ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 Chapter1:BasicConcreteCompositionandDurability Introduction Theobjectiveofthischapteristoprovideabasicunderstandingofthecomposition ofPortlandcementconcreteandtodiscussthemajorfactorsinfluencingconcretes durability.Thecompositionofconcretehasadramaticaffectonitsstrength propertiesandalsoprofoundlyaffectsitsabilitytoresistdeteriorationcausedby exposuretovariousphysicalandchemicalconditions. Inmostcases,concretecanbedesignedandplacedtomaximizeitsresistanceto manynaturalandmanmadeexposureconditions(e.g,freezethawexposureand automobiletraffic).However,allconcreteissubjecttoslowdeteriorationandthere aremanyconditionsunderwhichitwillundergoaccelerateddegradation.Forthis reason,itshouldbeproperlycoatedtomaximizeitsservicelifeandtoensureits structuraland/orarchitecturalfunction.

on. Theinformationprovidedinthischapteraboutthecompositionofconcreteis intendedtobefundamentalratherthanprovideanexhaustiveexaminationofthe chemicalmakeupofallofitsconstituents. MainComponentsofConcrete Concreteisaheterogeneouscompositebuildingmaterialbasedonamatrixof relativelyinertinorganicaggregatesheldtogetherbyaninorganicbindercalled hydratedcementpaste. Themaincomponentsofconcreteare: Portlandcement Water Coarseandfineaggregates Admixtures(optional) PortlandCement.Portlandcement;i.e.,hydrauliccementthatsetsandhardensvia chemicalinteractionwithwater;wassonamedbyitsinventor,JosephAspdin,the Englishmasonwhoinitiallyblendeditandreceivedthefirstpatentforitin1824. AspdincalleditPortlandcementbecauseithasacolorsimilartothelimestonethat wasquarriedfromtheIsleofPortlandintheEnglishChannel.Portlandcementwas firstmanufacturedintheUnitedStatesin1872inCoplay,Pennsylvania. TherawmaterialsneededtomanufacturerPortlandcementaresimilartothose neededtomanufactureallhydrauliccements:naturalearththatcontainslime, silicaandaluminaaswellasironandmagnesiainvaryingquantities.Portland cementalsocontainsgypsumorcalciumsulfate,aningredientofmajorimportance, butproportionallyoneofthesmallestconstituents. 11

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 TomakePortlandcement,quarriedorminedlimestoneiscrushed,milledand carefullyproportioned.Next,therawmaterialsareblendedandfiredinakilnat approximately26003000F(14001600C).Inthekiln,waterandcarbondioxide aredrivenoffandtherawmaterialsreachapartiallyfusedstate.Whencooledat thecoldendofthekiln,themoltedashformsclinkersthatareallowedtocool beforebeingpulverizedtovaryingdegreesoffineness.Finenessisalsovery importantincontrollingsetandhardeningtimeandhencetothedevelopmentof thecementsphysicalproperties.ThesievesizeusedformostPortlandcementsis intherangeof40,000openingspersquareinch(60openingspersquare millimeter).Atthegrindingstage,asmallamountofgypsum(calciumsulfate)is addedtocontrolthesettingtime. EachofthemajorchemicalcompoundsinPortlandcementcontributestothe propertiesofthecement.Becauseithardensrapidly,tricalciumsilicateislargely responsibleforinitialsetandearlystrengthdevelopmentwhenthecementismixed withwater.Thehigherthepercentageoftricalciumsilicate,thehighertheearly strengthofthecementwillbe.Dicalciumsilicatehardensrelativelyslowlyandthus contributestothestrengthgaininthecementbeyondtheinitialsevendaysof hydration.Tricalciumaluminateliberatesagreatdealofheatinthefirstfewdaysof hardening,contributingslightlytoearlystrengthdevelopment.Lesstricalcium aluminatealsoresultsingreatersulfateresistance.Tetracalciumaluminoferrite contributeslittletothedevelopmentofcementproperties,butitreducesclinker temperaturesduringtheformationofcementinthekilnandactsasfluxinthe formationoftheclinkers. Portlandcementsareclassifiedaccordingtoproportionsofthesechemical constituentsandtheamountofgypsum,siliceousaggregatesorotheradditivesused andthefinenessofgrind.MostconcreteencounteredintheUnitedStateswillbe madeusingTypesIthroughVPortlandcement. Hydration.WhenPortlandcementandwateraremixedtoformthebinderin concretetheyundergoanexothermicchemicalreactionthatcreatesapasteorgel, whichsubsequentlyhardeninaprocesscalledhydration.Theheatgeneratedby hydrationiscalledtheheatofhydration.Controllingtheheatofhydrationisan importantaspectofconcretemixdesigns.Theamountofheatgeneratedisa functionofthechemicalcompositionandfinenessofthecement,theamountof cementusedinthemix,thetemperatureofthematerialsandtheambient conditionsforplacementandcuring. Water.Anywatersuitablefordrinkingorwaterfreeofoils,acids,alkalisand excessorganicscanbeusedinmakingconcrete.Seaorinlandwatersshouldnever beusedinreinforcedconcreteasthehighconcentrationsofchloridespresent promotecorrosioninsteelreinforcingbars.Inmostcases,engineersspecifytheuse ofclean,potablewaterinconcreteapplications.Assumingthatqualitywateris readilyavailable,thenextimportantquestionis:howmuchshouldbeusedinthe mixdesign? 12

