ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS II

2012

Low-pass filter
A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter. A low pass filter has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cut-off frequency, fH. Hence the bandwidth of this filter is also fH. The circuit allows the range of frequencies from o to fH. This range is known as the pass band. The range of frequencies beyond fH, is completely attenuated and hence called as stop band.

1. First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

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The first order low pass Butterworth is realized by R-C circuit used along with an op-amp, used in the non-inverting configuration.

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FIRST ORDER LOW PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER This is also called one pole low pass Butterworth filter. The resistances Rf and R1 decide the gain of the filter in the pass band.

Analysis of the filter circuit The impedance of the capacitor C is -jXc where Xc is the capacitive reactance given by Xc= 1/2fC.

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Thus, for the range of frequencies, 0< f<fH, the gain is almost constant equal to fH which is high cut-off frequency. At f=fH, gain reduces to 0.707 AF i.e. 3dB down from AF. And as the frequency increases than fH, the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade. The rate 20dB/decade means decrease of 20 dB in gain per 10 times change in frequency. The same rate can be expressed as dB/octave i.e. decreases of 6 dB per 2 times change in the frequency. The frequency fH is called cut-off frequency, break frequency, -3 dB frequency or corner frequency.

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2. Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter The practical response of the filter must be very close to an ideal one. In case of low pass filter, it is always desirable that the gain rolls off very fast after the cut off frequency, in the stop band. In case of first order filter, it rolls off at a rate of 20 dB/decade. In case of second order filter, the gain rolls off at a rate of 40 dB/decade. Thus, the slope of the frequency response after f=fH is -40 dB/decade, for a second order low pass filter.

The cut-off frequency fH for the filter is now decided by R2, C2, R3 and C3. The gain of the filter is as usual decided by op-amp i.e. the resistance R1 and Rf.
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At the cut-off frequency, fH, the gain is 0.707 AF. i.e. 3 dB down from its 0 Hz level. After, fH, the gain rolls off at the rate of 40 dB/decade. Hence, the slope of the response after fH is -40 dB/decade.

High-pass filter
A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes highfrequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. A highpass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It is
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sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter. High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to nonzero average voltages or RF devices.

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1. First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the elements R and C in a first order low pass filter circuit.

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The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in pass band is called low cut-off frequency and denoted as fL. So, all the frequencies greater than fL are allowed to pass but the maximum frequency which is allowed to pass is determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the op-amp used. Analysis of the Filter Circuit

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2. Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter

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The second order high pass Butterworth filter produces a gain roll off at the rate of +40 dB/decade in the stop band. This filter also can be realized by interchanging the positions of resistors and capacitors in a second order low pass Butterworth filter.

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Switched Capacitor Filter

For getting good reliability and high performance, IC active filters are used. But major limitation of such ICs is the values of integrated resistors. The resistor values required for RC active filters are generally very high and such large value resistors require large chip area. Similarly the temperature and linearity characteristics of integrated resistors are poor. Hence it is necessary to find the replacement for the high value integrated resistors. The switched capacitor filters fulfill this requirement. The switched capacitor filters use the on-chip capacitors of small values and MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) switches, to simulate high value resistors. The switches are controlled by the external clock, whose frequency can be easily controlled. Advantages of Switched Capacitor Filter The various advantages of switched capacitor filter are: 1. Very high value of resistors can be easily simulated using small value capacitors, of the order of 10 pF.
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2. The switched capacitor filters require no external reactive components like inductors and capacitors. 3. Accuracy is very high. 4. The overall cost of the system is low. 5. Due to good temperature characteristics, the systems have good temperature stability. The only disadvantage of the switched capacitor filters, is that they generate more noise than the standard active filters. Basic Operation of Switched Capacitor Filter A switched capacitor filter is a three terminal device which consists of capacitor and MOS switches. The S1 and S2 are the two MOS switches and C is the capacitor. The three terminals are marked as 1, 2 and 3. The terminal 3 is common at input and output and generally grounded.

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The two switches operated alternately and a capacitor C together is used to simulate high value resistors. Consider a circuit using a basic switched capacitor filter, The two switches S1 and S2 are the MOS transistors which are alternately opened and closed. Thus when S1 is closed, S2 is open and vice versa. The switches are opened and closed alternately by using an external clock with a frequency FCLK. Consider the switch S1 is in position a i.e. it is closed. So capacitor C gets charged to voltage Vin. Hence the total charge on the capacitor is,

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Q = CVin When S1 is open and S2 is in position b i.e. closed then the capacitor C discharges and charge Q flows to the ground. If the switches are ideal i.e. they open and close instantaneously and resistance of the switches is zero when they are closed the charging and discharging of the capacitor takes place instantly. So, let, Iin= Charging Current and Io = Discharging current Then when S1 is closed, Iin flows instantly whose amplitude depends on charge Q flowing per unit time. Hence Iin occurs in pulse form, at the instants when S1 is closed. While when S2 is closed, Io occurs in pulse form. So the capacitor current consists of short bursts every time when switch is closed. The waveforms of Iin and Io , related to the closing and opening of switches.

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The time between closing of switch S1 or S2 is called clock time, denoted as TCLX. This can be controlled by an external clock. Thus if switches are opened and closed at a faster rate, then frequency of occurrence of current pulses will be high but their amplitudes will remain unchanged. But due to frequent occurrence of current pulses, the average current flowing will be more for higher switching rate. This average current is rate of change of flux with respect to the clock time TCLX.

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