FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOTICS

BRIEF HISTORY The word robot was introduced in 1921 by the Czech playwright Karel Capek, in his play R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots), and is derived from the Czech word robota, meaning, forced labor. Although Capek introduced the word robot to the world, the term robotics was coined by Issac Asimov in his science fiction story Runaround, first published in the March 1942. Asimov established in his story three fundamental laws of robotics as follows: 1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. 2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first and second laws. Gerald Norman, an Oregon Institute of Technology professor of manufacturing engineering, has suggested a forth law or rule of robotics 4. A robot may take a human beings job. But it may not leave that person jobless! Robots were introduced to industry in the early 1960s. Initially, robots sold for an average of $25,000 with a life of about eight years. Cost approximately $4.00 per hour to operate, and had to compete for jobs with human workers earning slightly more per hour than the robot hourly operating cost.

Figure 1 Hourly cost of robot versus human labour in the automotive industry (Ref. 7) Robots originally were used in hazardous operation, such as handling toxic and radioactive materials, and loading and unloading hot workpieces from furnaces. Some
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rule-of-thumb applications for robots are the four Ds (dull, dirty, dangerous and difficult, including demanding but necessary tasks) and four Hs (hot, heavy, hazardous, and humble). GENERAL DEFINITION A robot has been defined as Refs. (1, 2, 3): a re-programmable and multifunctional manipulator, designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions in the performance of a variety of tasks. Reprogrammable means that the robot can be directed or programmed to perform different tasks. Multifunctional defines the capability of a robot to be appropriately retooled to a specific task. Whilst the concept of manipulator implies an articulated mechanical system allowing the movement of objects or tools in the performance of its programmed task. From this perspective, a robot can be considered as a special class of automated machine differentiated from other automatic devices by its programmability and versatility. Whilst its capability to physically manipulate the real world separates it from computer. International Standards Organization (ISO) described industrial robots as follows: A machine formed by a mechanism, including several degrees of freedom, often having the appearance of one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool, a workpiece, or an inspection device. In particular, its control unit must use a memorizing device and it may sometimes use sensing or adaptation appliances to take into account environment and circumstances. These multipurpose machines are generally designed to carry out a repetitive function and can be adapted to other functions. The science/technology encompassing the design, construction, application and operation of robots is robotics. This is a branch of engineering in which subjects as diverse as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, remote control, artificial intelligence, and computer engineering are merged. BASIC COMPONENTS OF ROBOT The most complex robot can be broken into few basic parts. The basic components of any robot are: manipulator, end effectors, power source/supply, controller, sensors and actuation system. All of these components can be engineered together to form a mechatronic system capable of robotic tasks.

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Figure 2 Basic components of robot (Ref. 6) These basics components can be examined in more detail: A manipulator is a mechanically actuated skeleton of the robot, which provides support for tools or objects being manoeuvred in space. It comprises links and rigid and moving joints to allow motion in different directions. A closely packed combination of joints, termed a wrist, is often mounted on the end of two or more links to provide anthropomorphic-like movement to an end effectors or gripper. An end effectors or gripper is effectively a tool interacting with the robotic environment. These can be special tools designed to weld, paint, mill or perform other machining operations, or be hand-like to achieve assembly tasks. The power source provides the driving force required to move the robot. There are three main types: hydraulic, electric and pneumatic. Hydraulic sources are generally used in large payload or high-speed applications. Electric sources are best suited for medium weight applications where high accuracy is required. Pneumatically powered robots are generally limited to pick and place applications; travel can be limited by mechanical stops. The controller organises the movement of the manipulator in accordance with a list of instructions and in response to sensory information. These instructions are written as programs, and control action is supported by data acquired by sensors. A controller has a memory to permit storage and execution of instructions, but is in capable of coping with environmental conditions that are not provided for within the programmed algorithms.