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 Thestrengthgain,wearresistanceandshrinkagepropertiesofeveryconcretemix designareaffectedbythewatertocement(w/c)ratio.Thegoalsofanyconcrete mixdesignareto: Ensurethateachaggregateparticleisentirelycoatedwithcementpaste Produceahardenedconcretethatachievesthestrength,durabilityandwear resistancerequiredfortheserviceconditions Produceaconcretewiththeleastamountofshrinkageandrelatedcracking Produceaconcretethatofferssufficientworkabilitytoachievethesurface textureandflatnesstolerancesdesiredandspecified Produceamixthatoffersgoodeconomy Achievegoodconsolidationatformorrebarinterfaceswithoutsegregation ofaggregatesorvoidsinthestructure Thewatertocementratio,(w/c)expressedinweight,directlyaffects concretestrength,porosity,vaportransmission(MVT)andcracking Watertocementratiosof0.38to0.42canreadilybeobtainedbyusing admixtureswhilemaintainingworkability Eachofthesegoalsisinfluencedbythedifficulttaskofachievingtheproperwater tocementratio.Sufficientwatermustbeaddedtowettheaggregatesproperly;yet toomuchwaterresultsinsegregation.Concretewithalowerwatertocementratio gainsmorestrengththanconcretewithagreaterone,butsuchlowratiosmaybe difficulttoplaceandconsolidateproperlybecauseofthestiffnessofthemix.As such,achemicaladmixture(waterreducer)istypicallyusedtoincreasethe workabilityofthefreshmix.Ontheotherhand,highwatertocementratios increaseshrinkagecrackingandreducesurfacewearresistanceandcompressive strength. Thetotalamountofwaterrequiredtopromotecementhydrationisapproximately 0.19lb.foreach1lb.ofcement(0.19kg.ofwaterforeachkg.ofcement).However, roughlytwicethatratio,or0.38lb.ofwaterforeach1lb.ofcement(0.38kg.of waterforeachkg.ofcement),isnecessarybecauseadditionalwaterisabsorbedon gelporesurfaceslaterintheprocessandthecementparticlesmustallbewetted. Morewatermaybeaddedtoenhanceworkabilitywhenplacingtheconcrete,but anyamountinexcessof0.38lb.perlb.(0.38kg.perkg.)ofcementwilleventually leavetheconcreteviaevaporationorasbleedwater.Suchexcesswaterincreases shrinkageandcontributestotheformationofcracksandcontinuouscapillariesin thehardenedconcretepaste.Toproduceaconcretethatmeetsallofthedesired properties,includingproperstrengthandeconomy,thelowestpossiblewaterto cementratioisrecommended.Todaysconcretehasatypicalwatertocementratio of0.40lb.(kg)forhighperformanceapplications.Structuralconcrete,suchasthat usedinsupportbeamsorcolumns,typicallyhasawatertocementratiolowerthan thisrange. WaterToCementRatio:EffectsonCoatingConcrete.Oneofthemostprevalent formsofcoatingfailureonconcreteisblisteringrelatedtomoisturevapor 13

