Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(AAG101 Course)
Practical Part
By
Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Mekkei
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 1
4. Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter fresh as preserved utilized as food for animals. Crop cultivated & used for fickler, hay, silage. Ex- sorghum, elephant grass, guinea grass, berseem & alfalfa etc. 5. Fiber crops: crown for fiber yield. Fiber may be obtained from seed. E.g. Cotton, steam, jute, Mesta, sun hemp, flax. 6. Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g. sweet, potato, sugar beet, carrot, turnip etc. 7. Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened underground stem. E.g. Potato, elephant, yam. 8. Sugar crops: the two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated for production for sugar. 9. Starch crops: grown for the production of starch. E.g. tapioca, potato, sweet potato. 10. Dreg crop: used for preparation for medicines. E.g. tobacco, mint, pyrethrum. 11. Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to flavor taste and sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc. 12. Vegetables crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, mentha, Brinjal, tomato. 13. Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of soil. E.g. sun hemp. 14. Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants includes cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy, senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice and aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose geranicem, jasmine, henna etc. Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops: 1. Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one seasonKarin, Rabi. summer. E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc. 2. Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life in two seasons. E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger. 3. Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life in cycle. E.g. sugarcane. 4. Biennial crops: which grows in one year and flowers, fructifies & perishes the next year? E.g. Banana, Papaya.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 3
5. Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
Classification based on root system: 1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g. Tur, Grape, Cotton etc. 2. Adventitious/Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into the soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc. Classification based on economic importance: 1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane, cotton. 2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. E.g. Faba bean, wheat, rice etc. Classification based on No. of cotyledons: 1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. E.g. all cereals & Millets. 2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. E.g. all legumes & pulses. Classification based on photosynthesis (Reduction of CO2/Dark reaction): 1. C3 Plants: Photo respiration is high in these plants C3 Plants have lower water use efficiency. The initial product of C assimilation in the three C compounds. The enzyme involved in the primary carboxylation is ribulose-1,-Biophospate carboxylose. E.g. Rice, soybeans, wheat, barley cottons, potato. 2. C4 plants: The primary product of C fixation is four carbon compounds which may be malice acid or acerbic acid. The enzymes responsible for carboxylation are phosphoenol Pyruvic acid carboxylose which has high affinity for CO2 and capable of assimilation CO2 event at lower concentration, photorespiration is negligible. Photosynthetic rates are higher in C4 than C3 plants for the same amount of stomatal opening. These are said to be drought resistant & they are able to grow better even under moisture stress. C4 plants translate photosynthates rapidly. E.g. Sorghum, Maize, napter grass, sesame etc.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 4
3. Cam plants: (Cassulacean acid metabolism plants) the stomata open at night and large amount of CO2 is fixed as a malice acid which is stored in vacuoles. During day stomata are closed. There is no possibility of CO2 entry. CO2 which is stored as malice acid is broken down & released as CO2. In these plants there is negligible transpiration. C4 & cam plant have high water use efficiency. These are highly drought resistant. E.g. Pineapple, sisal & agave. Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation: Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day & night, especially for floral initiation, the effect on plant is known as photoperiodism depending on the length of photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants are classified as: 1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes plate when days are short less then ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc. 2. Long days plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral ignition. E.g. Wheat, Barley, 3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower. The rate of the flowering initiation depends on how short or long is photoperiod. Shorter the days, more rapid initiation of flowering in short days plants. Longer the days more rapid are the initiation of flowering in long days plants.
No-Tillage
In this system, no tillage operations are performed between harvest of one crop and planting the next. In most no-till systems, planter-mounted coulters till a narrow seedbed to assist in seed and fertilizer placement. No-till is also referred to as zero-till. Advantages: 1. Maximum erosion control. 2. Soil moisture conservation. 3. Minimum fuel and labor costs. 4. Input and equipment costs are lower than other tillage systems. 5. Soil erosion by wind, water and tillage is greatly reduced. 6. Labor inputs per acre are greatly reduced. Disadvantages :
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 5
1. No incorporation. 2. Increased dependence on herbicides. Weed control is largely dependent on herbicides. 3. Not well suited for poorly drained soils. 4. Initially high residue levels can slow soil warm up. 5. Attachments, such as coulters, must be added to planters and drills. 6. High management level is required. 7. Manure incorporation is difficult. Tillage is essentially eliminated with a no-till system. The crop seed is placed in a narrow strip opened with a coulter or disk seed furrow opener. Most currently available planters can be used in no-till systems with little or no modification. Common options or attachments include coulters, stronger down-pressure springs and weight for penetration. Tilling only a narrow slot in the residuecovered soil achieves excellent erosion control. Shredding standing crop residue prior to planting is not recommended in no-till systems. Performance of planters, drills and cultivators is improved when the residue is standing and attached to the soil, rather than when unattached and lying flat. Although weed control is essential to all systems, the lack of tillage for incorporation with no-till requires pre emergence, surface applied or post emergence herbicides. One or two properly timed applications may be necessary. For later planted crops, such as grain sorghum and soybeans, an early pre plant herbicide application at a one-half or two-thirds rate, near the first week of April when the probability of rainfall for herbicide incorporation and activation is high, has proven successful. This eliminates the need for a burn down herbicide. For full season weed control a second, lighter pre emergence herbicide application at planting time, a post emergence treatment, or crop cultivation may be needed. No-till planting is well suited to many soils. Residue, when uniformly spread, increases water infiltration and reduces soil moisture evaporation. In some poorly drained soils covered with large amounts of residue, the use of no-till may delay soil warming and drying in the early spring, which delays germination and emergence. This condition is rare for normal planting dates. When colder and wetter
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 6
