas through which they pass.
c. They can penetrate through matter. The range of penetration depends upon nature
of radioactive source and density of matter.
d. They are affected by electrostatic and magnetic fields.

Radioactive emission has three types of radiations , and radiations

Comparative Table of , and Radiations


Properties o -particles(
2
He
4
) | -particles(
-1
e
0
) -rays
Name Are doubly charged
helium nuclei
Electrons moving with
high velocity
Electromagnetic
waves
Rest mass 6.64 10
-27
kg 9.106 10
-31
kg Nil
Velocity 1.4 to 2.3 10
7
m/s 1.1 to 2.96 10
8
m/s 3 10
8
m/s
Nature of charge Positive Negative Neutral
Amount of charge + 3.2 10
-19
C -1.6 10
-19
C Nil
Specific charge
q
m
| |
|
\ .

4.8 10
7
C/kg 1.78 10
11
C/kg Nil
Wavelength Nil Nil 10
-12
m to 10
-14
m
Effect of magnetic
field
Slightly deflected Deflected more than
o and opposite in
direction to o
Not deflected
Effect of
electrostatic field
Deflected towards
negative plate
Deflected towards
positive plate
Not deflected
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Penetrating power 2.7 cm to 8.6 cm in
air
5 mm of Al or 1 mm of
lead
30 cm of iron
Relative ionizing
power
10,000 100 1


Laws of Radioactive Emission

1. Rutherford and Soddys law of Alpha Emission

When a radioactive nuclide ejects an alpha particle, its mass number decrease by 4 and
atomic number decreases by 2 such that the position of daughter nuclide is two places
behind in the periodic table as compared to the parent nuclide.

Consider radioactive nuclide X with mass number A and atomic number Z, such that it
ejects an alpha particle. According to above law, the mass number of daughter nuclide will
be A 4 and atomic number Z 2. Representing symbolically,


Z
X
A

Z- 2
X
A 4
+
2
He
4

Examples of o -decay


92
U
238

90
Th
234
+
2
He
4
:


88
Ra
226

86
Rn
222
+
2
He
4


86
Rn
222

84
Po
218
+
2
He
4
:


84
Po
218

82
Pb
214
+
2
He
4


2. Rutherford and Soddys law of Beta Emission

When a radioactive nuclide ejects beta particle, its mass number remains unaffected, but
atomic number increases by one such that position of daughter nuclide is, one place ahead
in the periodic table, as compared to the parent nuclei.

Beta emission generally takes place in such nuclides, which have far excess neutrons as
compared to protons. However, it is not a hard and fast rule. During beta emission, one of
the neutrons breaks into an electron and proton, with release of energy. The proton remains
within the nucleus, but the electron is ejected out.

Since number of nucleons in the parent nuclide remains same as in daughter nuclide,
therefore, mass number remains unchanged. However, as one proton becomes more than
parent nuclide, therefore atomic number increases by one.

0
n
1

1
p
1
+
-1
e
0

neutron proton electron

If X is the parent nuclide of mass number A and atomic number Z, such that it ejects beta
particle, then the mass number of daughter nuclide will be A, but atomic number will
become Z+1. Representing symbolically,

Z
X
A

Z + 1
X
1
A
+
-1
e
0



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Example of Beta Emission


11
Na
24

12
Mg
24
+
-1
e
0
;


6
C
14

7
N
14
+
-1
e
0
;


15
P
32

16
S
32
+
-1
e
0



82
Pb
214

83
Bi
214
+
-1
e
0
;


83
Bi
214


84
Po
214
+
-1
e
0


3. Gamma Emission

It has been found that the emission of alpha or beta particles is followed by the emission of
gamma rays. This emission takes place, because either the parent nuclide or the daughter
nuclide is in excited state, i.e., they have excess energy than required to hold nucleons
together.
The gamma radiation takes away neither any mass nor charge from parent nuclide, and
hence the mass number and atomic number remain unchanged.

Difference between Radioactive change and Chemical change

Radioactive change Chemical change
1. In radioactive change, the nucleus of
an element on disintegration
produces completely new elements
and it is essentially a nuclear
phenomenon.
2. Radioactive change releases large
amount of energy.
3. Radioactive disintegration is a
spontaneous event.
4. In radioactive disintegration, charged
particles like alpha, beta are ejected.
1. Chemical change does not produce
new elements and it is not related to
the nucleus of the atom.
2. In a chemical change a very small
quantity of energy is released or
absorbed.
3. Chemical change is an induced event.
4. In chemical change, no such ejection
of particles takes place.


Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts
(lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays), and
releasing a tremendous amount of energy. The two nuclei produced are most often of
comparable but slightly different sizes, typically with a mass ratio of products of about 3 to 2,
for common fissile isotopes. Nuclear fission was discovered by Ottohann and Strassmann in
1939.

Fission is usually an energetic nuclear reaction induced by a neutron. Fission of heavy elements
is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic
radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission takes
place). In order for fission to produce energy, the total binding energy of the resulting elements
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must be greater than that of the starting element. Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation
because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom.

Nuclear fission produces energy for nuclear power
and to drive the explosion of nuclear weapons. Both
uses are possible because certain substances called
nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by fission
neutrons, and in turn emit neutrons when they
break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining
chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled
rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid
uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.



Most general nuclear fission reaction is given below:
92
U
235
+
0
n
1

56
Ba
141
+
36
Kr
92
+3
0
n
1
+ Q
Where Q is the energy released in nuclear fission.

In the above reaction 1 neutron produces 3 neutrons, which collide with another 3 nuclei of
uranium, which produces another 9 neutrons. So this reaction rapidly increases till all uranium
used. This is example of an uncontrolled chain reaction.

For controlled chain reaction, following precautions has to be taking in nuclear plants.

a. The nuclear reactors should be embedded in thick concrete walls so as to prevent any
leakage of gamma radiations or neutrons.
b. The nuclear material must be kept in thick lead containers, with narrow mouth and plugged
with thick lead corks.
c. Workers in nuclear establishments must wear lead lined aprons and gloves. They must wear
special lead glasses to protect eyes.
d. Any nuclear material should be handled with mechanical tongs.
e. The workers must wear special film badges. These badges can absorb nuclear radiation
which can be tested to find the amount of radiation absorbed by a particular worker.
f. A periodic compulsory medical checkup should be done. If a particular person is found be
done. If a particular person is found over-exposed to the nuclear radiation, he should be
immediately withdrawn from the nuclear establishment.

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to
form a single heavier nucleus. This is usually accompanied by the release or absorption of large
quantities of energy. Fusion is the process that powers active stars, the hydrogen bomb and
experimental devices examining fusion power for electrical generation.
The fusion of two nuclei with lower masses than iron (which, along with nickel, has the largest
binding energy per nucleon) generally releases energy, while the fusion of nuclei heavier than
iron absorbs energy. This means that fusion generally occurs for lighter elements only, and
likewise, that fission normally occurs only for heavier elements
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Creating the required conditions for fusion on Earth is very difficult, to the point that it has not
been accomplished at any scale for Protium, the common light isotope of hydrogen that
undergoes natural fusion in stars. In nuclear weapons, some of the energy released by an
atomic bomb (fission bomb) is used to compress and heat a fusion fuel containing heavier
isotopes of hydrogen, and also sometimes lithium, to the point of "ignition". At this point, the
energy released in the fusion reactions is enough to
briefly maintain the reaction.
Fusion-based nuclear power experiments attempt to
create similar conditions using less dramatic means,
although to date these experiments have failed to
maintain conditions needed for ignition long enough
for fusion to be a viable commercial power source.
Fusion reaction which occurs in stars and sun is following:
1
H
2
+
1
H
3

2
He
4
+
0
n
1
+ Q
Where Q is the energy released in single fusion.

Formulae

a. Mass of Neutron ~ Mass of Proton

b. Number of Proton = Number of Electron = Atomic Number

c. Number of Neutron = Mass Number Atomic Number i.e., n = A Z

d. Charge on Electron = -1.6 10
-19
Coulomb

e. Charge on Proton = + 1.6 10
-19
Coulomb

f. Charge on Neutron = 0

g. Mass of Electron = 9.1 10
-31
kg

h. Mass of Proton = 1.6 10
-27
kg

i. 1 eV = 1.6 10
-19
Joule

j. 1 a.m.u = 931 MeV









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Problems

1. What do you mean by :
(a) Atomic number
(b) Mass number of a nucleus?

2. What are isobars ? Give one example.

3. What is radioactivity? Name two radioactive substances.

4. (i) What are , o | and -radiations composed of?
(ii) Which has least penetrating power?