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 transmissionthroughconcreteslabs.Themoreporousconcreteis,themore commonplaceandseveremoisturevaportransmissionisthroughconcrete.Also, concretewithahighwatertocementratiotakeslongertodryoutsufficientlyto bringmoisturevaportransmissionratesthroughitdowntoacceptablelevelsfor coatingapplication. MoistureVaporTransmission(MVT)isanaturallyoccurringprocesswhereby moistureinvapor(gas)formpermeatesconcretethroughitscapillarystructure. Moisturemovementinconcretemovesasaliquidorasavapor.Vapormovementis drivenbyhumidityandtemperature.Thecombinationofthesetwofactorsisvapor pressure.Moisturevapormovesinthedirectionofahighvaporpressuretoalow vaporpressure.Ingeneral,moisturevapormovesfromahightemperaturetoalow temperatureandhighhumiditytolowhumidity. Aggregates.Fineandcoarseaggregatesmakeupapproximately6085%of concretesvolume.Properaggregateselectionandspecificationinmixdesignsare essentialifoptimumpropertiesaretobeobtained.Fineaggregatesgenerally includematerialssuchasrockscreeningsandnaturalorprocessedsands. Coarseaggregatesincludecrushedstone,naturalgravelorsuchbyproductsasblast furnaceslags.Recently,theuseofoldpulverizedconcreteascoarseaggregateshas shownpromiseinnewPortlandcementconcretesprovidedthatnodetrimental contaminantsarepresentintheagedmaterials. Fineaggregatesaresmallerthaninch(5mm)indiameterandcoarseonesare alwayslargerthanthis.Mostreinforcedconcretesutilizecoarseaggregates between1inch(1225mm)indiameter.Inheavypavementsormassivepour construction,itisnotunusualtouseevenlargercoarseaggregates. Afterthesourcesforaggregateshavebeenselected,locatedandtested,the aggregatesforthemixdesignmustbespecifiedaccordingtotheseimportant criteria: Maximumsize Particleshape Minimizedorganicimpurities Minimizedclayandsiltcontent Gradationandquantityoffineandcoarseaggregates Aggregatesizeinfluencesthequantitiesofwaterandcementneededforthemix design,i.e.,largeraggregatesrequirelesscementpastetoproduceconcreteofa particularstrength.Asarule,usethelargestaggregatesizethatispracticalfora givenjobandfollowtheseguidelinesformaximumaggregatesizeinconcreteas developedbytheAmericanConcreteInstitute(ACI318). Largestparticlesizeshallnotexceed: 1/5thedimensionofunreinforcedconcretemembers,i.e.,wallsorfootings 14

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 theclearoropenspacingbetweenreinforcingbarsand/orforms 1/3thedepthofslabs,ongradeorelevated

Whenreviewingthegradationofaggregates,consistencyiskey.Everybatchinthe structureshouldhavethesamegradationwithinclosetolerances.Sievetestsare usedtodetermineandcontrolthis. Organicimpuritiespreventproperhydrationandinhibittimelycuring.ACI recommendsthatfineaggregatescontainnomorethan3%clayclumps.ASTMC33 establishestherequirementsforaggregatesfornormalweightconcrete. AdmixturesandPozzolans.Admixturesareplacedinconcretebeforeorduring mixingtoachieveeconomyorvariousotherpropertiesnotefficientlyaffectedby othermeans.Theymayalsobeusedtoimproveconcretequalityduring transportationandplacementofthemix,ortoenhanceworkabilitywhilethe concreteisplasticorperformanceaftertheconcretehascured. Acceleratingadmixturesarechemicalsthatenhanceorhastentheearlysettingor hardeningofconcrete,therebyspeedingupstrengthgain.Calciumchloride containingacceleratorsarehistoricallythemostcommon,althoughtheirusehas beencurtailedinrecentyearsbecausetheypromotecorrosionofreinforcingsteel andincreasescalinganddryingshrinkage.Strictrequirementsforthechloride contentoftheseacceleratorshavebeenestablishedunderASTMD98.Theyshould besampledandtestedtocomplywithASTMD345,whichprovidesaquantitative methodformeetingtheASTMD98requirements. Retardingadmixturesreduceorslowtheinitialsettingofconcrete.These admixturesareusedmostoftenwhenconcretemustbeplacedduringhotweather orinhotenvironments.Waterreducingadditivesandretardersaregenerally combinedadmixtures.Mostengineerspreferproperselectionofcementtypeand welltimedconcretedeliveryovertheuseofretarders.Forexample,typeIIandIV Portlandcementsofferlowerheatofhydrationthanothercementtypesandare thereforeoftenusedforhotweatherplacement. Waterreducingadmixturesareusedtodecreasetheamountofwaterneededto produceconcreteofaparticularslump.However,theygenerallydonotincrease slumpenoughtopumpconcreteorgreatlyenhanceworkability.Inthosecases, highrangewaterreducersaremoreappropriate. Sincesomewaterreducersarealsoretardersitisimportanttoselectawater reducingadmixturebestsuitedfortheconditionsofagivenjob.Somewater reducersalsoincludecureacceleratingchemicalsthatreducewatercontentby approximately510%,enhancingworkabilityandreducingthewatertocement ratiowhilealsoincreasingthestrengthoftheconcrete.Theseadmixturesaremost frequentlyaddedatthebatchingplanttoenhancetruckmixingwithoutincreasing watercontent. 15