soils are of concern with early planting dates, the use of no-till planter attachments designed to move only residue and not soil away from the row have proven successful. Another option would be the adoption of a ridge system to aid in warming and drying of the row area.No-till farming (also called zero tillage or direct planting or pasture
cropping) is a way of growing crops from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. No-till is an agricultural technique which can increase the amount of water in the soil and decrease erosion. It may also increase the amount and variety of life in and on the soil but may require increased herbicide usage.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 7
crumbly structure of the soil with optimum moisture content suitable for working & germination or sprouting seeds & propagates Soil Tilth is that kind of physical condition of soil when it is loose. Not very powdery but granular & when these granules are felt between fingers they are soft, friable, & crumble easily under pressure, Such soils permit easy infiltration of water & are retentive of moisture for satisfactory growth of plants. Characteristics of good tilth/Measurement of soil tilth: Tilth indicates two properties of soil, viz the size distribution of aggregates and mellowness or friability of soil. Size distribution of soil aggregates: The relative proportion of different sized soil aggregates is known as size distribution of soil aggregates. Higher% of larger aggregates i.e. more than 5 mm are necessary for irrigated agriculture while higher% of smaller aggregates(1-2mm) are desirable for dry land agriculture. Theoretically, the best size of granules or aggregates ranges from 1 to 6 mm. However, it depends on soil, type, soil moisture content (at which ploughing is done) & subsequent cultivation. Mellowness or friability: is that property of soil by which the clods when dry become more crumbly. They do not crumble into dust but remain as stable aggregates of smaller size. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has fee drainage up to water table. The capillary & non-capillary pores should be in equal proportion so that sufficient amount of water is retained in the soil as well as free air, The soil aggregates would be quite from or stable & would not be easily eroded by water or by wind. Soil tilth: is easy to describe but rather difficult to measure/ Theoretically, best size of granules ranges from 1-6 mm differs with country e.g. England as more than 15mm and Russia 2-3 mm. Besides this, study of pore space, equal distribution of macro & micro pores is good tilth. Ideal soil tilth : An ideal soil tilth is not the same for all types of crops & all types of soils e.g. small seeded crops like bajara, ragi, lucerne, Sesame, mustard require a much finer seedbed, Jowar & cotton require a moderately compact & firm seed bed and not cloddy or loose. Bold seeded crops like gram, maize germinate even in cloddy seedbed.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 9
As regards soil type, a very fine, powdery condition of the surface soil is decidedly bad for a heavy clay soil as it forms a caked surface under rainy condition and all the rain water is then liable to be lost by run-off, taking away also with loamy & lighter soils.
Objectives of Tillage
Objects of Tillage: These can be summarized in brief as below. 1. To make the soil loose & porous: It enables rain water or irrigation water to enter the soil easily & the danger of loss of soil & water by erosion and run-off, respectively, is reduced. Due to adequate proportion of microspores (capillary), the water will be retained in the soil & not lost by drainage. 2. To aerate the soil: Aeration enables the metabolic processes of the living plants & micro organisms, etc. to continue properly. Due to adequate moisture and air, the desirable chemical & biological activities would go on at a greater speed & result in rapid decomposition of the organic matter and consequently release of plants nutrients to be used by crops. Similarly, the evolution of CO2 gas in this process will result in forming weak carbonic acid in the soil which will make more nutrients available to crops. 3. To have repeated exchange of air / gases: There should be an exchange of air during the growing period of crops. As the supply of O2 from the air that is being constantly utilized in several biological reactions taking place in the soil; should be continuously renewed. At the same time CO2 that is released should be removed & not allowed to accumulate excessively decomposition of org. residues by microorganisms where O2 is utilized & CO2 released. Deficiency or excess of O2 may reduce the rate of reactions. O2 in soil air & atm. Air is more or less same i.e. 20 to 21% CO2 in atmospheric air is about 0.03% & in soil air 0.2 to o.3% which is 8to 10 times more than atmospheric air. It is, therefore, very necessary to often introduce atmospheric air in the soil to keep the concentration of CO2 under by suitable tillage operations. 4. To increase the soil temperature: This can be achieved by
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 10
controlling the air- water content of soil & also by exposing more of the soil to the heat of sun. This helps in acceleration of activities of soil bacteria & other micro organisms. 5. To control weeds: It is the major function of tillage; Weeds rob food & water required by crop & competition results in lowering of crop yield. 6. To remove stubbiest: Tillage helps in removing stubbles of previous crop and other sprouting materials like bulbs, solons etc in making a clean field/seedbed. 7. To destroy insect pests: Insects are either exposed to the suns heat or to birds that would pick them up. Many of the insect-pests remain in dormant condition in the form of pupae in the top soil during off season & when the host crop is again planted, they reappear on the crop. Some may harbor on stubbiest or other eminent of the crop. Grubs & cutworms can be destroyed by tillage. 8. To destroy hard pan: Specially designed implements (Chisel plough) are helpful to break hard pan formed just below the ploughing depth which act as barrier for root growth & drainage of soil. 9. To incorporate organic & other bulky manures: Organic manures should not only be spread but properly incorporated into the soil. Sometimes bacterial cultures or certain soil applied insecticides require to be drilled into the soil for control of pests like white grub. White ants, termites, cut worms e.g. Aldrin. 10. To Invert soil to improve fertility: By occasional deep tillage the upper soil layer rich in org. matter goes down thus plant roots get benefit of rich layer and lower layer which is less fertile comes to top.
germination, a satisfactory stand & favorable growing conditions, Tillage can be reduced by: 1) Omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost and 2) Combining agricultural operations like seeding & fertilizer application. Advantages: 1) Improve soil condition due to decomposition of plant residues in situ, 2) Higher infiltration caused by decomposition of vegetation present on Soils & channels formed by decomposition of dead roots. 3) Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure. 4) Less soil compaction by reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles. 5) Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage. Disadvantages: 1) Less seed germination, 2) More N has to be added as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. 3) Nodulation may affect in some legumes. 4) Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary implements.
left in the soil after leaching excess water.) 2-Soil does not stick to the plows. 3-Soil does not dirty the hand when touched. Pan hard Layer (Sub soiling plowing) : Sub soilers are used for plowing below the depth reach by ordinary plowing , it results in increased water infiltration and better crop yield due to destruction of hard pan layers . Its depth range : 70-90 cm .
plowing may be advisable because (1)Plowing buries green or dried material, and (2) improve the structure of the soil. In regions of high winds the loose, open soils, poor in organic matter, are likely later plowing.