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Sensors are devices that transduce information as to the robots environment into a form amenable to the control unit. These are used to provide feedback, which is used to control the speed and position of the manipulator, or to detect the presence or absence of a workpiece and to ensure safe operation. The Actuation system is a combination of actuators and transmission components taking the form of motors, cables, bands, belts, gears, etc. Its function is to translate data provided by the controller into actuator movements and to link the actuators with the manipulators. ROBOT CLASSIFICATION: The five common methods of classification robotic systems are: arm geometry (morphology), pathway, power source and level of technology. Robots may be classified by their arm geometry (morphology or configuration) into four basic types, described by the motion of their axes (axis movement): 1. Cartesian, rectangular co-ordinate or gantry configuration: the manipulator moves in three perpendicular axes X, Y and Z. As a consequence, the work volume takes shape like a rectangular box. (Figure 3) Figure 3 Cartesian Configuration (Ref. 6)

2.

A spherical or polar configuration having two rotaries and one linear motion. The manipulator pivots about both horizontal and vertical axes. This coupled with the ability to extend and retract in a linear motion produces a work volume in the shape of a section of a sphere (Figure 4)

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Figure 4 Spherical Configuration (Ref. 6) 3. In the Cylindrical configuration the manipulator arm pivots on its base and moves up and down around a vertical axis, extending and retracing horizontally. This combination of two linear and one rotary motion leads to a cylindrical work volume (Figure 5)

Figure 5 Cylindrical Configuration (Ref. 6) 4. Jointed arm configuration - this configuration may be divided into vertically joint arms (anthropomorphic configuration) and horizontally jointed arms. The common anthropomorphic configuration uses a revolute system of co-ordinates having three rotary motions, one about the vertical axis of the base and another two, pivoting about horizontal axes. The gripper can be extended and retracted movement of these joints, so the work volume is the same as the spherical robot
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(Figure 6). Several commercially available robots possess an anthropomorphic configuration, eg. Cincinatti Milacron and Unimation PUMA robots.

Figure 6 Anthropomorphic Configuration (Ref. 6) Horizontal jointed robots are often referred to as SCARAs (selectively compliant assembly robot arm) and are predominantly used in assembly tasks. The gripper is kept vertical and rotates with the shoulder, elbow and wrist about vertical axes (Figure 7). Additionally the end effectors of the manipulator have a linear vertical motion.

Figure 7 SCARA Configuration (Ref. 6) Each of these configurations has inherent advantages and disadvantages in the performance of specific tasks.

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ROBOT APPLICATIONS: Industrial robots are increasingly used in manufacturing and commercial applications for several reasons including: Improved product quality. Reduced cost of production. Increased productivity. Ability to work in hazardous and hostile environments.

These advantages arise from the properties inherent of robots: the ability to perform tasks repetitively without tiring whilst maintaining levels of performance, accuracy, responding in automated operation, the ability to work in toxic or hazardous environments and the ability to conduct a variety of tasks by changing end effectors. Robot applications can be classified as follows (Refs. 1, 3, 4, 5) Industrial Application: 1. Materials handling: moving workpieces from one location to another within a work cell, loading and unloading parts from a machine, packing and palletising operations and other transfer operations. 2. Material processing: where the robot performs one or more manufacturing processes in the work cell, such as: spot or arc welding, fettling of castings, drilling, grinding and debarring of components. 3. Assembly of components: a growing and important application area is the assembly of products using robots. The process is usually made up of the sequential addition of components to a basic part to create a more complex sub-assembly or complete product. The difference between assembly tasks and other material handling tasks is that value is added to the product through the assembly operation. 4. Painting and finishing: such as, swarf removal or spray painting of components or assembles. 5. Inspection through the use of sensors, to gauge and measure quality characteristics of manufactured products. 6. Transportation: specialised robots may be used to transport parts or loads from one location to another. These are normally known as Automatically Guided Vehicles (AGVs). Non-industrial Applications 7. Medical: surgery, routine examination; these applications depend on the development of a variety of external sensors and real-time computer processing techniques. 8. Underwater: robots will involve in prospecting for minerals on the floor of the ocean, salvaging of sunken vessels, and repair of ships either at sea or in dry dock. 9. Surveillance and Guard duty 10. Rehabilitation applications 11. Outer Space applications 12. Domestic applications