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 Highrangewaterreducingadmixturesreducewatercontentby1230%, substantiallyimprovingflowandworkability.Theycreateahighlyfluidconcrete thatrequiresverylittlevibrationorcompactiontoplace,eveninthemostcongested formworkallwithoutcausingsegregation(unlesstheadmixedslumpistoohigh) orexcessivewaterbleeding(exceptinlowslumpconcrete).Theseadmixturesmust meettherequirementsofASTMC1017andASTMC494forthevarioustypesofhigh rangewaterreducers. AirentrainingagentsoradmixturescanbeaddedtoPortlandcementtypesI,IIorIII priortoor,mosttypically,duringmixingwiththewetconcretetopromotethe formationandretentionofmicroairbubblesthatimprovefreezethawresistanceby creatingstressrelievingvoids.Airentrainmentalsoimprovestheworkabilityof concretewithgivenwatercontentanddecreasessurfacebleedwaterandaggregate segregation.However,toomuchentrainedairreducesthestrengthoftheconcrete. ASTMC260coversairentrainingadmixtures. Pozzolans.Pozzolansareclassifiedasnaturalmaterials,includingdiatomaceous earth,claysandvolcanictuffs(ASTMC618,ClassN);flyash,abyproductfromthe burningofpulverizedcoat(ASTMC618,ClassForC);andsilicafume,ormicrosilica, byproductsofthemanufactureofsilicaandsimilarcompounds.Atthistime,there isnoASTMstandardcoveringtheuseofsilicafume. Silicafume,primarilysilicondioxide(silica)inanoncrystallinestate,increases concretedensityanddurability. Finelygroundpozzolanicmaterialscontainchemicallyactivesilica.Whenmixed withPortlandcementorhydratedlimeandwater,theyformcalciumsilicatethat createsthecementingability.Concretescontainingpozzolanshavemuchlonger settingandcuringrequirementsthanthosecontainingonlyPortlandcements. Pozzolansareusedmainlytoreducethecostofcementandthus,thecostof concrete,especiallyinmasspourswherebulkandconcreteweightaremore importantthanstrengthgainproperties. Relatively,newclassesofadmixtures,corrosioninhibitorssuchascalciumnitrate, chemicallystablizesandstrengthenthepassiveoxidefilmonuncoatedreinforcing steelembeddedinconcretetoinhibitsurfacerust. Themiscellaneousadmixturesusedinconcretearedetailedbelow: NaturalCement,usedforcementingcapabilitiesatlowercostthanPortland cement.Improvesdensity. PumpingAids,usedtomakeconcretemorepumpablebydecreasing viscosity. ColoringAdmixtures,usedtocolorconcreteforcosmeticreasons.Includes naturalandsyntheticpigments. 16