Plowing depth :
Most farmers prefer shallow plowing to avoid higher costs . However a gradual increase in yield may be expected as plowing depth increases from 10-20cm .Varying plowing depth from year to year may avoid establishing compact subsurface layers benefits of deep.
sugar cane and potatoes , shallow (5-10 cm ) for wheal and barley . 2. Soil type : sandy or clay .
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 16
2- Moldboard Plows
Very efficient in fulfilling plowing objectives . It loosen the soil by forcing a triple wedge through it and inverts its surface to incorporate and core plant residues and manure . 15-35 cm plowing depth . The moldboard plow has a large frame that is equipped with a series of "bottoms," each of which consists of a steel coulter to slice through residue followed closely by a steel share that cuts the soil and an attached moldboard that is used to raise and turn over the cut "slice" of soil.
3- Disk plow
Disk plows usually have three or more individually mounted concave disks that are inclined backward to achieve maximum depth. They are particularly adapted for use in hard, dry soils, shrubby or bushy land, or on rocky land. Disk tillers, also called harrow plows or one-way disk plows, usually consist of a gang of many disks mounted on one axle (see harrow). The disk plow employs round, concave disks of hardened steel, sharpened and sometimes serrated on the edge, with diameters ranging from 20 to 38 inches (50 to 95 centimeters). It reduces friction by making a rolling bottom in place of a sliding one. Its draft is about the same as that of the moldboard plow. The disk plow works to advantage in situations where the moldboard will not. It can be used in loose soils and those too dry and hard for easy penetration by moldboard. It haves organic residues mixed with the soil surface . But it dose not invert the soil surface as well as moldboard 20-40 cm plowing depth .
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 18
Moldboard
Heavy clay, weeds infested
Rotary
Deep root weed infested
Subsoiler
Soil contain pan hard
owing depth
** ** **** ** *
* * ***** * ***
***** * * * **
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 19
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 20
4- Rotary plow
-Stir the soil thoroughly leaving a fine texture behind. - Surface plowing. -Several units. -Used in deep-root weed- infested soils. -Required less power than the chisel plow.
5- Subsoiler plow
Sub soiler are used for plowing below the depth reach by ordinary plowing, it results in increased water infiltration and better crop yield due to destruction of hard pan layers. Its depth range 70-90 cm. -Stir the deep hard layers. -Depth plowing is 70-90 cm. -Used on unit. -Used in soils with deep hard layers. -Require relatively high tractor power.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 21
Fig.8:Subsoiler Plow
Harrowing
In agriculture, a harrow (often called a set of harrows in a plurale tantum sense) is an implement for breaking up and smoothing out the surface of the soil. In this way it is distinct in its effect from the plough, which is used for deeper tillage. Harrowing is often carried out on fields to follow the rough finish left by ploughing operations. The purpose of this harrowing is generally to break up clods (lumps of soil) and to provide a finer finish, a good tilth or soil structure that is suitable for seedbed use. Such coarser harrowing may also be used to remove weeds and to cover seed after sowing. Harrows differ from cultivators in that they disturb the whole surface of the soil, such as to prepare a seedbed, instead of disturbing only narrow trails that skirt crop rows (to kill weeds).it is done after plowing to fulfill the following objectives: 1-Fine soil surface with no big clods. 2-Removal of weeds vegetative parts remaining on the soil surface after plowing. 3-Remval of previous crop residues which may interfere with the placement of new crop seeds. 4-Improvement of aeration at the soil surface. 5-mixing of animal manure with soil particles. For harrowing to be carried out efficiently, the following points must be consider: 1-It must be conducted directly after plowing. 2-Oppsite direction to the last plowing phase. 3-Harrowing depth is similar to that was used for plowing to improve sub-surface condition.
Types of Harrows
1-
Disk harrow
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 22
2345-
Chain harrow Spike tooth harrow Spring tooth harrow Rotary cross harrow.
There are four general types of harrows: disc harrow, tine harrow, chain harrow and chain disk harrows. Harrows were originally drawn by draft animals, such as horses, mules, or oxen, or in some times and places by manual labourers. In modern practice they are almost always tractor-mounted implements, either trailed after the tractor via a drawbar or mounted on the three-point hitch. In cooler climates the most common types are the disc harrow, the chain harrow, the tine harrow or spike harrow and the spring tine harrow. Chain harrows are often used for lighter work such as levelling the tilth or covering seed, while disc harrows are typically used for heavy work, such as following ploughing to break up the sod. In addition, there are various types of power harrow, in which the cultivators are power-driven from the tractor rather than depending on its forward motion. Tine harrows are used to refine seed-bed condition before planting, to remove small weeds in growing crops and to loosen the inter-row soils to allow for water to soak into the subsoil. The fourth is a chain disk harrow. Disk attached to chains are pulled at an angle over the ground. These harrows move rapidly across the surface. The chain and disk rotate to stay clean while breaking up the top surface to about 1 inch (3 cm) deep. A smooth seedbed is prepared for planting with one pass. Chain harrowing may be used on pasture land to spread out dung, and to break up dead material (thatch) in the sward, and similarly in sports-ground maintenance a light chain harrowing is often used to level off the ground after heavy use, to remove and smooth out boot marks and indentations. When used on tilled land in combination with the other two types, chain harrowing rolls the remaining larger clumps of soil to the surface where the weather will break them down and prevent interference with seed germination. Crumbler roller, commonly used to compact soil after it has been loosened by a harrow
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 23
All four harrow types can be used in one pass to prepare the soil for seeding. It is also common to use any combination of two harrows for a variety of tilling processes. Where harrowing provides a very fine tilth, or the soil is very light so that it might easily be windblown, a roller is often added as the last of the set. Harrows may be of several types and weights, depending on the intended purpose. They almost always consist of a rigid frame to which are attached discs, teeth, linked chains or other means of cultivation, but tine and chain harrows are often only supported by a rigid towing-bar at the front of the set. In the southern hemisphere the so-called giant discs are a specialized kind of disc harrows that can stand in for a plough in very rough country where a moldboard plough will not handle the treestumps and rocks, and a disc-plough is too slow (because of its limited number of discs). Giant scalloped-edged discs operate in a set, or frame, that is often weighted with concrete or steel blocks to improve penetration of the cutting edges. This sort of cultivation is normally immediately followed by broadcast fertilization and seeding, rather than drilled or row seeding. They can drawn by horses or tractors. It is not a common practice in Egypt, but in USA it has a widely used. It works (disk harrow) somewhat like the moldboard plow; both turn the soil in furrows. But the disk harrow turns small furrows. It raises the earth and pushes it to one side.
