STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

Lecture 3: Objectives
The aim of this lecture is to understand the Fourier's law of conduction
(both physically and mathematically) and introduce various thermal
properties like thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude.
The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional to
the temperature gradient.
Heat conduction in a medium is three dimensional and time
dependent
T = f ( x,y,z,t )
Heat conduction in a medium is said to be
STEADY - temperature does not vary with time.
UNSTEADY (transient) - temperature varies with time
One dimensional
T=f(x) or T=f(y) or T=f(z)
Two dimensional
T=f( x,y) or T=f(y,z) or T=f(x,z)
Three dimensional
T = f(x,y,z)
CONDUCTION RATE EQUATION
Acylindrical rod of known material is insulated on its lateral surface.
Its end faces are maintained at different temperatures with T
1
> T
2
The heat transfer rate q
x
depends upon,
The temperature difference, T
The rod length, x
The cross sectional area, A
The heat transfer rate varies as,
(2.1)
the proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a
coefficient that is a measure of the material behavior.
Therefore,
(2.2)
"
x
T
q A
x
o
A
A
"
x
T
q k A
x
A
=
A
where k is the thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
Applying limits,
(2.2a)
Therefore,
(2.3)
and the heat flux
(2.4)
The minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
0 0
"
x
x x
T
lim q lim k A
x A A
A
=
A
"
x
dT
q k A
dx
=
" x
x
q dT
q k
A dx
= =
Fourier's law, as written in Equation 2.4, it follows that is normal to the
cross sectional area A called an isothermal surface as illustrated in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Relation between co-ordinate system, heat flow direction
and temperature gradient in one dimension.
Generalizing the conduction rate equation for three dimension gives,
(2.4)
T(x)
T
T
1
2
x
L
q"
x
"
T T T

q k T k i j k
x y z
| | c c c
= V = + +
|
c c c
\ .
In Cartesian coordinates, the general expression for q" is
(2.5)
and from Equation 2.4a, it follows that,
(2.6)
NOTE: Here we have assumed that,
The medium in which conduction occurs is isotropic.
The thermal conductivity is independent of the coordinate direction in an
isotropic medium.
" " " "
x y z

q iq jq kq = + +
" " "
x y z
T T T
q k ;q k ;q k
x y z
c c c
= = =
c c c
THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast heat will
flow in that material.
A large value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor,
A low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.
Figure 2.3 shows the range of thermal conductivity for various states of
matter at normal temperature and pressure.
Figure 2.3 Range Of Thermal Conductivity For Various States Of Matter
At Normal Temperature And Pressure
Note that the thermal conductivity of a solid may be more than four orders
of magnitude larger than that of a gas.
This trend is largely due to differences in intermolecular spacing for the
two states.
Thermal Conductivity K (W/mK)
THE SOLID STATE
A solid may be comprised of free electrons and of atoms bound in a
periodic arrangement called the lattice. Accordingly, transport of thermal
energy is due to two effects:
the migration of free electrons and
lattice vibrational waves.
These effects are additive, such that the thermal conductivity k is the
sum of the electronic component k
e
and the lattice component k
l
(2.6)
where, k
e
is inversely proportional to the electrical resistivity
e
.
For pure metals, which are of low
e
, k
e
is much larger than k
l
.
For alloys, which are of substantially larger
e
, the contribution of k
l
to k
is no longer negligible.
For non-metallic solids, k is determined primarily by k
l
, which depends
on the frequency of interactions between the atoms of the lattice.
e l
K K K = +
The regularity of the lattice arrangement has an important effect on k
l
,
with crystalline (well-ordered) materials like quartz having a higher
thermal conductivity than amorphous materials like glass.
In fact, for crystalline, non-metallic solids such as diamond and beryllium
oxide, k
l
can be quite large, exceeding values of k associated with good
conductors, such as aluminium.
INSULATION SYSTEMS
Thermal insulation systems are comprised of low thermal conductivity
materials combined to achieve an even lower system thermal
conductivity.
In fiber-, powder-, flake-type insulations, the solid material is finely
dispersed throughout an air space to achieve effective thermal
conductivity.
Effective thermal conductivity of such systems depends on
the thermal conductivity
surface radiative properties of the solid material,
the nature and volumetric fraction of the air or void space.
A special parameter of the system is its bulk density (solid mass/total
volume), which depends strongly on the manner in which the solid
material is interconnected
THE FLUID STATE
Since the intermolecular spacing is much larger and the motion of the
molecules is more random for the fluid state than for the solid state,
thermal energy transport is less effective.
Therefore, the thermal conductivity of gases and liquids is smaller than
that of solids.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
In the analysis of heat transfer problems, it will be necessary to use many
properties of matter.
These properties are generally referred to as thermophysical properties
and consists of two distinct categories,
transport properties include the diffusion rate coefficients such as k,
(for heat transfer), and, the kinematic viscosity (for momentum
transfer)
thermodynamic properties - pertain to the equilibrium state of a
system. Such as Density () and specific heat (C
p
)
The product C
p
commonly termed volumetric heat capacity, measures
the ability of a material to store thermal energy.
The ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity is an important property
termed the thermal diffusivity , which has units of m
2
/s.
(2.8)
It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to
its ability to store thermal energy.
NOTE:
Materials of large will respond quickly to changes in their thermal
environment
Materials of small will respond more sluggishly to reach new equilibrium
condition.
p
k
C
o

=
Lecture 4: Objectives
Three dimensional heat diffusion equation in Cartesian co-ordinates is
derived from first principle and various boundary and initial conditions are
stated.
THE HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION
A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the temperature
field in a mediumresulting fromconditions imposed on its boundaries.
We now consider the manner in which the temperature distribution can be
determined.
We define a differential control volume, identify the relevant energy transfer
processes, and introduce the appropriate rate equations.
The result is a differential equation whose solution, for prescribed
boundary conditions, provides the temperature distribution in the medium.
To determine the differential equation whose solution, for prescribed
boundary conditions, provides the temperature distribution in the medium.
Consider,
a homogenous medium
with no bulk motion and
temperature distribution T(x,y,z)
Consider a infinitesimally small control volume dx.dy.dz , as shown in Figure
2.4
Figure 2.4 Differential Control Volume For Conduction Analysis In
Cartesian Coordinates
y+dy
y
The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control
surfaces at the x, y and z coordinate locations are indicated by the
terms q
x
, q
y
, and q
z
, respectively. The conduction heat rates at the
opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series
expansion where, neglecting higher order terms,
(2.9a)
(2.9b)
(2.9c)
Equation 2.9a simply states that the x component of the heat
transfer rate at x+dx is equal to the value of this component at x plus
the amount by which it changes with respect x times dx.
Within the medium there may also be an energy source term. This
termis represented as
(2.10)
x
x dx x
q
q q dx
x
+
c
= +
c
y
y dy y
q
q q dy
y
+
c
= +
c
z
z dz z
q
q q dz
z
+
c
= +
c
st
E qdxdy dz

=
where is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the
medium(W/m
3
).
There may occur changes in the amount of the internal thermal energy
stored by the material in the control volume. The energy storage term
may be expressed as
(2.11)
where is the time rate of change of the thermal (sensible) energy of
the mediumper unit volume.
The general formof the conservation of energy is
(2.12)
(2.13)
q
st p
T
E C dx dy dz
t

c
=
c
p
T
C
t

c
c
in g out st
E E E E

+ =
in x y z
E q q q

= + +
(2.14)
substituting Equations 2.9, 2.13 and 2.14 in Equation 2.12, we obtain
(2.15)
substituting from Equation 2.9, it follows that
(2.16)
The conduction heat rates is evaluated from Fourier's law
(2.17a)
(2.17b)
(2.17c)
out x dx y dy z dz
E q q q