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 ImportancetoMixDesign Selectingtheproperamountsoffineandcoarseaggregatesinconcretemixdesigns isamatterofbalancingvolumesizeandwatertocementratioswiththestrength, workabilityandfinishingpropertiesrequiredforthejob.Ifthelocalbatchplant (readymixsupplier)cannotprovidehistoricallaboratorytestdataonstandardmix designsthatmeettheconcretespecificationsforagivenstructure,trialbatches, testingandpreconstructionconferencesshouldbeusedtochooseandapprovethe mixdesign. Reinforcement Steelbars,rodsorweldedwirefabricaretypicallyusedasreinforcementin Portlandcementconcrete.Steelreinforcingbarsmaybesmoothortextured. Texturedbars,themostcommontype,haveribbedprojectionsthatenhancethe bondoradhesionoftheconcretetothereinforcement.Thesebarsvaryindiameter from3/8inchforlightfloorslabsupto1inchforheavybeamandcolumn reinforcement.Easytoplacesheetsormatsofwirefabricand/orexpandedmetal meshinvariousconfigurationsareusedfrequentlyinconcreteslabsandpipeto provideresistancetothermaldimensionalchanges.Largerreinforcingbarsare usedformoredemandingstructures.Astandardnumberingsystemdesignates reinforcingbarsizesintheU.S.in1/8inchincrements.Thus,aNo.4baris4/8or inch(13mm)indiameter;aNo.5baris5/8inch(16mm)indiameter,andsoforth. Importantrequirementsfortheuseofreinforcingsteelinconcreteare: Thepropergradeofsteelmustbeused.Grade60carbonsteelisusedfor anyconcretetobesubjectedtosignificantloading.Thisdesignationmeans thatthetensileyieldpointofthesteelis60,000psi(410MPa). Thecorrectamountofsteelmustbeused.Thisiscalculatedandspecifiedby thedesigningstructuralengineerandaddressedintheprojectdrawings. Thereinforcingsteelmustbeproperlyplaced.Thisrequirementisuptothe craftsman,theinspectorandtheprojectengineer. Electricalcontinuitymustbeestablishedamongallsteelcomponents,ifthey aretobecathodicallyprotected. Inadditiontoprovidingthetensilestrengthpropertiesthatconcretedoesnot,steel reinforcementservesthesekeyfunctionsinconcretestructures: Reducesthenumberofcracksformedasaresultofthermalexpansionand contraction Providesloadtransferacrossjointsinstructures Providesoverloadcapacitytoslabs Reducesthenumberofcontractionorcontroljointsrequired Resiststensilestressesinducedbyshrinkage Theproperplacementandpositioningofsteelreinforcingmaterialsisparamountto thelongtermperformanceofreinforcedconcretestructures.Reinforcingsteelthat 17

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 isundersizedorimproperlydesignedfortheactualimposedloadingsonastructure compromisesperformanceandsafety. Ifreinforcingsteelisinadequatelycoveredduringconcreteplacement,thestructure maydeteriorateprematurely.Forinstance,rapidcorrosion,crackingandspalling mayresultfrominsufficientconcretecoverthicknessoverreinforcingbarsin structurestobeplacedinimmersionservice. OtherTypesofReinforcement.Plastic(PolyethyleneorNylon)andglass reinforcingfibersarealsoaddedtowetconcretemixestoimproveresistanceofthe concretetoplasticshrinkagecracking.Theexposureoftheseembeddedfibers duringsurfacepreparationcancausefilmqualityproblemsforsubsequently appliedcoatings. FRP(FiberglassReinforcedPlastic)reinforcementandcarbonfiberreinforcement arealsoaddedtowetconcretewherecorrosionconcernsareinvolved.Where retrofitofhardenedconcretestructuresforseismicrequirementsareconcerned, carbonfiberreinforcinginsheetformisoftenappliedusingresinouscoating materials. Therearemanywaystoprotectsteelreinforcementinconcretefromcorrosion,the mostcommonbeingtheuseoffusionbondedepoxycoatedorgalvanizedsteel reinforcingbars.Theepoxycoatingprovidesabarriertoresisttheintrusionof moistureandaggressiveionslikechloridesfromreachingthesteelsurface. Similarly,galvanizingactspartlyasabarriercoatingandpartlyassacrificialanodic metal(zinc)toprotectthesteel.EpoxycoatedbarsshouldcomplywithASTMA775 formoderateexposureandASTMA934forsevereexposure,suchasmarine structuresorbridgedecks. Cathodicprotectionandsurfacetreatmentsincludingsealers,coatingsandconcrete overlaysareusedparticularlyonreinforcedconcretestructuresexposedtosevere conditions(i.e.,bridgedeckstreatedwithdeicingsalts). StrengthandDurabilityofConcrete Thestrengthanddurabilityofconcreteisdirectlyinfluencedbythequalityand proportioningofthematerialusedinthemix. Concretestrengthisevaluatedbycompressivestrengthandflexuralortensile strength. Concretedurabilityreferstohowwellitresistscracking,chemicalattack, weathering,traffic,loading,penetrationofliquids,abrasionandother environmentalfactors. Thereareninekeyfactorsinfluencingthedurabilityofconcrete. 18