Control of penetration :
You can control the depth of which the disk blades penetrate by: I) Using a heavy or light harrow. 2) Adding weights on the harrow 3) Using few or many disks per harrow 4) Exerting hydraulic forces, up or down 5) Using transport and depth regulating wheels 6) Using dull or sharp disk blades 7) Using smaller or layer disks 8) Using cutout or notched disks 9) Adjusting the angle of the disk gangs.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 24
Fig.9:Types of harrows
Compacting
It is commonly conducted after plowing to break large size soil clods and Particles. Also, it is used to cover large seeds after the broadcasting such as faba bean. It helps in the preservation of soil moisture content after plowing. Wooden breaks are pulled by animals of tractor. Also, mechanical compactors may be mounted behind tractor.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 25
Land Leveling
To increase irrigation ease and efficiency the soil surface must be leveled with a slope of 0.5% or less to have a gentle water flow for uniform distribution and minimum erosion.
A-Dry Leveling:
By using scraper for leveling dry soil height differences that can be seen by eye (more than 10 cm). The scarper may be carried by animal for small acreage or by using tractors in large farm. Signs for requiring dry leveling: 1-Saltsw appearance on soil surface. 2-Irrigation plant growth in the field. 3-Ununiform water distribution during irrigation. 4-Lower germination percentages. 5-Difficult passage of water through irrigation channels. Required conditions: 1-Maintance of the natural slope from field head to tail. 2-Dry soil and clean surface from vegetative weeds or crop residues. 3-Distribution for removed soil evenly on as large area as possible. 4-Scraper movement in straight lines. 5-Avoid gaps between adjacent lines.\ Disadvantages of dry leveling: 1-Removal of soil fertility from higher to lower spots. 2-Extra costs and time.
B-Wet Leveling:
It means leveling the soil surface in the presence of a thin water layer above it, in order to recognize small height differences(less than 10 cm). Such precise leveling is required for certain crops Egyptian clover and rice. In order to insure proper and high germination and seedling establishment. Disadvantages: 1-Leaching of mineral nutrients. 2-Reduced aeration. 3-Very cost. 4-Low soil fertility. Leveling advantages: 1-higher germination percentages. 2-Uniform growth. 3-Improvement of irrigation efficiency. 4-Higher use of chemical fertilizers.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 27
In both wet and dry land preparation, it is important to properly level the field to promote and maintain a uniform water depth and thus ensure good crop stand and increase water use efficiency.
Head of field
Slope direction
Plot
section
section
section
Flat Land
Main Border
section
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 28
The above sketch gives an example for bordering a wheat field a level land. The field is divided by main borders and temporary canals, made vertical to the permanent irrigation canal. Another borders are made across to these borders and canals. Each temporary irrigated two sides. The width of the border is about 50 - 60 cm. The field canal is formed by making two adjacent borders, and has a width of about 120- 150 cm. Field canals are then being smoothed, and the borders being firmed by the hand hoe "fas". The native bordering implement "Battama" is widely used for making borders and canals.
Slope direction
Plot
section
section
section
Flat Land
Temporary Canal
section
The above sketch gives an example for bordering a wheat field a level land. The field is divided by temporary canals only made vertical to the permanent irrigation canal. Another cross borders are made across to these canals. Each temporary canal
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 29
Advantages of ridging:
1- Ridges are warmer than the level, at least on one side. 2- The soil is drier and the loose to of the ridges ensure
345-
67-
8-
aeration of the soil and prevents cracking of the soil The seeds or seedlings can be protected by planting them on the sheltered sunny side in winter. The crop is more easily irrigated and water can have more regular distribution Easily cultivation (hoeing). Enhance the germination (dryness and warmth of the sunny side) Post planting practices (i.e., replanting, thinning, and weed control, fertilizing and harvesting) can be easier done when crops are grown on ridges. No danger from excess irrigation water as in the case of growing crops on flat land.
After ridging, the field is divided into (ridged plots) by means of field canals and borders, to regulate irrigation. Ridges vary in their distance according to the type of crop. They can have a distance between 50 to 70 cm. For the distance between ridges. It can be done by special modern plows.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 30
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 31
Ridging direction:
1-Parallel permanent canal. 2-Vertical on slope direction. 3-Parallel the longest side of field if the field is narrow. 4-In case of cotton crop sowing ridging must be from East to West but in corn from North to South. Ridged Plot: Number of ridges surrounded by one temporary canal and one mean border and two separator ridges.