+ + +
= + +
x y z x dx y dy z dz p
T
q q q q dx dy dz q q q C dx dy dz
t

+ + +
c
+ + + =
c

y
x z
p
q
q q T
dx dy dz qdx dy dz C dx dy dz
x y z t

c
c c c
+ =
c c c c

x
T
q k dydz
x
c
=
c
y
T
q k dxdz
y
c
=
c
z
T
q k dxdy
z
c
=
c
where each heat flux component has been multiplied by an appropriate
control surface area to obtain the heat transfer rate.
Substituting Equations 2.17 into 2.16 and dividing out the dimensions of
the control volume ( dx dy dz) , we obtain
(2.18)
Equation 2.18 is the general form of the heat diffusion equation in
Cartesian coordinates.
From the solution of this heat equation, we can obtain the temperature
distribution T(x,y,z) as a function of time.
If the thermal conductivity is a constant, the heat equation is
(2.19)
Where is the thermal diffusivity.
Under steady-state conditions , there can be no change in the amount of
energy storage; hence equation 2.18 reduces to
p
T T T T
k k k q C
x x y y z z t

| | c c c c c c c | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
c c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 T T T q T
k t
x y z

o
c c c c
+ + + =
c
c c c
p
k
C
o

=
(2.20)
If the heat transfer is one dimensional (e.g., in the x direction) and there is
no energy generation , Equation 2.20 reduces to
(2.20a)
The most important implication of this result is that under steady state,
one dimensional conditions with no energy generation, the heat flux is a
constant in the direction of heat transfer
0
T T T
k k k q
x x y y z z

| | c c c c c c | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
0
d dT
k
dx dx
| |
=
|
\ .
PROBLEM 2.1:
The temperature distribution across a wall of 1 m thick at a certain instant
of time is given as T(x) = a+bx+cx
2
where T is in degrees Celsuis and x
is in meters, while a = 800
o
C, b = -350
o
C/m, and c = -60
o
C/m
2
. A
uniform heat generation, = 1000 W/m
3
, is present in the wall of area 10
m
2
having the properties = 1600 kg/m
3
, k = 40 W/m.K, and C
p
= 4
kJ/kg.K.
Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall ( x = 0) and leaving
the wall ( x = 1m)
Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall
Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0.25 and 0.5 m
Diag:
L=1 m
T(x)=a+bx+cx
x
q
out
q
in
2
A=10 m
2
E
E
g
st
.
.
&
q=1000W/m
k=40W/mK
=1600kg/m
c =4kJ/K
p
2
3

Known: Temperature distribution T(x) at an instant of time t in a one

dimensional wall with uniformheat generation.
Find:
Heat rates entering, q
in
( x = 0), and leaving, q
out
( x = 1), the wall
Rate of change of energy storage in the wall,
Time rate of temperature change at x = 0.25 and 0.5 m.
Assumptions:
One dimensional conduction in the x -direction.
Homogenous mediumwith constant properties.
Uniformheat generation.
Analysis:
1. Recall that once the temperature distribution is known for a medium, it
is a simple matter to determine the conduction heat transfer rate at
any point in the medium, or at its surfaces, by Fourier's law. Hence
the desired heat rates may be determined by using the prescribed
temperaturedistribution with Equation 2.3. Accordingly,
Similarly,
2. The rate of change of energy storage in the wall may be
determined by applying an overall energy balance to the wall. Using
Equation 1.7 for a control volume about the wall
where ,it follows that,
( )
0
0
0 2
in x
x
x
T
q q ( ) k A kA b cx
x
=
=
c
= = = +
c
350 40 10 120
in
q bkA kW = = =
( ) ( )
out
2
x
x L
x L
T
q q L kA kA b cx
x
=
=
c
= = = +
c
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
out
2 40 10 350 2 60 1 188kW q kA b cL = + = + =
st
E

in g out st
E E E E + =

g
E qAL =

st in g out in out
E E E E q qAL q = + = +


120 000 1000 10 1 188 000
st
E , , = +

58kW
st
E =

3. The time rate of change of change of the temperature at any point in the
medium may be determined from the heat equation, Equation 2.19,
rewritten as
Fromthe prescribed temperature distribution, it follows that
Note that this derivative is independent of position in the medium. Hence
the time rate of temperature change is also independent of position and is
given by
Comments:
Fromthe above result it is evident that the temperature at every point within
the wall is decreasing with time.
Fourier's law can always be used to compute the conduction heat rate from
knowledge of the temperature distribution, even for unsteady conditions
with internal heat generation
2
2
p p
T k T q
t C C
x

c c
= +
c
c

( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2 2 60 120 C m
T T
b cx c
x x x
x
c c c c
| |
= = + = = =
|
c c c
c \ .
( )
4
40 1000
120 5 94 10 C s
1600 4000 1600 4000
T
.
t

c
= + =
c
BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to
solve the appropriate form of the heat equation.
However, such a solution depends on the physical conditions existing at
the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on
conditions existing in the medium at some initial time.
Because the heat equation is second order in the spatial coordinates,
two boundary conditions must be expressed for each coordinate to
describe the system.
Because the equation is first order in time, however, only one condition,
termed the initial condition, must be specified.
The three kinds of boundary conditions commonly encountered in heat
transfer are summarized in Table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE HEAT DIFFUSION
EQUATION AT THE SURFACE(x=0)
The conditions are specified at the surface x =0 for a one-dimensional
system.
Heat transfer is in the positive x direction with the temperature
distribution, which may be time dependent, designated as T( x, t ) .
The first condition corresponds to a situation for which the surface is
maintained at a fixed temperature T
s
. It is commonly termed a Dirichlet
condition, or a boundary condition of the first kind.
Example: when the surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling
liquid. In both cases there is heat transfer at the surface, while the surface
remains at the temperature of the phase change process.
The second condition corresponds to the existence of a fixed or constant
heat flux at the surface. This heat flux is related to the temperature
gradient at the surface by Fourier's Law, which may be expressed as
(2.21)
"
s
q
0
"
x
x
T
q k
x
=
c
=
c
The second condition is termed as Neumann condition, or a boundary
condition of the second kind, and may be realized by bonding a thin film or
patch electric heater to the surface.
A special case of this condition corresponds to the perfectly insulated, or
adiabatic, surface for which
The boundary condition of the third kind corresponds to the existence of
convection heating (or cooling) at the surface and is obtained from the
surface energy balance.
0
0
x
T
k
x
=
c
=
c
Lecture 5 : Objectives
One dimensional steady conduction in plane wall, composite wall and
cylinder is introduced. The approach is to reduce the heat diffusion
equation for the case chosen.
Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is
solved for temperature distribution and heat transfer rate is computed
Analogy between thermal and electrical systems is drawn in order to aid
the solving of conduction problems on the basis of electrical circuits
ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE CONDUCTION
We treat situations for which heat is transferred by diffusion under one
dimensional, steady state conditions.
In a one-dimensional system, temperature gradients exist along a single
coordinate direction, and heat transfer occurs exclusively in that
direction.
The system is characterized by steady state conditions if the
temperature at each point is independent of time.
We begin our consideration of one-dimensional, steady state conduction
by discussing heat transfer with no internal generation.
THE PLANE WALL
For one dimensional conduction in a plane wall, temperature is a function
of the x coordinate only and heat is transferred exclusively in this
direction.
In Figure 2.5, a plane wall separates two fluids of different temperatures.
Heat transfer occurs,
by convection from the hot fluid at to one surface of the wall at
by conduction through the wall, and
by convection from the other surface of the wall at to the cold fluid at
.
Let us first determine the temperature distribution, from which we can
then obtain the conduction heat transfer rate.
1 ,
T
1 s,
T
2 s,
T
2 ,
T

FIGURE 2.5 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A PLANE WALL

TemperatureDistribution
The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by solving the
heat equation using proper boundary conditions. For steady state
conditions with no energy source within the wall, the appropriate form of
the heat equation is
x=0 x=L
T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 , T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 ,
Ts,1
Ts,2
h2 h1
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
(2.22)
Integrating the above equation twice to obtain the general solution
(2.23)
Applying boundary conditions of the first kind at x=0 and x=L to obtain the
constants of integration,C
1
and,C
2
.
Applying the condition at x = 0 to the general solution, it follows that
Similarly, at x=L,
which gives,
0
d T
k
dx x
c | |
=
|
c
\ .
1 2 s,
T C =
2 1 2 1 1 s, s,
T C L C C L T = + = +
2 1
1
s, s,
T T
C
L