5. How are -radiations produced?

6. An o -particle absorbs an electron. What does is change to?

7. What type of change takes place in the nucleus when a | -particle is emitted?

8. A nucleus of radioactive phosphorus has atomic number 15 and mass number 32.
(i) If stable isotope of the above mentioned nucleus has one neutron less, what are the
atomic number and mass number of the isotope?
(ii) If the radioactive isotope emits a | -particle. What are the atomic number and mass
number of the new nucleus?

9. The element
11
Na
24
emits a | -particle to change into Mg. Write the symbolic equation for
the change. What are the numbers 11 and 24 called ? What do they signify for the element
Na ?

10. An o -particle absorbs two electrons. What does it change to ?

11. A nucleus of
88
Ra
226
emits an o -particle. Represent the charge by an equation. Identify the
new nucleus formed, from the following :

84
Po,
85
At,
86
Rn,
87
Fr

12. Why do isobars have different chemical properties ?

13. A radioactive element
z
X
A
loses two successive | -particles and then an o -particle such that
the resulting nucleus is
Q
Y
P
. Find the values of P and Q.

14. What do you understand by the term chain reaction?

15. Why is it difficult to start a fusion reaction?





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Objective Problems

1. The mass of an electron is equal to
(a) 9.1

10
-31
kg (b) 9.1

10
-30
kg
(c) 9.1 10
-27
kg (d) none of these

1. What is the particle Y in the following nuclear reaction ?
4
Be
9
+
2
He
4


6
C
12
+ Y
(a) Electron (b) Neutron (c) Proton (d) None of these

2. Nucleons correspond to the number of
(a) Electrons (b) protons (c) neutrons (d) neutrons and protons

3. The mass of an atom is expressed in
(a) kg (b) g (c) a.m.u. (d) Carats

4. The specific charge of an electron is equal to
(a) 1.76

10
11
C kg
-1
(b) 1.76

10
-11
C kg
-1

(c) 1.602

10
-19
C (d) 1.602

10
-19
C

5. In the following nuclear reaction, how many alpha particles are given out ?
92
X
234


88
Y
218

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6

6. The number of neutrons contained in
92
U
238
is
(a) 92 (b) 146 (c) 238 (d) 330

7. In the following nuclear reaction, what is the element X ?
i.
7
N
14
+
2
He
4


1
H
2
+ X
(a)
8
O
16
(b)
7
N
14
(c)
9
F
17
(d)
10
Ne
17


8. The number of electrons contained in the nucleus of
92
U
235
is
(a) 92 (b) 143 (c) 235 (d) zero


9. An element X with mass number A and atomic number Z is represented by
(a) X (b)
A
X
Z
(c)
Z
X
A
(d)
Z
X
A Z


10. The process of fusion is used for constructing a
(a) atom bomb (b) ordinary bomb (c) hydrogen bomb (d) neutron bomb

11. In a nuclear reactor, the moderator is
(a) uranium 234 (b) uranium 238 (c) cadmium (d) heavy water

12. Radioactivity was discovered by
(a) Rutherford (b) Becquerel (c) Bohr (d) Madame Curie

13. The discovery of neutron was made by
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(a) Chadwick (b) Rutherford (c) Becquerel (d) Curie

14. Which of the following has the least penetrating power ?
(a) Alpha particles (b) Beta particles
(c) Gamma rays (d) All have the same penetrating power

15. The fuel used in nuclear reactors is
(a) U 235 (b) U 236 (c) U 234 (d) U 238

16. The longest and shortest wavelengths (in microns) for red and violet colours are
respectively given by
(a) 0.4, 0.7 (b) 0.3, 0.6 (c) 0.7, 0.9 (d) none of these

17. The fission of uranium 235 by means of slow moving neutrons is called a/an
(a) chain reaction (b) irreversible chemical reaction
(c) explosion (d) none of these

18. Which amongst the following can cause the fission of U 235 to yield a chain reaction ?
(a) Slow electrons (b) Slow protons (c) Slow neutrons (d) Fast neutrons

19. The release of energy when fission occurs in a nuclear chain reaction is the basis of
(a) atom bomb (b) hydrogen bomb (c) neutron bomb (d) none of these

20. A hydrogen bomb is a
(a) controlled nuclear fission (b) uncontrolled nuclear fission
(c) uncontrolled nuclear fusion (d) controlled nuclear fusion

21. Which of the following will produce lesser pollution problems ?
(a) Nuclear fission
(b) Nuclear fusion
(c) Both will produce the same amount of pollution
(d) Nothing can be decided