Permanent Canal
up Slope direction
The land divided into ridged plots by and made temporary canals and main borders and separator ridges
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 32
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 33
Seed rate: The seed rate per unit area depends on germination of
the seed, size of the seed, growing habit of the crop, etc. Extremes from the recommended seed rate (i.e. too high or too low) affect the plant population & then yield of crop. E.g. higher seed rate will influence higher plant population/unit area. It results in heavy competition within the crop plants and suppresses the crop growth. Lower seed rate will result lower plant population thereby lowers the yield/unit area. The seed rate is governed by the ultimate stand desired. Most crops are seeded at smaller rates under dry land than under irrigated condition. Seed rate depends on size, germination, growing habit, type of farming, time of sowing, variety, etc.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 34
4) Seed requirement is less than broad casting 5) Sowing is done at proper moisture level. Disadvantages: 1) Require implement for sowing, 2) Wapsa condition is must. 3) Plant to plant (Intra row) spacing is not maintained, 4) Skilled person is required for sowing. 3. Dibbling: It is the placing or dibbling of seeds at cross marks (+) made in the field with the help of maker as per the requirement of the crop in both the directions. It is done manually by dibbler. This method is followed in crops like Groundnut, Castor, and Hy. Cotton, etc. which are having bold size and high value. Advantages: 1) Spacing between rows & plants is maintained, 2) Seeds can be dibbled at desired depth in the moisture zone, 3) Optimum plant population can be maintained, 4) Seed requirement is less than other method, 5) Implement is not required for sowing, 6) An intercrop can be taken in wider spaced crops, 7) Cross wise Intercultivation is possible. Disadvantages: 1) Laborious & time consuming method, 2) Require more labour, hence increase the cost of cultivation, 3) Only high value & bold seeds are sown, 4) Require strict supervision. 4. Transplanting: It is the raising of seedlings on nursery beds and transplanting of seedlings in the laid out field. For this, seedlings are allowed to grow on nursery beds for about 3-5 weeks. Beds are watered one day before the transplanting of nursery to prevent jerk to the roots. The field is irrigated before actual transplanting to get the seedlings established early & quickly which reduce the mortality. Besides the advantages & disadvantages of dibbling method, initial cost of cultivation of crop can be saved but requires due care in the nursery. This method is followed in crops like paddy, fruit, vegetable, crops, tobacco, etc. 5. Planting: It is the placing of vegetative part of crops which are vegetatively propagated in the laid out field. E.g.: Tubers of Potato, mother sets of ginger & turmeric, cuttings of sweet potato & grapes,
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 36
sets of sugarcane. 6.Putting seeds behind the plough: It is dropping of seeds behind the plough in the furrow with the help of manual labour by hand. This method is followed for crops like wal or gram in some areas for better utilization of soil moisture. The seeds are covered by successive furrow opened by the plough. This method is not commonly followed for sowing of the crops. Also, Such method can be classified according to following principles: (A)Land division: 1-Sowing without land division (the condition of rain field farming. 2-With land division :(Section) is commonly used under irrigated farming. (B)Seeds placement methods in soil: 1.Broadcasting. 2.Drilling in narrow rows. 3.Wide rows and hills. 4.Transplanting. (C)Time of irrigation for sown seeds: 1.Dry sowing (before irrigation). 2.Wet sowing (after irrigation). 3.Sowing in water.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 37
5-Save the laborious and time . 6-High Yield. Disadvantages: -Very cost. -Need wide area. (4)Wide Rows and hills: 1.Plowing . 2.harrwoing. 3.Compacting. 4.Boerdering into plots. 5.Sowing in hills in regular distances. 6.Irrigation. Advantages : -It is considered improved method for broadcasting after bordering. Disadvantages : 1.Decrease germination percent. 2.Decrease yield. 3.Difficult to conduct management operation. (5)Ridges and hills : 1.Plowing. 2.Harrowing. 3.Compacting. 4.Ridging and land division into ridges. 5.Conect borders, clean ridges. 6.Sowing in hills at regular distances different between crops. 7.Irrigation. (B)Wet Sowing Methods: 1.Broadcasting : -Soil irrigation; waiting until proper dryness (50-60% F.C.) -Seeds Broadcasting into vertical directions. -Shallow Plowing. -Soil compacting. -Land division into plots by temporary canals and borders. 2.Ridges and hills: -Plowing. -Compacting -Furrowing at the recommended distance for new crop. -Land division into ridged plots by field temporary canals.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 39
- Manual adjustment of ridges shape and straight edges. -Irrigation and waiting until proper dry(50-60% F.C.).
Note -Sowing seeds in hills at suitable space on one side or two sides.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 41
Wet method
1.Clay loam (heavy soils) 2.Free saline soils(No-Salinity) 3.Infested soil by weeds 4.Unleveled soils. Early sowing date.
Advantages:
1.Save in seeds 2.Higher germination % 3.Higher emergence seedling 4.Save in time, effort and costs 5.Increase yield
Disadvantages:
1Require higher amount of seeds 2.Decrease in germination % 3.Late of emergence seedling 4.Consuning more time, high effort and costs 5.Decrease yield
(C)Planting in presence water: (1)Broadcasting: Used in planting rice and Egyptian Clover)
1.Plowing 2.Harrowing 3.Wet leveling. 4.Broadcast the seeds
(2)Transplanting:
This method is used in Egypt mainly in planting rice. Using 1/8 of the filed as a nursery and planting rice by the previous method using the seeds needs for faddan. After one month when the rice plants are 15-20 cm above soil surface the seedling distributed all over the whole field after preparing the field as in broadcasting method.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 42
The specific density for each crop could be adjusted by four itms: 1.Sowing method. 2.Seeding rate. 3.Rows &ridges &hills spacing. 4.No. of plants/hill. Factors affecting optimum density: 1.Crop type 2.Sown cultivar. 3.Production purpose. 4.Sowing date. 5.Soil fertility.
Crop Management
1.Replanting:
It is the operation of repeated sowing in empty spots in the field to reach optimum plant density. It must be conducted as soon as possible after complete seeding emergence by using the same cultivar to avoid maturity variation. Replanting could be avoided if the number of absent spots is not significant (less than 5%), because higher yield by adjacent plants may compensate for such absents.
Replanting methods:
1.Wet method: the commonly used in low absent spots (12-24%) by emersion seeds in water for 24 hr. 2.Dry method: more than 24% by sowing of dry seeds then irrigation. 3.Transplanting: Rice.
2.Thining:
Due to high Plant density we do it. It is conducted to insure optimum plant density for a given crop shortly after seedling emergence by removal of undesired no. of plants from high density spots to avoid intra specific competition for growth resources. So that remaining plants would grow vigorously and produced their maximum yield. Inter specific competition : competition between plants &weeds Intra specific competition: competition between plants and others. Thinning precautions: 1.Removeweak and broken plants. 2.Early thinning to avoid competition and connection between plants in the hill. 3.In case of common infection in the field must be two thinning .