=
( ) ( )
1 2
0 and
s, S,
T T T L T = =
( )
1 2
T x C x C = +
substituting into the general solution, the temperature distribution is then
(2.24)
From this result, it is evident that, for one dimensional, steady state
conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation and constant thermal
conductivity, the temperature varies linearly with x.
Using Fourier's law, to determine the conduction heat transfer rate. That
is,
(2.25)
Note that A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer
and for the plane wall, it is a constant independent of x.
The heat flux is then,
(2.26)
( )
( )
2 1 1 s , s , s ,
x
T x T T T
L
= +
( )
x s , s ,
dT kA
q kA T T
dx L
= =
1 2
( )
1 2
" x
x s , s ,
q k
q T T
A A
= =
Equations 2.25 and 2.26 indicate that both the heat rate q
x
and heat flux
are constants, independent of x.
Thermal Resistance
There exists an analogy between the diffusion of heat and electrical
charge.
Thermal resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat in the
same fashion as an electrical resistance is associated with the
conduction of electricity.
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate
it follows fromEquation 2.25 that the thermal resistance for conduction is
(2.27)
Similarly, for electrical conduction, Ohm's law provides an electrical
resistanceof the form
(2.28)
( )
cond
1 2 s , s ,
t ,
x
T T
L
R
q kA

= =
( )
1 2 s, s,
e
E E
L
R
l A o

= =
Therefore,
the rate of heat transfer through a plane wall corresponds to the electric
current
the thermal resistance corresponds to electrical resistance and
the temperature difference corresponds to voltage difference across the
plane wall. (Figure. 2.6)
Figure 2.6 Analogy Between Thermal And Electrical Resistance Concepts
Consider convection heat transfer from a solid surface of area A (Figure 2.7)
and temperature T
s
to a fluid whose temperature sufficiently far from the
surface is , with a convection heat transfer coefficient h. Newton's law of
cooling for convection heat transfer rate
The thermal resistance for convection is
(2.29)
(2.30)
Figure 2.7 Schematic For Convection Resistance at a Surface
( )
s
q hA T T

=
( )
conv
1
s
t ,
T T
R
q h A

= =
Consider steady one-dimensional heat flow through a plane wall of
thermal conductivity k and thickness L that is exposed to convection on
both sides to fluids at temperatures and with heat transfer coefficients
h
1
and h
2
, respectively, as shown in Figure. 2.8.
Figure 2.8 Thermal Resistance Network For Heat Transfer Through A Plane
Wall
x=0 x=L
T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 , T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 ,
Ts,1
Ts,2
h2 h1
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
q
x
T
oo 1 , Ts,2 T
oo 2 ,
Ts,1
1
h
1
A
L
kA
1
h
2
A
Under steady state conditions, we have
(2.31)
(2.32)
In terms of the overall temperature difference, , and the total thermal
resistance, R
tot
the heat transfer rate may also be expressed as
(2.33)
Equivalent thermal circuits concepts is used for more complex systems,
such as composite walls (i.e. any number of series and parallel thermal
resistances due to layers of different materials). Consider the series
composite wall of Figure. 2.9. The one dimensional heat transfer rate for
this systemmay be expressed as
Rateof Heat Convection Rateof Heat Conduction Rateof Heat Convection
int otheWall throughtheWall fromtheWall
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 x , s , s , s , s , ,
kA
q h A T T T T h A T T
L

= = =
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 1
, s , s , s , s , ,
x
T T T T T T
q
L
h A kA h A


= = =
( )
1 2 , ,
x
tot
T T
q
R

=
(2.34)
where is the overall temperature difference and the summation
includes all thermal resistances. Hence,
(2.35)
Figure 2.9 Equivalent Thermal Circuit For A Series Composite Wall
x=0 x=L
T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 , T
oo 2 ,
T
oo 1 ,
Ts,1
Ts,2
h2 h1
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
LB LA LC
q
x
T
oo 1 , Ts,4 T
oo 4 ,
Ts,1 T2
T3
1
h
1
A
L
k
A
A
A
L
k
B
A
B
L
k
C
A
C
1
h
4
A
( )
1 4 , ,
x
t
T T
q
R

1 4 , ,
T T

( )
1 4
1 4
1 1
, ,
x
C A B
A B C
T T
q
L L L
h A k A k A k A h A

=
(
| | | | | | | | | |
+ + + +
| | | | |
(
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

Also, the heat transfer rate can be related to the temperature difference
and resistance associated with each element. For example,
(2.36)
With the composite systems, it is usually convenient to work with an
overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is defined by the expression
analogous to Newton's law of cooling. Accordingly,
(2.37)
where T is the overall temperature difference.
From Equations 2.34 and 2.37 we see that UA = 1/R
tot
. Hence, for the
compositewall of Figure.2.9,
(2.38)
1 1 1 2
2 3
1
1
, s , s ,
x
A B
A B
T T T T
T T
q ....
L L
h A k A k A

= = = =
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
x
q UA T = A
1 4
1 1
1 1 tot C A B
A B C
U
R A L L L
h k k k h
= =
(
| | | | | | | | | |
+ + + +
| | | | |
(
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

In general, we write
(2.39)
Composite walls may also be
characterized by series-parallel
configurations, such as that
shown in Figure.2.10
Figure 2.10 Equivalent Thermal
Circuits For A Series-Parallel Composite Wall
L
E
F
G
H
k
E
k
k
k
F
G
H L L L
E F G
=
q
x
T
1
T
2
L
F
k
F
(A/2)
L
E
k
E
A
L
H
k
H
A
L
G
k
G
(A/2)
L
G
k
G
(A/2)
L
F
k
F
(A/2)
L
E
k
E
(A/2)
L
E
k
E
(A/2)
L
G
k
G
(A/2)
L
G
k
G
(A/2)
q
x
T
1
T
2
T
2 T
1
1
tot tot
T
R R
q UA
A
= = =
Contact Thermal Resistance:
- In heat conduction analysis through composite walls, we have assumed
"perfect contact" at the interface of two layers, and thus no temperature
drop at the interface.
- This would be the case when the surfaces are perfectly smooth and they
produce a perfect contact at each point.
- In reality, however, even flat surfaces that appear smooth to the eye turn
out to be rather rough when examined under a microscope, as shown in
Figure 2.11, with numerous peaks and valleys.
- That is, a surface is microscopically rough no matter how smooth it
appears to be.
Ideal Thermal Contact
Layer 1
Layer 2
Interface
T1=T2
Actual Thermal Contact
Figure 2.11 Temperature Distribution Along Two Solid Plates
Pressed Against Each Other
- When two such surfaces are pressed against each other, the peaks
will form good material contact but the valleys will form voids filled with
air.
- As a result, an interface will contain numerous air gaps of varying
sizes that act as insulation because of the low thermal conductivity of
air.
Layer 1 Layer 2
T
1
T
2
Interface
Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat transfer, and this
resistance per unit interface area is called thermal contact resistance,
given by
(2.40)
- For solids whose thermal conductivities exceed that of the interfacial fluid,
the contact resistance may be reduced by increasing the area of the
contact spots.
- Such an increase may be effected by increasing the joint pressure and/or
by reducing the roughness of the mating surfaces.
- The contact resistance may also be reduced by selecting an interfacial
fluid of large thermal conductivity.
- In this respect, no fluid (an evacuated interface) eliminates conduction
across the gap, thereby increasing the contact resistance.
1 2 "
t ,c
"
x
T T
R
q

=
"
t ,c
R
PROBLEM 2.2
A leading manufacturer of household appliances is proposing a self-
cleaning oven design that involves use of a composite window separating
the oven cavity from the room air. The composite is to consist of two high
temperature plastics (A and B) of thicknesses L
A
= 2L
B
and thermal
conductivities k
A
=0.15 W/m.K and k
B
= 0.08 W/m.K. During the self-
cleaning process, the oven wall and air temperatures, T
w
and T
a
, are
400
0
C, while the room air temperature is 25
0
C. The inside convection
and radiation heat transfer coefficients h
i
and h
r
, as well as the outside
convection coefficient h
o
, are each approximately 25 W/m
2
.K. What is the
minimum window thickness, L=L
A
+L
B
, needed to ensure a temperature
that is 50
0
C or less at the outer surface of the window? This temperature
must not be exceeded for safety reasons
T