22. Which of the following radiations is most dangerous because of its high penetrating power
and high energy?
(a) Alpha particles (b) Beta particles (c) Gamma rays (d) None of these

23. The nucleus resulting from
238
U
92
after successive loss of tw0 alpha and four beta particles
is
a)
238
TH
90
b)
230
Pu
94
c)
230
Ra
88
d)
230
U
92

24. An isotone of
76
Ge
32
is
a)
77
Ge
32
b)
77
As
33
c)
77
Se
34
d)
77
Se
36

25. If Uranium (mass number 238 and atomic number 92) emits an particle, the product has
mass number and atomic number
a)
236
and
92
b)
234
and
90
c)
238
and
90
d)
236
and
90


26. Which of the following in an isotope of
32
Ge
76
?
a)
33
As
77
b)
32
Ge
77
c)
34
Se
77
d)
35
Br
80


27. The atomic number of a radioactive element increases by one unit in :
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a) alpha emission d) beta emission c) gamma emission d) electron capture

28. Sulphur -35 (34.96903 a. m. u) emits a particle but no ray. The product is chlorine
35(34.96885 a.m.u.). The maximum energy of the particle emitted is
a) 0.00018 MeV b) 930MeV c) 0.16758 MeV d) 1.6758 MeV

29. Which of the following is a magic number?
a) 54 b) 10 c) 20 d) 18




















ANSWER KEY



CHAPTER # 3

PROBLEMS

1. I = 250 mA = 250 10
-3
A, t = 8 sec
We know that,
I =
Q
t

Q = I t
Q = 250 10
-3
8
Q = 2000 10
-3
= 2 C

2. (a) Let resistance between P and Q is R
PQ
.
3 O and 3 O are in series. So,
R
S
= 3 + 3 = 6 O
R
S
and 3 O are in parallel. So,
R
PQ
=
3
3
S
S
R
R

+

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=
3 6
3 6

+

R
PQ
=
18
9
= 2 O
(b) Let resistance between A and B is R
AB.

3O, R
PQ
and 3O resistors are in series. So,
R
AB
= 3 + R
PQ
+ 3
R
AB
= 3 + 2 + 3 = 8O

3. Resistance of 1 O and 2O are in series. So,
R
S
= 1 + 2 = 3O
R
S
and 1.5O are in parallel. So,
R
eq
=
1.5
1.5
S
S
R
R

+

R
eq
=
3 1.5 4.5
3 1.5 4.5

=
+
= 1 O

4. When resistors are in parallel, then
R
P
=
2 2
2 2
r

+
+

R
P
=
4
4
+ r = 1 + r
Let r = Internal resistance.
Current I
P
= 1.2 A
c = I
P
(R
P
+ r)
= 1.2 (1 + r)
= 1.2 + 1.2 r (i)

c
2 O
2 O
r


Again, when resistances are in series, then
R
S
= 2 + 2 = 4
R
eq
= 4 + r
I
S
= 0.4 A

r
2 O 2 O
c
+ -

Thus,
c = I
S
(R
S
+ r)
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= 0.4 (4 + r)
= 1.6 + 0.4 r (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we have,
c - 1.2 r = 1.2 (i)
c - 0.4 r = 1.6 (ii)
c - 1.2 r = 1.2 (i)
3c 1.2 r = -4.8 (iii)
-2c = -3.6
c =
3.6
1.8
2
= volt
Again form equation (i) we get,
c - 1.2 r = 1.2
1.2 r = c - 1.2
or, r =
1.8 1.2
1.2


=
0.6
0.5
1.2
= O

5. Equivalent resistance = 2 + 0.7 + 4.5 = 7.2 O
c = 1.8 V
Current in the circuit (I) =
1.8
7.2
= 0.25 A
(a) Reading of ammeter = 0.25 A
(b) Let terminal potential of the battery be V then,
c = I (R + r)
c = IR + Ir
i.e., c = V + Ir
or, V = c - Ir
V = 1.8 0.25 2 = 1.3 volt

6. R =
1
( / 4) a
and R
1
=
31
( / 2) a


1
(31) /( / 2)
1/( / 4)
R a
R a

=
=
3 2 3
4 2

=
R
1
: R = 3 : 2

7. We know that,

1 1
2 2
1
1
R
R
=

2 1
2
1
1
1
R
R

=
=
16.25 75
3.25


= 375 cm

8. Net e.m.f. = 1.5 volt
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Total internal resistance,

1 1 1 1 3
2 2 2 2
p
r
= + + =

2
3
p
r = O
Total resistance =
7 2 9
3
3 3 3
+ = = O
Current through the resistor =
1.5
0.5
3
V
A
R
= =