3.Hoeing (cultivation):
It means removal and disturbance of the dry top soil in order to destroy weeds and improved O2 exchange also it provides mechanical support to growing crop plant by accumulation of soil particles around their basis. In Egypt it is conduct by Hoes (manually) or mechanically by cultivators. Some field crops may not need Hoeing (Cultivation), at all if planted by broadcasting such as Rice, Wheat, Egyptian Clover and Barley. At early growth stages (seedling stage) hoeing must shallow; however, deeper hoeing (5-7 cm2) could be used in heavy soil and vegetative growth. One hoeing= 1/2 Irrigation (Because it covering cracks in surface so prevent evaporation of water by sun rays (avoid water loss).
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 44
WEED: Any plant not sown in the field by farmer is out of place,
called weed. The term, weed used by Jethro Tull for the first time, suggested an useless and harmful plant that persistently grows where it is quite unwanted. According to Robinson: Weeds are that species of plants which grow unwanted or are not useful, often prolific, persistent, interfere with agricultural operations, increase labour cost and reduce the crop yields.
7. Viability of weed seeds remains intact, even if they are buried deep in the soil. In some cases, the seeds may remain viable even after passing through the digestive tract of the animals. 8. The seeds may have special structures like wings, spines, hooks, sticky hair, etc. on account of which they can be easily disseminated over long distances. 9. Many weeds like Cynodon dactyl on are vegetatively propagated and spread rapidly all over the field even under adverse conditions
A) Classification based on life cycle: a) Annuals: Weeds complete their life cycle within a year.
i) Seasonal weeds: 1. Summer season weeds: Weeds complete their life cycle during summer season. 2. Winter annuals season weeds: Weeds complete their life cycle during winter season. ii. Two seasonal weeds: Weeds complete their life cycle within two seasons
c. Perennials: Weeds continue their life cycle for years together. B) Classification based on habitat or place of occurrence:
a. Weeds of cropped land: b. Weeds of pastures & grazing lands: c. Weeds along water channels: d. Weeds along roadside: e. Weeds of waste lands: f. Weeds of lawn & orchards: g. Weeds of forest lands: .
3) Cut the weeds before seeding, 4) Remove weed growth or keep irrigation & drainage channels clean or free from seeds, 5) Avoid feeding of grain screenings, hay or fodder containing weed seeds without destroying their viability by grinding or cooking, 6) Avoid use of sand or soil from weed infested areas to clean or cultivated areas, 7) Avoid allowing castles to move from weed infested areas to clean or cultivated areas, 8) Clean all the farm implements & machinery properly after their use in infested areas & before using in clean areas, 9) Keep farm fences, roads & bunds clean or free from weeds. 10) Watch seedlings in nurseries carefully so that they do not get mixed with weed seedlings & get carried to the fields.
and grow faster ahead of the weeds. It includes: 1) Crop roations: It checks the free growth of weed due to change of crops season to season. 2) Kind of crop: Groundnut covering crops like legumes will smother the weed growth. E.g.: sun hemp, groundnut. 3) Use of fertilizers: Application of optimum doses of fertilizers to crop will help to grow faster. 4) Date & rate of planting or sowing: Sowing of crops at proper time with optimum seed rate will help the crop to cover the ground & will make the weeds deprive of light. iii) Biological methods: It includes the use of living organisms for suppressing or controlling the weeds. Plant, animal or micro organisms may be used for destruction of weeds. These are called as bioagents which feed on only the weeds and not on crop plants. E.g.: Prickly pear or Nagphana weed in South India was controlled by Conchineal insects. (Dactlopius tomentosus). In Australia (Hawaii Islands) several kinds of moths were used to control Lantana Camara which eats the flowers & fruits. This method is very efficient & economical provided right type of predators, parasites or pathogens which even under starvation conditions will not feed upon cultivated crops are found out & introduced. iv) Chemical methods: This is very effective in certain cases and has a great scope provided the chemicals are cheap, efficient & easily available. The chemicals used for weed control & which suppress or destroy the growth of weeds, called as herbicide. These either help in killing the weeds or in inhibiting their growth.E.g.2, 4-D, Atrazine, Glyphosate, etc.
Types of herbicide:
i) Selective herbicides are those which kill only weeds without injuring crop plants. ii) Non-selective herbicides are those which kill all kinds of vegetations i.e. weed and crop plant. iii) Contact herbicides kill all the plant parts which may get covered by the chemical by directly killing the plant cells. These chemicals are effective against annuals particularly when they are young but not
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 49
perennials. iv) Translocated/Systemic herbicides are first absorbed in the foliage or through roots and are then translocated to other parts of the plant. Or Kill plants after their absorption by accelerating or retarding the metabolic activities of plants. These are more effective in destroying deep rooted perennials.
4-8 leaf stage, Pendimethalin @ 0.75 to 2.0 kg ai/ha in rice after 3-5 DAT, Isoproturon @ 1.0 kg ai/ha 30 35 days after sowing of Wheat.