Diag:
Known: The properties and relative dimensions of plastic materials used for
a composite oven window, and conditions associated with self-cleaning
operation
Find : Composite thickness L
A
+ L
B
needed to ensure safe operation
Air
h =25W/m K
2
oo
o
h =25W/m K
2
w
r
h =25W/m K
2
a
i
o
o
o
Oven cavity
Composite
window
L
A
=2L
B
L
A L
B
T
s,i
Ts,o
A B
k =0.08W/mK
k =0.15W/mK
A
B
50
Air
Assumptions:
Steady state conditions exist
Conduction through the window is one dimensional
Contact resistance is negligible
Radiation absorption within the window is negligible; hence no internal
heat generation
Radiation exchange between window outer surface and surroundings is
negligible
Each plastic is homogeneous with constant properties
Analysis:
The thermal circuit can be constructed by recognizing that resistance to
heat flow is associated with convection at the outer surface, conduction in
the plastics, and convection and radiation at the inner surface.
Accordingly, the circuit and the resistances are of the following form:
Ts,o
T
oo
Ts,i
L
k A
L
k A
1
h
o
A
A
B
B
A
w
1
h
r
A
a
1
h
i
A
T
T
w T
a T
=
Since the outer surface temperature of the window, T
s,o
is prescribed, the
required window thickness may be obtained by applying an energy
balance at this surface. That is, fromEquation 1.7
where, fromEquation 2.39, with T
w
= T
a
,
and fromEquation 2.29
The total thermal resistance between the oven cavity and the outer
surface of the window includes an effective resistance associated with
convection and radiation, which act in parallel at the inner surface of the
window, and the conduction resistances of the window materials. Hence,
or
in out
E E =

a s,o
in
t
T T
E q
R

= =

( )
out o s,o
E q h A T T

= =

1
1 1
1 1
A B
t
A B
i r
L L
R
k A k A
h A h A

| |
|
= + + +

|
|
\ .
substituting into the energy balance, it follows that
hence for solving L
A
,
1 1
2
A A
t
i r A B
L L
R
A h h k k
| |
= + +

|
+
\ .
( )
( )
1
2
a s,o
o s,o
A A
i r
A B
T T
h T T
L L
h h
k k

=
| | | |
+ + +
| |
\ . \ .
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1 1
2
a s,o
o
i r
s,o
A
A B
T T
h
h h
T T
L
k k

(
| |

|
(
\ .
+
(

(

=
| |
+
|
\ .
( )
400 50
0 04 0 02
50 25
0 0418
1 0 15 1 0 16
A
. .
L .
/ . / .

| |

|

\ .
= =
+
since L
B
= L
A
/2 = 0.0209 m,
L = L
A
+ L
B
= 0.0627 m = 62.7 mm
Comments:
1. The self cleaning operation is a transient process, as far as the thermal
response of the window is concerned, and steady state conditions may
not be reached in the time required for cleaning. However, the steady
state condition provides the maximum possible value of T
s,o
and hence
is well suited for the design calculation.
2. Radiation exchange between the oven walls and the composite window
actually depends on the inner surface temperature T
s,1
, and although it
has been neglected, there is radiation exchange between the window
and the surroundings, which depends on T
s,o
.
A more complete analysis may be made to concurrently determine T
s,1
and T
s,o
. Approximating the oven cavity as a large enclosure relative to
the window and applying an energy balance, equation 1.12, at the inner
surface it follows that
" " "
rad ,i conv,i cond
q q q + =
or
Approximating the kitchen walls as a large isothermal enclosure relative
to the window, with ,and this time applying energy balance at the
outer surface, it follows that
or
If all other quantities are known, Equations 1 and 2 may be solved for
T
s,1
and T
s,0
.
We wish to explore the effect on T
s,0
of varying velocity, and hence the
convection coefficient, associated with airflow over the outer surface.
With = 0.9 and all other conditions remaining the same, equations 1
and 2 have been solved for values of h
0
in the range W/m
2
K
and the results are represented graphically.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
4 4
s,i s,o
w,i s,i i a s,i
A A B B
T T
T T h T T
L k L k
co

+ =
+
w,o
T T

=
" " "
cond rad ,o conv,o
q q q = +
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4 4
s,i s,o
s,o w,o o s,o
A A B B
T T
T T h T T
L k L k
co

= +
+
0 100
o
h s s
3. Increasing h
0
reduces the corresponding convection resistance, and a
value of h
0
=30 W/m
2
K would yield a safe to touch temperature of
T
s,0
= 43 C . Because the conduction resistance is so large, the change
h
0
in has a negligible effect on T
s,1
. However it does influence the outer
surface temperature, and as , .
o
h
s,o
T
Lecture 5 :THE CYLINDER
Consider a hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures (Figure. 2.12). For steady state
conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate form of the heat
equation,
(2.41)
where, for a moment k is treated as a variable. The physical significance
of this result becomes evident if we also consider the appropriate form of
Fourier's law. The rate at which energy is conducted across the cylindrical
surface in the solid may be expressed as
(2.42)
where A = 2rL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
NOTE: Since, Equation 2.41 prescribes that the quantity is
independent of r, it follows from Equation 2.42 that the conduction heat
transfer rate q
r
(not the heat flux ) is a constant in the radial direction.
1
0
d dT
kr
r dr dr
| |
=
|
\ .
2
r
dT dT
q kA k ( rL)
dr dr
t = =
dT
kr
dr
"
r
q
Figure 2.12 Hollow Cylinder With Convective Surface Conditions
Assuming the value of k to be constant, Equation 2.41 may be integrated
twice to obtain the general solution
(2.43)
Applying the boundary conditions to the general solution,
i.e. T(r
1
) = T
s,1
and T(r
2
) = T
s,2
we obtain,
1 2
T( r ) C lnr C = +
Solving for C
1
and C
2
and substituting into the general solution, we then
obtain
(2.44)
NOTE: that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction
through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as it is for the plane wall.
The logarithmic distribution is shown in Figure. 2.12.
If the temperature distribution, Equation 2.44, is now used with Fourier's
law, Equation 2.42, we obtain the following expression for the heat transfer
rate:
(2.45)
1 1 1 2 s,
T C lnr C = +
2 1 2 2 s,
T C lnr C = +
1 2
2
1 2
2
s , s ,
s ,
T T
r
T( r ) ln T
r r
ln
r
| |
= +
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .
( )
1 2
2
1
2
s , s ,
r
Lk T T
q
r
ln
r
t
=
| |
|
\ .
0
dr
dT
kr
dr
d
r
1
= |
.
|

\
|
0
dr
dT
r
dr
d
= |
.
|

\
|
Integrating
1
C
dr
dT
r =
r
C
dr
dT
1
=
2 1
C r ln C T + =
2 2 1 2 , s
2 1 1 1 , s
C r ln C T
C r ln C T
+ =
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
1
r
r
ln
T T
C
2
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
2 , s 2
r ln
r
r
ln
T T
T C
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
2 , s
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
r ln
r
r
ln
T T
T r ln
r
r
ln
T T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
2
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
2 , s
r
r
ln
r
r
ln
T T
T T
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
1 , s
r
r
ln
r
r
ln
T T
T T
1
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
1 , s 2
r ln
r
r
ln
T T
T C
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
r
dT dT
q kA k ( rL)
dr dr
t = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
2
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
2 , s
r
r
ln
r
r
ln
T T
T T
2
r
dT dT
q kA k ( rL)
dr dr
t = =
( )
r
1
r
r
ln
T T
Lr 2 k q
2
1
2 , s 1 , s
r
|
|
.
|

\
|

= t
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
2
2 , s 1 , s
r
r
r
ln
T T
k L 2 q t
2
1
2
t ,cond
r
ln
r
R
Lk t
| |
|
\ .
=
From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall,
the thermal resistance is of the form
(2.46)
This resistance is shown in Figure. 2.12. Note that since the value of q
r
is
independent of r , the foregoing result could have been obtained by using
the alternative method, that is, by integrating Equation 2.42.
Consider now the composite system of Figure 2.13. Recalling how we
treated the composite plane wall and neglecting contact resistances
between the interface, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as
(2.47)
The above result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat
transfer coefficient. That is,
2
1
2
t ,cond
r
ln
r
R
Lk t
| |
|
\ .
=
1 2
3 4 2
2 3 1
1 1 4 4
1 1
2 2 2 2 2
, ,
r
A B C
T T
q
r r r
ln ln ln
r r r
r Lh k L k L k L r Lh t t t t t

=
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | |
| | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ .
+ + + + | | |
| |
| | \ . | \ .
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
(2.48)
If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A
1
=2r
1
L Equations 2.47 and
2.48 may be equated to yield
(2.49)
( )
1 4
1 4
, ,
r , ,
tot
T T
q UA T T
R