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 Alkalinity.Thecalciumhydroxideandothercalciumsilicatehydratesthat comprisethecementpastebindermakeconcreteanaturallyalkalinesubstance. NewlyhydratedPortlandcementpastehasapHofapproximately12.5andthe watertrappedinthegelporesactuallyhasapHcloserto13.0.Exposuretoany lowerpHsolutionortwochemicalswithanaffinityforalkalinesubstancescan causedestructivereactions. Permeability.Permeabilityreferstotheeasewithwhichchlorideorotherionsand liquidslikewatercantravelthroughconcrete.Waterorotherfluidspassmuch moreeasilythroughcontinuouscapillaryporesthanthroughsmaller,more discontinuouspores. Therelativeeaseofmoisturepassageiscriticalbecausemanycontaminantsor chemicalsthatcauseconcretetodeterioratecanflowwiththewater.Alkalisilica reactionsareacceleratedinporousconcretesbecausethealkaliionscanmore readilyreachtheaggregateswithwhichtheyreact.Thethermalresistanceof concretedecreaseswithhigherpermeabilitybecausespallingcanoccuraslatent porewaterevaporatesandescapes. AirVoids.Airvoidsareformedwhenairenterstheconcreteunintentionallyduring mixingorisaddedintentionallytoenhancefreeze/thawdurabilityandconcrete workability.Unintentionalairvoids,whichincreasepermeability,aremuchlarger indiameterthanairentrainingvoidsaddedintentionally.Asthevolumeof unintentionalairvoidsincreases,concretedurabilitydecreases. CoverThickness.Coverthicknessreferstotheconcreteprotectionoversteel reinforcement.Clearcoverthicknessisthedistancebetweentheoutsidefaceofthe concretestructureandthereinforcingsteel.ACI318,Chapter7,Section7.7.1 providesdetailedrequirementsforcoverthicknessesforconcreteexposedto variousconditions. ACI318furtherrecommendsthatincorrosiveenvironmentsorothersevere conditions,theamountofconcreteprotectionshallbesuitablyincreased,and densenessandnonporosityofprotectingconcreteshallbeconsidered,orother protectionshallbeprovided.Thisofcoursereferstotheuseofbarrierprotection suchascoatings. AggregateComposition.Thecoarseandfineaggregatesusedinconcretecan affectitsdurabilityinseveralways.Alkaliinhydratedcementpastereactswith certainsilicaaggregatestopromoteirreversible,expansionrelatedcracking. Calcareouscoarseaggregatessuchaslimerockfoundandusedabundantlyinthe SoutheasternUnitedStatesareattackedbyacidicchemicals.Inaddition,porous, coarseaggregatesdecreasefreeze/thawresistance.Aggregatesize,distribution, andgradationhaveastronginfluenceonworkabilitywhentheconcreteisplaced. 19

ConcreteCoatingBasicsChapter1Version1 Cracking.Crackingreducesdurabilitybyallowingdetrimentalchemicals,water, etc.,topenetratetheconcretematrixandreachembeddedreinforcingsteel. ConcreteProportioning.Theproperproportioningofconcretemixdesignshasa significantinfluenceondurability.Theprincipalfactorsincludeproperselection andquantitiesofcement,aggregates,mixingwaterandadmixtures. ConcreteCure.Propercuringofconcretetoensureoptimumhydrationofthe Portlandcementandminimizingtheamountofshrinkageandporosity developmentiscriticaltotheperformanceofdurableconcrete.Wetcuringoften providesexcellentresultswhiletheuseofcuringcompoundsisoftenthemostcost effectivemethodforcuring.However,itshouldbeknownthatsomecuring compoundscaninterferewiththeproperbondofcoatingstoconcrete. CoatingofConcrete.Evenwhereseveraloftheothereightpropertiesofconcrete describedabovearenothandledproperly,theproperselectionandapplicationof protectivecoatingscanensureenhanceddurabilityofconcretestructures. Summary ThischapterprovidedabasicunderstandingofthecompositionofPortlandcement concreteanddiscussedthemajorfactorsinfluencingconcretesdurability.The compositionofconcretehasadramaticaffectonitsstrengthpropertiesandalso profoundlyaffectsitsabilitytoresistdeteriorationcausedbyexposuretovarious physicalandchemicalconditions.

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