9. We have,
P = 60 W, V = 250 V
P = VI
I =
P
V

=
60
250
= 0.24 Amp

10. We have,
V = 4 V, I = 0.5 A, r = 2.5 O
(i) Energy = V I t
E = 4 0.5 600 ( t = 10 60 = 600 sec)
= 1200 Joule

(ii) As e.m.f. of battery = 4 V then,
e.m.f. = IC (R + r)
R =
e. m.f
I
- r
=
4
2.5
0.5

R = 8 2.5 = 5.5 O

(iii) P = V
R
I
= 2.75 0.5 ( V
R
= 5.5 0.5 = 2.75 V)
= 1.375 W
Energy dissipated = 1.375 10 60
= 825 Joule

11. We have,
P
1
= 60 W, V
1
= 220 V, P
2
= 60 W, V
2
= 110 V

2
1
1
1
V
R
P
=
=
220 220
60


and,
2
110 110
60
R

=
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1
2
220 220
60
110 110
60
R
R

=


=
220 220 4
110 110 1


So, R
1
: R
2
= 4 : 1

12. We have,
P
1
= 100 W, P
2
= 200 W

1 2
2 1
1
, when Visconstant
R P
R
R P P
| |
=
|
\ .


1
2
200
100
R
R
=
So, R
1
: R
2
= 2 : 1

13. We have,
R
1
= 4 O, R
2
= 6 O, V = 6 Volt
Req =
4 6
4 6

+
= 2.4 O (As R
1
and R
2
in parallel)

(i)
2
V
P =
Req

=
6 6
2.4


=
36
2.4
= 15 W

(ii) Since, potential across each resistor is same , so,

2
1
1
V
P
R
=
=
6 6
9
4

= W
and,
2
2
2
V
P
R
=
=
6 6
6

= 6 W
P
1
= 9 W, P
2
= 6 W

14. We have,
P
1
= 50 W, V = 220 V
P
2
= 100 W, V = 220 V
If both are connected in series then their resistances add upto form an equivalent
resistance. And current is same in series arrangement.

2
1
1
V
R
P
=
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=
220 220
968
50

= O

2
2
2
V
R
P
=

220 220
484
100

= = O
Req = 968 + 484 = 1452 O

220
0.15
1452
I = = A
Now potential drop across R
1
V
1

= I R
1

= 0.15 968 = 145.2 V
And potential drop across R
2
V
2

= I R
2

= 0.15 484 = 72.6 V
Power dissipated in R
1
= V
1
I
= 145.2 0.15 = 21.78 W
Power dissipated in R
2
= V
2
I
= 72.6 0.15 = 10.89 W
Power dissipated in first lamp is more in comparison the second because resistance
of first lamp R
1
is greater than the resistance R
2
of the second lamp.

15.
2
V
P
R
=

2
V
R
P
=
=
220 220
484
100

= O
V = IR

V
I
R
=
=
220
484

= 0.45 A

16. (i)
1
V
R =
=
150
12

= 75 O

(ii) Energy produced in 1 minute P = IV 1 60
= 0.2 15 60
= 180 Joule

17. Energy produced in 5 minutes P = IV 5 60
= 0.5 6 5 60
= 900 Joule
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18.
2
1
t
V
(R and P is constant)

2
1 2
2
2 1
t V
t V
=

2
5 200 200
220 220 t



2
5 220 220
200 200
t

=


= 6.05 minutes

19.
P
I
V
=
=
24
12
= 2 A
Energy liberated in 20 minutes (20 60 sec)
= 24 20 60
= 28,800 Joule

20. kWh =
1000
VIt V
V IR I
R
| |
= =
|
\ .

=
2
1000
V t
R

=
200 200 5
200 1000 60
| |

\ .

= 0.0167 kWh


OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
1. D 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. A 7. A

8. C 9. B 10. C 11. D 12. D 13. D 14. B

15. A 16. B 17. D 18. A 19. D 20. A 21. B

22. C 23. A 24. C 25. A 26. A 27. C


CHAPTER # 4

PROBLEMS

1. No. Because at any point on this line, tangent gives the direction of magnetic field. But at
the intersection point, we obtain two tangents, i.e. two directions of magnetic field, which is not
possible.