= =
1 1 1 1
3 2 4
1 2 3
1 4 4
1
1 1
A B C
U
r r r r
r r r
ln ln ln
r r r
h k k k r h
=
| | | | | |
+ + + +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Figure 2.13 Temperature Distribution For A Composite Cylindrical Wall
r r
r r
1
2 3
4
Ts,1
T2
T3
Ts,4
T
oo 1 , h1
T
oo 4 , h4
q
r
T
oo 1 , Ts,4 T
oo 4 ,
Ts,1 T2
T3
1
h1
1
h
4
2 k l 2 r l
4
2 r l
1
ln(r /r )
3 2
B
2 k l
ln(r /r )
2 1
A
2 k l
ln(r /r )
4 3
C
T
oo 4 ,
T
oo 1 ,
Ts,1
T2
T3
Ts,4
Lecture 6 : Objectives
- One dimensional steady conduction in sphere is introduced
- The approach is to reduce the heat diffusion equation for the case
chosen.
- Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is
solved for temperature distribution.
- Concept of critical radius of insulation is presented.
THE SPHERE
Consider a hollow sphere, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures (Fig. 2.14).
Fig. 2.14 Conduction in a spherical shell
For steady state conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate form
of the heat equation,
(2.50)
where, for a moment k is treated as a variable. The physical significance
of this result becomes evident if we also consider the appropriate form of
Fourier's law. The rate at which energy is conducted across the cylindrical
surface in the solid may be expressed as
(2.51)
where A =4r
2
is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Since,
Equation 2.50 states that the quantity is independent of r, it follows
from Equation 2.51 that the conduction heat transfer rate q
r
(not the heat
flux q
r
") is a constant in the radial direction.
Assuming the value of k to be constant, Equation 2.50 may be integrated
twice to obtain the general solution
2
2
1
0
d dT
kr
dr dr
r
| |
=
|
\ .
2
4
r
dT dT
q kA k ( r )
dr dr
t = =
2
dT
kr
dr
(2.52)
Applying, the following boundary conditions
T(r
1
) = T
s,1
and T(r
2
) = T
s,2
we then obtain
Solving for C
1
and C
2
and substituting into the general solution, we then
obtain
(2.53)
Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction
through a spherical wall is not linear, as it is for the plane wall under the
same conditions.
1 2
1
1
2 1
1 1
1 1
s , s ,
s ,
T T
T( r ) T
r r
r r
(
= +
(
| |

|
\ .
2
1
C
r
C
T + =
2
1
1
1 , s
C
r
C
T + =
2
2
1
2 , s
C
r
C
T + =
If the temperature distribution, Equation 2.53, is now used with Fourier's
law, Equation 2.51, we obtain the following expression for the heat
transfer rate:
(2.54)
From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a spherical wall,
the thermal resistance is of the form
(2.55)
Note that since the value of q
r
is independent of r , the above result could
have been obtained by using the alternative method, that is, by
integrating Equation 2.51.
Spherical composites may be treated in much the same way as
composite walls and cylinders, where approximate forms of the total
resistanceand overall heat transfer coefficient may be determined
( )
1 2
1 2
4
1 1
s , s ,
r
k T T
q
r r
t
=
| |

|
\ .
1 2
1 1
4
t ,cond
r r
R
k t
| |

|
\ .
=
0
dr
dT
kr
dr
d
r
1
2
= |
.
|

\
|
0
dr
dT
r
dr
d
2
= |
.
|

\
|
Integrating
1
2
C
dr
dT
r =
2
1
r
C
dr
dT
=
2
1
C
r
C
T + =
1
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
1 , s 2
r
1
r
1
r
1
T T
T C
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
1
T T
T T
1
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
1 , s
2
1
1
1 , s
C
r
C
T + =
2
2
1
2 , s
C
r
C
T + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= + =
1 2
1
2
1
1
1
2 , s 1 , s
r
1
r
1
C
r
C
r
C
T T
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
1
r
1
r
1
T T
C
2
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
1
1 , s
C
r
1
r
1
T T
r
1
T +
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
( )
1 2
1 2
4
1 1
s , s ,
r
k T T
q
r r
t
=
| |

|
\ .
2
4
r
dT dT
q kA k ( r )
dr dr
t = =
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
1
T T
T T
1
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
1 , s
( ) ( )( )
1 1
1 2
2 , s 1 , s 2
r
r 1 1
r
1
r
1
T T
r 4 k q


|
|
.
|

\
|

= t
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
r
r
1
r
1
T T
k 4 q t
1 2
1 1
4
t ,cond
r r
R
k t
| |

|
\ .
=
Problem 2.3
A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at
80 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is covered with an
evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation
is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 310K.
The convection coefficient is known to be 20 W/m
2
K. The latent heat of
vaporization and the density of the liquid nitrogen are 2 x 10
5
J/kg and 804
kg/m
3
, respectively. Thermal conductivity of evacuated silica powder (300
K) is 0.0017 W/m.K
what is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen ?
what is the rate of liquid boil-off ?
Diag:
Known: Liquid nitrogen is stored in spherical container that is insulated and
exposed to ambient air.
Find:
The rate of heat transfer to the nitrogen.
The mass rate of nitrogen boil-off.
Assumptions:
1. Steady state conditions
2. One dimensional transfer in the radial direction
3. Negligible resistance to heat transfer through the container wall and
fromthe container to the nitrogen
4. Constant properties
5. Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of insulation and
surroundings
Analysis:
1. The thermal circuit involves a conduction and convection resistance in
series and is of the form
T
oo 1 , T
oo 2 ,
q
R R
t,cond t,conv
where, from Equation 2.55
and from Equation 2.30
The rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen is then
2. Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the nitrogen, it
follows from Equation 1.7 that
1 2
1 1
4
t ,cond
r r
R
k t
| |

|
\ .
=
( )
2
2
1 1
4
t ,conv
R
h A
h r t
= =
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 1
2
1 2 2
1 4 1 1 1 4
, ,
T T
q
/ k / r / r / h r t t

=
( +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
310 80
1 4 0 0017 1 0 25 1 0 275 1 20 4 0 275
q
. . . . t t

=
( +

230
13 47 W
17 02 0 05
q .
. .
= =
+
0
in out
E E =

where and is associated with the loss of latent energy due
to boiling. Hence,
and the boil off is,
The loss per day is
or on a volumetric basis
Comments:
1.
2.With a container volume of (4/3)( ) =0.065 m
3
= 65 litres, the daily loss
to (7.24liters/65 liters) 100%= 11.14%of capacity.
in
E q =

out fg
E mh =

0
fg
q mh =
5
5
13 47
6 74 10 kg s
2 10
fg
q .
m .
h

= = =

5
6 74 10 kg s 3600s hours 24hours day m .

=
5 82kg day m . =
3
5 82kg day
0 00724m day 7 24liters day
804kg day
. m
V . .

= = = =

t ,conv t ,cond
R R
3
1
r t
Lecture 6 :
THE CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
- We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always decreases heat
transfer.
- This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is constant, and adding
insulation will always increase the thermal resistance of the wall without
affecting the convection resistance.
- However, adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical shell, is a
different matter.
- The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the
insulation layer but it also decreases the convection resistance of the
surface because of the increase in the outer surface area for convection.
- Therefore, the heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect dominates.
Is always increasing thickness of insulation beneficial - ?
conv cond
1 1
R R
T T
hA
1
kA
L
T T
Q
+

=
+

=

( )
( )
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
r
T T
q
r
ln
r
Lk h r L t t

=
| |
|
\ .
+
With the increase of thickness of insulation,
Rcond - Increases
Rconv Remains constant
h,T

T
1
L
k
Insulation
With the increase of thickness of insulation,
Rcond - Increases
Rconv Decreases
conv cond
1
R R
T T
+