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DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOT: Human workers can be laid off during periods of slow production, in which case labour costs stop, a robot that is not being used still accumulates depreciation expenses. Robots require a large capital outlay when they are installed, but their costs must be depreciated over a period of years. Just because a robot is capable of doing a particular job does not mean that it should be doing that job. The robot still needs to make economic sense. If robots installed under the wrong kind of conditions or operations, the human workers at the facility may feel threatened and lower their own productivity. The introduction of robots can result in the elimination of some existing jobs, forcing job displacement or even unemployment. Even though robots can be reprogrammed to do new tasks, some companies buy a robot for a particular project; then, when the project is over, the robots become surplus equipment. Robots lack of decision making power and must be equipped with sensors to insure the successful achievement of a task. AUTOMTION AND ROBOTICS: Ref (6 &7) Automation and robots are two closely related technologies. Both are connected with the use and control of production operations. In an industrial context, we can define automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of mechanical, electrical/electronic, and computer-based systems to control production processes. Examples of this technology include transfer lines, mechanized assembly machines, feedback control systems, numerically controlled machine tools, and robots. Accordingly, robots are mechanical devices that assist industrial automation. There are three types of industrial automation: fixed automation, programmable automation, and flexible automation. Fixed automation is used when the volume of production is very high and it is, therefore, appropriate to design specialized equipment to process products at high rates and low cost. A good example of fixed automation can be found in the automobile industry, where highly integrated transfer lines are used to perform machining operations on engine and transmission components. The economics of fixed automation is such that the cost of the special equipment can be divided over a large number of units produced, so that the resulting unit costs can be lower relative to alternative methods of production. The risk encountered with fixed automation is that the initial investment cost is high and if the volume of production turns out to be lower than anticipated, then the unit costs become greater. Another problem with fixed automation is that the equipment is specially designed to produce only one product, and after that products life cycle is finished, the equipment is likely to become obsolete. Therefore, for products with short life cycles, fixed automation is not economical. Programmable automation is used when the volume of production is relatively low and there is a variety of products to be made. In this case, the production equipment is designed to be adaptable to variations in a product configuration. This adaptability
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feature is accomplished by operating the equipment under the control of a program of instructions that has been prepared especially for the given product. The program is read into the production equipment, and the equipment performs the particular sequence of operations to make that product. In terms of economics, the cost of the programmable equipment can be spread over a large number of products even though the products are different. Because of the programming feature, and the resulting adaptability of the equipment, many different and unique products can be processed economically in small batches. There is a third category between fixed automation and programmable automation, which is called flexible automation. Flexible automation has only developed within the past twenty-five or thirty years. This type of automation is most suitable for the mid-volume production range. Flexible automation possesses some of the features of both fixed and programmable automation. Other terms used for flexible automation include Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). Flexible automation typically consists of a series of workstations that are interconnected by material-handling and storage equipment to process different product configurations at the same time on the same manufacturing system. A central computer is used to control the various activities that occur in the system, routing the various parts to appropriate stations and controlling the programmed operations at the different stations. One of the features that distinguish programmable automation from flexible automation is that with programmable automation the products are made in batches. When one batch is completed, the equipment is reprogrammed to process the next batch. With flexible automation, different products can be made at the same time on the same systems. This feature allows a level of versatility that is not available in pure programmable automation, as we have defined it. This means that product can be produced on a flexible system in batches, if desirable, or that several products can be mixed on the same system. The computational power of the control computer is what makes this versatility possible. Of the three types of automation, robots consider most closely with programmable automation. TYPES OF ROBOTS Main types of robots are: Industrial robot Non-industrial robots including: military robots, show (promotional) robots, educational robots, medical robots, domestic (personal) robots, and rehabilitation and prosthesis. Another type of classification according to a mobility: Fixed arm robot Mobile robot.

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REFERENCES 1. Burns J R W C and Worthington J E., Practical robotics systems, interfacing and applications, 1986, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. 2. Hall E L and Hall B C., Robotics - a user-friendly introduction, 1985, CBS College Publishing, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 3. Groover M P, Weiss M, Nagle R N, and Odrey N G, Industrial Robotics technology, programming and applications, 1986, McGraw-Hill Inc. 4. Critchlow A J, Introduction to Robotics, 1985, Macmillan Publishing Company. 5. Todd D J, Fundamentals of robot technology (an introduction to industrial robots, teleoperators and robot vehicles), 1986, Kogan Page Ltd. 6. J. G. Keramas, Robot Technology Fundamentals, Delmar Publishers, 1999. 7. R. J. Schilling, Fundamentals of Robotics: Analysis and Control, Prentice Hall, 1996.

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