Irrigation
It supply the plants crop by its requirements of water. The main objective is to increase water content in soil to an optimum level for crop growth and production.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 51
Irrigation efficiency :
The fraction of water delivered during irrigation that ends up as available water for plant up take is measure for irrigation efficiency. Water requirements for crop: Water requirements differ between field crops due to their differences in growth habit, growing season, density, plant purpose . Table2: Water Requirements of Agricultural Crops in Surface Irrigation Methods(5cm depth at each irrigation) Average water requirement Crop Interval (days) (mm)
Rice Maize Groundnut Sorghum Sunflower Soybean Greengram Blackgram Gingelly Sugarcane 1250 400 450 400 450 670 250 250 250 2000 4 6-7 7-8 14-15 7-8 6-7 10-12 10-12 15-20 7-8
Critical Stages
: Initial tillering, flowering : Most critical stage: Crown root initiation, tillering, jointing,. booting, flowering, milk and dough stages, Boot stage; dough stage : Flowering and podding. : Pre bloom stage. : After each cutting. : Flower initiation, pod filling. : Initial seedling, pre flowering, flowering, grain formation. : Boot stage, dough stage : Early vegetative, taselling and silking stage.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 52
Water is a constituent of protoplasm Water acts as a solvent. Plants can absorb nutrients when these nutrients are dissolved in water Water is used for transpiration carrier of nutrients from the soil to green plant tissues. They are used for photosynthesis and the end product is also conveyed through water to various plant parts Water forms over 90% of the plant body by green or fresh weight basis. Plants can synthesis food through photosynthesis only in the presence of water in their system. Water helps to maintain the turgidity of cell walls. Water helps in cell enlargement due to turgor pressure and cell division which ultimately increase the growth of plant. Water is essential for the germination of seeds, growth of plant roots, and nutrition and multiplication of soil organism.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 53
Water is essential in hydraulic process in the plant. It helps in the conversion of starch to sugar. Water helps in the transpiration, which is very essential for maintaining the absorption of nutrient from the soil.
plant. Water helps in the chemical, physical and biological reaction in soil.
So, water is applied externally, if availability seems limited through soil, not sufficient to meet the requirement due to drought or excess losses. We call the external application of water to the soil to supplement the requirement as `Irrigation'.
Fertilizer
Fertilizer (or fertilizer) is any organic or inorganic material of
natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. A recent assessment found that about 40 to 60% of crop
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 54
yields are attributable to commercial fertilizer use. Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global population growth it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions: six macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S); seven micronutrients: boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and zinc (Zn). The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM. Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide. The nitrogen-rich fertilizer ammonium nitrate is also used as an oxidizing agent in improvised explosive devices, sometimes called fertilizer bombs, leading to sale regulations.
Types of Fertilizers:
Fertilizer refers to any compound that contains one or more chemical elements, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, that is placed on or incorporated into the soil or applied to directly onto plants to achieve normal growth. The main supply sources of plant nutrients include organic manures, plant residues, biological nitrogen fixation and commercial inorganic fertilizers. The type of fertilizers that are most commonly used for crop production in Alberta are chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers refer to commercially manufactured products containing a substantial amount of one or more plant nutrients. The chemical fertilizers can be broadly classified into: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers. A straight fertilizer contains only one of the nutrients. A compound fertilizer contains two or more nutrients. A complex fertilizer that is formed by mixing ingredients that react chemically, as opposed to a mechanical mixture of two or more fertilizers. A low analysis fertilizer product contains a low percentage of nutrients, usually 30 per cent or less and a high analysis fertilizer contains more
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 55
* Elemental sulphur is suitable for application on perennial forage but is less suitable for annual crops because of slow-release characteristics. If used on annual crops it should be applied in the
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 56
fallow
year
or
in
the
fall
to
allow
conversion
to
the
sulphate
form.
All fertilizers must show the guaranteed nutrient analysis on the label. This states the content of three main nutrients: nitrogen, phosphate (P2O5) (a form of phosphorous) and potash (K2O)(a form of potassium). It is shown by a series of three numbers. For example, if the numbers 10-10-10 appear on a 30 kg bag of fertilizer it means that the bag contains 10 per cent of each raw material (3 kg of nitrogen, 3 kg of phosphate and 3 kg of potash).
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 57
Fertility management is important. However, variety selection, water management, insects, nematodes, diseases, weed pressure, and climatic conditions also affect crops.
What is a fertilizer?
A fertilizer is any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, that supplies plants with the necessary nutrients for plant growth and optimum yield. Organic fertilizers are natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including livestock manure, green manures, crop residues, household waste, compost, and woodland litter. Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with little processing (e.g., lime, potash, or phosphate rock), or industrially manufactured through chemical processes (e.g., urea). Inorganic fertilizers vary in appearance depending on the process of manufacture. The particles can be of many different sizes and shapes (crystals, pellets, granules, or dust) and the fertilizer grades can include straight fertilizers (containing one nutrient element only), compound fertilizers (containing two or more nutrients usually combined in a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction) and fertilizer blends (formed by physically blending mineral fertilizers to obtain desired nutrient ratios).
that decompose organic fertilizers use the carbon in such materials as an energy source for growth. Required in even bigger quantities by microorganisms for growth and reproduction is nitrogen (N). Commonly available materials are often particularly low in N content. For organic fertilizers with low N contents (such as cereal straw and most smallholder farmyard manures), microorganisms themselves will consume much of the available N for their own growth. Consequently, insignificant amounts of N will be released for the crop. Thus, on their own, poor quality materials have limited potential to enhance productivity. The effectiveness of such materials can be improved by combining them with mineral N fertilizers such as ammonium-nitrate or urea. Mineral fertilizers may be used more efficiently by crops growing on soils with adequate amounts of soil organic matter supplied by organic fertilizers.
What are the differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers in terms of their use?
Organic fertilizers: Soil fertility on smallholder farms is almost entirely dependent on locally available resources. Cattle manure, cereal and legume stover, and woodland litter are the commonly used organic fertilizers, but these are rarely applied in sufficient quantities to impact on crop yields. The use of high quality organic fertilizers is rarely practiced, although through research and extension activities in Africa, some farmers now include legume green manures or legume-based fallows in crop sequences. The main advantage of using organic fertilizers is that, compared to mineral fertilizers, they are usually available on or near the farm at very little or no cost other than labor costs of handling, transportation, or opportunity costs of land used for their production. Inorganic (mineral) fertilizers: Mineral fertilizers need to be applied to crop at least two times within a growing season (split application), either basally at planting or top-dressed during vegetative growth. The amount of inorganic fertilizer used in most smallholder farming systems falls far below standard extension recommendations, due to poor purchasing power, risk aversion due to poor and unreliable rainfall, and lack of significant returns. When available, fertilizer use is not overly labor intensive, thus allowing time for other tasks (or for earning income elsewhere).