=

Consider a cylindrical pipe (Figure. 2.15), where,
r
1 --
outer radius
T
1 --
constant outer surface temperature
k
--
thermal conductivity of the insulation
r
2 --
outer radius
- temperature of surrounding medium
h - convection heat transfer coefficient
Figure 2.15 Insulated Cylindrical Pipe
The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air can
be expressed as (Eqn. 2.56)
(2.56)
The variation of heat transfer rate with the outer radius of insulation r
2
is
plotted in Figure 2.16. The value of r
2
at which heat transfer rate reaches
maximum is determined from the requirement that (zero slope).
Performing the differentiation and solving for r
2
gives us the critical radius
of insulation for a cylindrical body to be
(2.57)
NOTE: The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition
of insulation for r
2
< r
cr
, reaches a maximum when r
2
= r
cr
, and starts to
decrease for r
2
> r
cr
. Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate
of heat transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r
2
< r
cr
.
( )
( )
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
r
T T
q
r
ln
r
Lk h r L t t

=
| |
|
\ .
+
cr ,cylinder
k
r
h
=
r
dq
dr
r
r
1
2
k
h
Q
max
.
.
Q
bare
Q
.
0
r =k/h
cr
r r
1 2
Figure 2.16 Variation Of Heat Transfer Rate With Radius
The important question to answer at this point is,
- Whether we need to be concerned about the critical radius of insulation
when insulating hot water pipes or even hot water tanks?
- Should we always check and make sure that the outer radius of insulation
exceeds the critical radius before we install any insulation?
Probably not, as explained below.
- The value of the critical radius r
cr
will be the largest when k is large and h
is small.
- Noting that the lowest value of h encountered in practice is about 5
W/m
2
Kfor the case of natural convection of gases
- Also, the thermal conductivity of common insulating materials is 0.05
W/m
2
K,
- The largest value of the critical radius we are likely to encounter is
This value would be even smaller when the radiation effects are
considered.
0 05
0 01 10
5
max,insulation
cr
min
k
.
r . m mm
h
= = = =
The critical radius would be much less in forced convection, often less
than 1 mm, because of much larger h values associated with forced
convection.
Therefore, we can insulate hot water or steam pipes freely without
worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat transfer by insulating
the pipes.
The radius of electric wires may be smaller than the critical radius.
Therefore, the plastic electrical insulation may actually enhance the heat
transfer from electric wires and thus keep their steady operating
temperatures at lower and thus safer levels.
Similarly for a sphere, it can be shown that the critical radius of insulation for
a spherical shell is
(2.58)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h is the convection
heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface.
2
cr ,sphere
k
r
h
=
Problem 2.4:
A 3 mm diameter and 6 m long electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 2
mm thick plastic cover whose thermal conductivity is k=0.15 W/m.
0
C.
Electrical measurements indicate that a current of 10 A passes through
the wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V along the wire. If the insulated
wire is exposed to a medium at = 27
o
C with a heat transfer coefficient of
h=12 W/m
2
.
o
C, determine the temperature at the interface of the wire and
the plastic cover in steady operation. Also determine whether doubling
the thickness of the plastic cover will increase or decrease this interface
temperature.
Diag:
r
1
r
2
T
1
T
2
T
1 T
oo
q
R R
plastic conv
T
2
h,T
oo
Known : Size of the electric wire, thermal conductivity of the wire, current
and voltage supplied to the wire, ambient conditions and heat transfer
coefficient.
Find : Convection heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.
1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with
time.
2. Heat transfer is one dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about
the center line and no variation in the axial direction.
3. Thermal conductivities are constant.
4. The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible.
5. Heat transfer coefficient incorporates the radiation effects, if any.
Analysis:
Heat is generated in the wire and its temperature rises as a result of
resistance heating. We assume heating is generated uniformly
throughout the wire and is transferred to the surrounding medium in the
radial direction. In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer becomes
equal to the heat generated within the wire, which is determined from
( )
8 10 80W Q VI = = =

The thermal resistance network for this problem involves a conduction

resistance for the plastic cover and a convection resistance for the outer
surface in series, as shown in Schematic. The values of these two
resistances are determined to be
and therefore
R
total
= R
total
+ R
conv
= 0.63 + 0.15 = 0.78
o
C/W
Then the interface temperature can be determined from
( )( )
2
2 2
2 2 0 0035 6 0 132m A r L . . t t = = =
( )
conv
1 1
0 63degC W
12 0 132
R .
hA .
= = =
( ) ( )
( )
2 1
plastic
3 5 1 5
0 15degC W
2 2 0 15 6
ln r r ln . .
R .
kL . t t
= = =
( )
1
total
1 total
1
27 80 0 78
89 4 C
T T
Q
R
T T QR
T .
.

=
= +
= +
=

Note that we did not involve the electrical wire directly in the thermal
resistancenetwork, since the wire involves heat generation.
To answer the second part of the question, we need to know the critical
radius of insulation of the plastic cover.
which is larger than the radius of the plastic cover. Therefore, increasing
the thickness of the plastic cover will enhance heat transfer until the outer
radius of the cover reaches 12.5 mm. As a result, the rate of heat transfer
will increase when the interface temperature T
1
is held constant, or T
1
will
decrease when is held constant, which is the case here.
Comments:
It can be shown by repeating the calculations above for a 4 mm plastic
cover that the interface temperature drops to 77.54
o
C when the thickness
of the plastic cover is doubled. It can also be shown in a similar manner
that the interface reaches a minimum temperature of 71.14
o
C when the
outer radius of the plastic cover equals the critical radius.
cr
0 15
0 0125m =12.5mm
12
k .
r .
h
= = =
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Radius(mm) : Thickness (1.5 mm)
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
SUMMARY OF 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION
Many important problems are characterized by one-dimensional steady-
state conduction in plane, cylindrical or spherical walls without thermal
energy generation. Key results for these geometries are summarized in
Table 2.1, where AT refers to the temperature difference, T
s,1
T
s,2
,
between the inner and outer surfaces identified in Figures. 2.5, 2.12 and
2.14. In each case, beginning with the heat equation, you should be able
to derive the corresponding expression for the temperature distribution,
heat flux, heat rate, and thermal resistance.
Table 2.2 One-Dimensional Steady State Solutions to the Heat
Equation With No Generation
Plane Wall
Cylindrical
Wall
Spherical Wall
Heat Equation
Temperature
Distribution
Heat Flux (q )
Heat Rate (q)
Thermal
Resistance
(R
t, cond
)
2
2
0
d T
dx
=
1 s,
x
T T
L
A
T
k
L
A
T
k A
L
A
L
kA
1
0
d dT
kr
r dr dr
| |
=
|
\ .
2
1 2
2
s,
r T
ln T
r r
ln
r
| | A
+
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .
2
1
k T
r
r ln
r
A
| |
|
\ .
2
1
2 Lk T
r
ln
r
t A
| |
|
\ .
2
1
2
r
ln
r
Lk t
| |
|
\ .
2
2
1
0
d dT
kr
dr dr
r
| |
=
|
\ .
1
1
2 1
1 1
1 1
s,
T
T
r r
r r
( A
+
(
| |

|
\ .
2
1 2
1 1
k T
r
r r
A
| |

|
\ .
1 2
4
1 1
k T
r r
t A
| |

|
\ .
1 2
1 1
4
r r
k t
| |

|
\ .
Lecture 7 : Objectives
- One dimensional steady state conduction in plane wall and radial systems
with thermal energy generation is appreciated.
- Here again, the approach is to reduce the heat diffusion equation for the
case chosen.
- Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is
solved for temperature distribution and heat transfer rates are computed.
In the preceding lecture we considered conduction problems for which the
temperature distribution in a medium was determined solely by conditions
at the boundaries of the medium. We shall now consider the additional
effect on the temperature distribution of processes that may be occurring
within the medium. Specifically we will consider situations for which
thermal energy is being generated due to conversion from some other
energy form.
A very common thermal energy generation process involves the
conversion from electrical to thermal energy in a current carrying medium
(resistance heating). The rate at which energy is generated by passing a
current I through a mediumof electrical resistance R
e
is
(2.59)
If this power generation occurs uniformly throughout the medium of
volume V, the volumetric generation rate (W/m
3
) is then
(2.60)
THE PLANE WALL
Consider the plane wall of Figure 2.17, in which there is uniform energy
generation per unit volume ( is constant) and the surfaces are maintained
at T
s,1
and T
s,2
. For constant thermal conductivity k , the appropriate form
of the heat equation,
(2.61)
The general solution is
(2.62)
2
g e
E I R =