2. Yes. The face of circular coil for which the direction of current is anticlockwise behaves as
North pole while the face having clockwise direction of current behaves as South pole.
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3. (i) By increasing the strength of current.
(ii) By increasing the number of turns per unit length.
(iii) By introducing a soft iron core in the solenoid.

4. When a coil is rotated in a strong magnetic field then the magnetic flux linked with coil
changes with time. This change in flux results in an induced current in the coil. The
direction of induced current is given by Flemings Right Hand rule.

5. When a current carrying coil is placed in a strong magnetic field then it experiences a
torque on it. The direction of this torque is given by Flemings Left Hand rule.

6. The speed of an electric motor depends on
(i) the number of turns in the coil
(ii) the strength of current
(iii) the strength of the magnetic field.

7. In 1831, Michael Faraday introduced electromagnetic induction. According to him, if the
magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes then an induced e.m.f. (induced current)
is set up in that circuit. This phenomenon is called as electromagnetic induction.

8. The induced current in a coil will appear in such a direction that it opposes the change in
magnetic flux which is responsible for its production.

9.
D.C. Motor A.C. generator
(i) A D.C. motor changes electrical energy
into mechanical energy.

(ii) It works on the principle that when an
electric current is passed through a
conductor placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor starts moving as a
result of force acting on it.
A simple A.C. generator changes mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

It works on the principle that when
magnetic flux passing through a closed
circuit changes, it results in the induction of
an e.m.f. thereby current flows in the coil.

10. Transformers are used in electric circuit and devices which operate at a voltage other than
the supplied voltage.
No, they cannot be used with a direct current source.

11. As, N
P
= 800, N
S
= 8, E
P
= 220 V, E
S
= ?

S S
P P
N E
N E
=

S
S P
P
N
E E
N
=
=
8
220
800

= 2.2 Volt.


OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
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1. B 2. D 3. B 4. A 5. B 6. C

7. B 8. D 9. C 10. C 11. A 12. B

13. B 14. A 15. D 16. D 17. B 18. A

19. C 20. A







CHAPTER # 5

PROBLEMS

1. (a) The total number of protons presents in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic
number of that element.
(b) The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is known as
the mass number of that element.

2. The atoms of different elements which have the same mass number but different atomic
numbers, are called isobars. Eg.
11
Na
23
and
12
Mg
23
.

3. Radioactivity is that nuclear phenomenon in which spontaneous emission of radiation
occurs. Such substances are called radioactive substances, e.g., Uranium, Radium,
Thorium, and Polonium, etc.

4. (i) o - -particles are composed of helium nucleus (
2
He
4
).
| - -particles are composed of electrons (
-1
e
0
).
- -radiations are electromagnetic radiations composed of -rays photons.
(ii) o -particles have least penetrating power.

5. After o or | -emission, the nucleus acquires the excited state, i.e., it has excess of energy.
This excess of energy is emitted in the form of -rays photon.

6. It changes to ionised helium atom i.e. now it carries only one unit positive charge.

7. A neutron of nucleus is converted to an electron and a Proton, when a | -particle is emitted.
1.
0
n
1

+1
P
1
+
-1
e
0
+ v
ii. Neutron Proton Electron Antinutrino

8. (i) Atomic number = 15
i. Mass number = 31
(ii) Atomic number = 16
ii. Mass number = 32

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9.
11
Na
24


12
Mg
24
+
-1
|
0

The numbers 11 and 24 are called the atomic number and mass number respectively. They
tell the number respectively. They tell the number of protons and neutrons in that element.

10. It changes to the neutral atom of helium.

11. The new nucleus formed is
86
Rn
88
Ra
226


86
Rn
222
+
2
He
4

(
o
-particle)

12. Isobars have different atomic numbers, i.e., different number of protons, hence they have
different chemical properties.

13. P = A 4 and Q = Z.

14. On the fission of one heavy nucleus more neutrons are produced which further disintegrate
other nuclei resulting in a chain of fission is formed. Such reaction is called chain reaction.

15. because to start a fusion reaction, high temperature and pressure is required.

Objective Problems

1. A 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. B

8. A 9. D 10. C 11. C 12. D 13. B 14. A

15. A 16. D 17. A 18. A 19. C 20. A 21. C

22. B 23. C

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