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 60
What are the differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers in terms of application?
The method and timing of fertilizer application is an essential component of good farming. For organic materials, decomposition rate and timing of application influence the release of nutrients to the crop. Organic fertilizer application methods include broadcasting, banding, and spot application (or side-dressing). Broadcasting requires less labor and helps to evenly cover the field surface before incorporation into soil through plowing or hand-hoeing. Incorporation generally increases the fertility status of the whole plow layer. If the quantity of organic fertilizer is limited, it may be banded along furrows or spot applied, but the seed needs to be placed away from the fertilizer. Side-dressed organic fertilizers are not likely to have much immediate effect due to delayed nutrient release. Mineral fertilizers can be applied by hand or with application equipment. When hand applied, it is essential to distribute the fertilizers uniformly and at the recommended rates to avoid over- or under-fertilization. Application equipment needs proper adjustment to ensure uniform spreading. Broadcast fertilizer should be incorporated after application to enhance effectiveness or to avoid evaporation losses of N. With banding or spot application, take care that no fertilizer is placed too close to either the seed or the germinating plant, to avoid damage to the seedling or roots.
through split applications depending on visible hunger signs and/or moisture availability. In risky environments, spot application of small amounts of N fertilizers improves fertilizer effectiveness. The best response to fertilizer use is obtained if the soil has a high inherent fertility level (high organic matter status). Building inherent fertility requires practices such as retaining crop residues on the field.
Require high purchasing power Availability is an obstacle, especially in remote Need to be applied seasonally High risk in low rainfall and very high rainfall
areas
areas
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 62
Harvest
Removal of an entire plant, or its economic parts, after maturity from the field is known as harvesting. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or the entire plant. Portions of the stalk that are left in the field are called stubble. Timely harvesting is essential. Readiness for harvesting is calculated on the basis of the moisture content of grain. Early harvest gives immature grains with high moisture content. Such grain is difficult to store because it is susceptible to pests. In such cases, the yield , the quality of grain, as well as the germination potential are reduced. Late harvesting, on the other hand, may cause the grain to shatter. In addition, crops harvested at very low moisture may lead to damage of seeds while threshing.
Crop Maturity:
Crops are harvested either at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity. Physiological maturity is the stage at which translocation of dry matter to the economic part (sink) stops. That, is after this stage, no further increase of dry matter occurs in the economic part. Moisture content in cereal grains is very high during the milking stage(when the grain is barely formed) and it gradually decrease(from 40 to 20 percent). At this stage, translocation of carbohydrates is stopped due to the formation of a hard ring (known technically as an abscission layer) at the neck of the grain (rachis). Harvest maturity occurs approximately 7 days after physiological maturity (depending on the prevailing weather conditions). The important process during this period is loss of moisture from the plants. The general symptoms of harvest maturity are yellowing of leaves and drying of grain pods. Physiological maturity harvesting is advisable only if the field needs to be vacated for the next crop. Otherwise, harvest maturity is recommended. Remember: A crop should be harvested at the time when the product will give the largest yield of the highest quality.
2-Reduction in quality.
A) CEREALS:
1) Lower leaves turn to yellow straw. 2) Lower & other leaves fall down. 3) Stem turn to straw colour. 4) Pith formation in stem takes place. 5) Grains become hard & fully developed. 6) Moisture % in grain becomes less than 20% on total weight basis. 7) In maize, drying of cob sheath and fibers take place.
B) COTTON:
Picking of fully opened & bursted bolls is done in 3 4 stages.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 64
C) PULSES:
1) Pods turn to brown, 2) Grains become hard, 3) Shedding of lower older leaves take place. 4) Yellowing of leaves.
D) SUGARCANE:
1) Yellowish color to crop, 2) Flowers, if flowering variety is planted. 3) Swelling of eye buds, 4) Sweetness of juice, 5) Reads 21 to 24 Bricks Saccharometer reading.
E) GROUNDNUT:
1) Drying of vines. 2) Black colouring to the inner side of pods 3) Reddening or dark colouration to the seed coat, 4) Prominent margins on pod.
Methods of Harvesting
Harvesting may be done either manually or mechanically. Combines - are farm machines used to harvest grain and seed crops. The major functions performed by a combine include cutting and/or gathering, feeding, threshing, separating, cleaning, and grain handling operations on-the-go in the field. The vast majority are selfpropelled, receiving power to perform all of the previously listed operations and traction from a diesel engine. The combine is often the most expensive farm machine used in grain or row crop production with list prices for the largest models exceeding $350,000. Some machines can harvest a thirty-foot swath of crop in a single pass through the field.
Cotton Harvesters - are self-propelled machines specifically designed to pick (or strip), accumulate, and off-load large quantities of cotton in the field.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 67
tractor-drawn implements used to shuttle grain from combines to hauling vehicles or to grain receiving facilities. Grain carts are usually equipped with "high-flotation" tires or rubber tracks to attempt to minimize soil compaction in the field. The capacity of such carts can exceed 1,000 bushels (equivalent to 56,000 lb of shelled corn or 60,000 lb of soybeans).
A large-capacity grain cart unloading into a waiting truck.
Forage Harvesters - are tractor-drawn implements or selfpropelled machines that are used to gather, chop, and discharge forage crops as it moves through the field. The crops are typically harvested at a very high moisture content to permit ensiling (preservation through anaerobic fermentation). Forage harvesters require a great deal of power to perform the required functions. The largest self-propelled forage harvesters currently available have diesel engines that produce in excess of 600 horsepower.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 68
Balers - are implements used for packaging hay, or straw to permit mechanized handling and transport. The two most common bale formats are large round bales (> 4 feet in diameter) and large rectangular bales (up to 8 feet in length). Large bales can weigh more than 2,000 pounds.
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 69
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 70
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 71
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 72
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 73
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 74
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 75
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 76
Principles of Filed Crop Production ( Practical Part).. Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Page 77