2
g
e
E
I R
q
V V
= =

q
2
2
0
d T q
k
dx
+ =

2
1 2
2
q
T x C x C
k
= + +

Asymmetrical Boundary Condition

Symmetrical Boundary Condition
-L +L
T
oo 1 , h1
Hot Fluid
T
oo 2 , h2
Cold Fluid
Ts,1
q
.
T(x)
-L +L
T
oo ,h
Hot Fluid
T
oo ,h
Cold Fluid
Ts
q
.
T(x)
x
Ts
q"
conv
q"
cond
T
o
Adiabatic Surface At Midplane
Figure 2.17 Conduction In A Plane Wall With Uniform Generation
where C
1
and C
2
are the constants of integration. For the prescribed
boundary conditions,
and
The constants may be evaluated and are of the form
and
q
.
T(x)
x
Ts
q"
conv
q"
cond
T
o
( )
1 s,
T L T = ( )
2 s,
T L T =
2 1
1
2
s, s,
T T
C
L

=
1 2 2
2
2 2
s, s,
T T
q
C L
k
+
= +

in which case the temperature distribution is

(2.63)
The heat flux at any point in the wall may, be determined by using
Equation 2.63 with Fourier's Law.
NOTE: That with generation, the heat flux is no longer independent of x.
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a
common temperature, T
s,1
=T
s,2
=T
s
. The temperature distribution is then
symmetrical about the midplane, Figure 2.17 b, and is given by
(2.64)
The maximumtemperature exists at the midplane
(2.65)
In which case the temperature distribution, Equation 2.64, may be
expressed as
( )
2 2
2 1 1 2
2
1
2 2 2
s , s , s , s ,
T T T T
q L x x
T x
k L
L
| | +
= + +
|
|
\ .

( )
2 2
2
1
2
s
q L x
T x T
k
L
| |
= +
|
|
\ .

( )
2
0
0
2
s
qL
T T T
k
= = +

(2.66)
- It is important to note that the plane of symmetry in Figure 2.17b, the
temperaturegradient is zero, (dT/dx)
x=0
=0 .
- Accordingly, there is no heat transfer across this plane, and it may be
represented by the adiabatic surface shown in Figure. 21.7 c.
- One implication of this result is that Equation 2.64 also applies to
plane walls that are perfectly insulated on one side (x=0) and
maintained at a fixed temperature T
s
on the other side (x=L).
To use the above results the surface temperature T
s
must be known.
However, a common situation is one for which it is the temperature of an
adjoining fluid,, and not T
s
, which is known. It then becomes necessary to
relate T
s
to. This relation may be developed by applying a surface energy
balance. Consider the surface at x=L for the symmetrical plane wall
(Figure 2.17 b) or the insulated plane wall (Figure 2.17 c). Neglecting the
radiation and substituting the appropriate rate equations, the energy
balance is given by
( )
2
0
0 s
T x T
x
T T L

| |
=
|

\ .
(2.67)
Substituting from Equation 2.64 to obtain the temperature gradient at x=L
, it follows that
(2.68)
Hence, T
s
may be computed from knowledge of T

, ,L and h .
RADIAL SYSTEMS
Consider the long, solid cylinder of Figure 2.18, which could represent a
current carrying wire. For steady state conditions the rate at which heat is
generated within the cylinder must equal the rate at which heat is
convected from the surface of the cylinder to a moving fluid. This
condition allows the surface temperature to be maintained at a fixed value
of T
s
.
( )
s
x L
dT
k h T T
dx

=
=
s
q L
T T
h

= +

q
Figure 2.18 Conduction In A Solid Cylinder With Uniform Heat
Generation
To determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder, we begin with
the appropriate form of the heat equation. For constant thermal
conductivity k , heat equation reduces to
(2.69) 1
0
d dT q
r
r dr dr k
| |
+ =
|
\ .

Separating variables and assuming uniform generation, this expression
may be integrated to obtain
(2.70)
Repeating the procedure, the general solution for the temperature
distribution becomes
(2.71)
To obtain the constants of integration C
1
and C
2
, we apply the boundary
conditions
and T(r
o
) = T
s
The first condition results from the symmetry of the situation. That is, for
the solid cylinder the centerline is a line of symmetry for the temperature
distribution and the temperature gradient must be zero. Recall the similar
conditions existed at the midplane of a wall having symmetrical boundary
conditions (Figure 2.17b). From the symmetry condition at r=0 and
Equation 2.70, it is evident that C
1
=0 . Using the surface boundary
condition at r = r
o
with Equation 2.70, we then obtain
2
1
2
dT q
r r C
dr k
= +

( ) ( )
2
1 2
4
q
T r r C ln r C
k
= + +
0
0
r
dT
dr
=
=
(2.72)
The temperature distribution is therefore
(2.73)
Evaluating Equation 2.73 at the centerline and dividing the result into
Equation 2.73, we obtain the temperature distribution in non-dimensional
form,
(2.73)
Where T
0
is the center line temperature. The heat rate at any radius in the
cylinder may, be evaluated by using Equation 2.73 with Fourier's Law.
The surface temperature, T
s
, may be related to the temperature of the
cold fluid, T

, by surface energy balance. We obtain

(2.74)
2
2 0
4
s
q
C T r
k
= +

( )
2 2
0
2
0
1
4
s
qr r
T r T
k
r
| |
= +
|
|
\ .

( )
2
0 0
1
s
s
T r T
r
T T r
| |
=
|

\ .
( )
( ) ( )
0 0
2
2
s
q r L h r L T T t t

=

or,
(2.76)
2
s
qr
T T
h

= +

Problem 2.5:
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of material
A has uniform heat generation = 1.5 x 10
6
W/m
3
k
A
=75 W/m.K, and
thickness L
A
=50 mm. The wall material B has no generation with k
B
=150
W/m.K and thickness L
A
= 20 mm. The inner surface of material A is well
insulated, while the outer surface of material B is cooled by water stream
= 30
0
C and h=1000 W/m
2
.K.
Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the composite under
steady state conditions.
Determine the temperature T
o
of the insulated surface and the temperature
T
2
of the cooled surface.
Diag:
L = 50m
x
q"
T
1
T
o
T
2
A
L =20m
B
A
k =150W/mK
q =0
B
B
h=1000W/m K
2
oo
water
.
k =75W/mK
q =1.5x10 W/m
B
A
.
3
6
Insulation B
q
T

Known : Plane wall of material A with internal heat generation is insulated

on one side and bounded by a second wall of material B, which is
without heat generation and is subjected to convection cooling
Find : Convection heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.
Assumptions:
1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with
time.
2. Heat transfer is one dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about
the center line and no variation in the axial direction.
3. Thermal conductivities are constant.
4. The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible.
5. Heat transfer coefficient incorporates the radiation effects, if any.
Analysis:
1. From the prescribed physical conditions, the temperature distribution in
the composite is known to have the following features, as shown:
1. Parabolic in material A
2. Zero slope at insulated boundary
3. Linear in material A
4. The temperature distribution in the water is characterized by large
gradients near the surface
5. Slope change = k
A
/ k
B
= 2 at interface
The outer surface temperature T
2
may be obtained by performing an
energy balance on the control volume about material B. since there is
no generation in this material, it follows that, for steady state conditions
and a unit surface area , the heat flux into the material at x = L
A
must
equal the heat flux from the material due to convection at x = L
A
+ L
B
.
Hence
e
A
B
b
a
d
c
0
L
A
L
A
+L
B
x
T
1
T
2
T
0
T
oo
3. The heat flux may be determined by performing a second energy
balance on a control volume about material A. In particular, since the
surface at x = 0 is adiabatic, there is no inflow and the rate at which the
energy is generated must equal the outflow. Accordingly, for a unit
surface area,
Combining above two Equations , the outer surface temperature is,
From Equation 2.65, the temperature at the insulated surface is,
where T
1
may be obtained from the thermal circuit:
T
1 T
oo
R" R"
cond,B conv
T
2
q"
( )
2
"
q h T T

=
"
A
q L q =
2
A
q L
T T
h

= +

( )
6
2
1 5 10 0 05
30 105 C
1000
. .
T

= + =
2
1
2
A
o
A
q L
T T
k
= +

That is,
where the resistances for a unit surface area
Hence
Comments:
1. Material A, having heat generation, cannot be represented by a thermal
circuit element
2. Since the resistance to heat transfer by convection is significantly larger
than due to conduction in material B, ,the surface-to-
fluid temperature difference is much larger than the temperature drop
across material B,
This result is consistent with the temperature distribution plotted in part
(1).
( )
1
" " "
cond ,B conv
T T R R q

= + +
1
" " B
cond ,B conv
B
L
R and R
k h
= =
6
1
0 02 1
30 105 10 0 05
150 1000
.
T .
| |
= + +
|
\ .
1
30 85 115 C T = + =
7 5
" "
cond ,B conv
R R . =
( ) ( )
2 1 2
7 5 T T T T .

=
3. The surface and interface temperatures (T
o
,T
1
,and T
2
) depend on the
generation rate , the thermal conductivities k
A
and k
B
, and the
convection coefficient h. Each material will have a maximum allowable
operating temperature, which must not be exceeded if thermal failure
of the system is to be avoided. We explore the effect of one of these
parameters by computing and plotting the temperature distribution for
values of h=200 and 1000 W/m
2
.K, which would be representative of
air and liquid cooling respectively.
For h = 200 W/m
2
.K, there is a significant increase in temperature
throughout the system, and depending on the selection of materials,
thermal failure could be a problem. Note the slight discontinuity in
the temperature gradient dT/dx, at x = 50 mm.
Problem 2.6
A long copper bar of rectangular cross-section, whose width w is much
greater than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink at its
lower surface, and the temperature throughout the bar is approximately
equal to that of the sink, T
o
. Suddenly an electric current is passed
through the bar and an air stream of temperature is passed over the top
surface, while the bottom surface continues to be maintained at T
o
. Obtain
the differential equation and the boundary and initial conditions that could
be solved to determine the temperature as a function of position and time
in the bar.
Diag:
T

Known : Copper bar initially in thermal equilibrium with heat sink is

suddenly heated by passage of an electric current .
Find : Differential equation and boundary and initial conditions needed to
determine temperature as a function of position and time within the bar.
Assumptions:
1. Since w>>L , side effects are negligible and heat transfer within the bar
is primarily one dimensional in the x-direction.
2. Uniformvolumetric heat generation, .
3. Constant properties.
Analysis:
The temperature distribution is governed by the heat equation (2.13),
which, for the one-dimensional and constant property conditions of the
present problem, reduces to
2
2
1 T q T
k
x
o t
c c
+ =
c
c

where the temperature is a function of position of time, T (x, t) . Since this
differential equation is second-order in the spatial co-ordinate x and first
order in time t, there must be two boundary conditions for the x-direction
and one condition termed initial condition, for time. The boundary condition
at the bottom surface corresponds to case 1 of Table 2.1. In particular,
since the temperature of this surface is maintained at a value, T
o
, which is
fixed with time, it follows that
In contrast, the convection surface condition is appropriate for the top
surface. Hence
The initial condition is inferred from recognition that, the change in
conditions, the bar is at uniform temperatureT
o
. Hence
If and h are known, above four equations may be solved to obtain
the time-varying temperature distribution T (x, t) following imposition of the
electric current.
( )
0
o
T ,t T =
( )
x L
T
k h T L,t T
x

=
c
( =

c
( )
0
o
T x, T =
o
T ,T ,q

Comments:
1. The heat sink at x = 0 could be maintained by exposing the surface to an
ice bath by attaching it to a cold plate. A cold plate contains coolant
channels machined in a solid of large thermal conductivity (usually
copper). By circulating a liquid (usually water) through the channels, the
plates and hence the surface to which it is attached, may be maintained
at a nearly uniformtemperature.
2. The temperature of the top surface T (L, t ) will change with time. This
temperatureis unknown and may be obtained after finding T (x, t ).
Problem 2.7
To determine the effect of the temperature dependence of the thermal
conductivity on the temperature distribution in a solid, consider a
material for which this dependence may be represented as k = k
o
+ a T
where k
o
is a positive constant and a is a coefficient that may be
positive or negative. Sketch the steady-state temperature distribution
associated with the heat transfer in a plane wall for three cases
corresponding to .
Known : Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature.
Find : Effect of temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity on
temperaturedistribution in a solid.
Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional steady state heat conduction.
2. No internal heat generation
Analysis:
Equation for one-dimensional steady state heat conduction without any
internal heat generation is given by Fourier's Law as follows,
0 0 0 a ,a ,a > = <
dT
Q kA
dx
=
where, is the mean temperature
where, is the mean thermal conductivity evaluated at
mean temperature.
( )
o
dT
Q k T A
dx
o = +
( )
o
Qdx k T AdT o = +
( )
2
1
0
T
L
o
T
Qdx A k T dT o = +
} }
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1
0
2
o
T T
Q L A k T T a
| |

|
= +
|
\ .
( )
( )
2 1
2 1
2
o
T T
QL A T T K a
+

= +
`

)
( ){ }
1 2 o m
QL A T T K aT = +
( )
1 2
2
m
T T
T
+
=
( )
1 2 m
k A T T
Q
L

=
m o m
k k aT = +
a=0
a +ve
a -ve
T
1
T
2
T
L
A
B
Comments:
1. When a = 0, thermal conductivity doesn't vary with temperature and
equals constant value k
o
. Further under steady-state conditions, the
rate of heat flow is constant. Therefore slope of temperature curve is
constant and the temperature profile is linear.
2. With variable thermal conductivity, temperature profile along the wall
thickness follows a curved line and it's curvature depends upon the
value of a . Fromrelation k = k
o
+ a T; .
Hence is positive if a is positive and k increases with increasing
temperature. Also fromFourier's Law, .
Hence as x increases, t decreases and k also decreases. Thus to keep
(Q/A) constant; (dt/dx) must increase. Accordingly absolute values of
slope (dt/dx) increases from point A to B that means that the curve
should go steeper from A to B. Evidently the positive values of
coefficient a , the temperature profile is convex.
3. With the same reasoning, for the negative values of o , the temperature
profile is concave.
dk
dT
o =
dk
dT
Q dT
k
A dx
| |
=
|
\ .
Problem 2.8:
Consider a plane wall 100mm thick and of thermal conductivity 100
W/m.K. Steady state conditions are known to exist with T
1
= 400 K and
T
2
= 600 K . Determine the heat flux and the temperature gradient dT/dx
for the co-ordinate systems shown.
Known : Thickness, thermal conductivity, temperatures, temperature
profiles.
Find : Heat flux and temperature gradients.
Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional steady state heat conduction.
2. No internal heat generation.
T(x)
T
1
2
T
T(x) T(x)
T
1
T
1
2
T
2
T
x x
x
(a) (b)
(c)
Analysis:
Equation for one-dimensional steady state heat conduction without any
internal heat generation is given by Fourier's Law as follows,
negative sign is taken into consideration to account for decrease in
temperaturein the positive direction of x . The heat flux is given as
Case (a): In this case temperature increases in the positive direction of x,
and hence temperature gradient would be positive, and therefore Fourier
equation becomes,
Integrating,
dT
Q kA
dx
=
"
x
dT
q k
dx
=
"
x
dT
q k
dx
=
2
1
0
T
L
"
x
T
q dx k dT =
} }
( ) ( )
2 1 2
600 400
100 200kW m
0 1
"
x
T T
q k
L .

= = =
Case (b): In this case temperature decreases in the positive direction of
x, and hence temperature gradient would be negative, and therefore
Fourier equation becomes,
Integrating,
Case (c): In this case temperature increases in the positive direction of x,
and hence temperature gradient would be positive, and therefore Fourier
equation becomes,
3
200 10
2000K m
100
"
x
q dT
dx k

= = =
"
x
dT
q k
dx
=
2
1
0
T
L
"
x
T
q dx k dT =
} }
( ) ( )
2 1 2
600 400
100 200kW m
0 1
"
x
T T
q k
L .

= = =
3
200 10
2000K m
100
"
x
q dT
dx k

= = =
"
x
dT
q k
dx
=
Integrating,
Comments:
1. In case (a), the direction of heat transfer is in the negative direction of
x .
2. In case (b), the direction of heat transfer is in the positive direction of x
3. In case (c), the direction of heat transfer is in the negative direction of x
.
2
1
0
T
L
"
x
T
q dx k dT =
} }
( ) ( )
2 1 2
600 400
100 200kW m
0 1
"
x
T T
q k
L .

= = =
3
200 10
2000K m
100
"
x
q dT
dx k

= = =