CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
In the field of suspension bridges, Akashi Kayiko Bridge and the Tatra Bridge of the Honshu-shikoku Bridge are the worlds longest suspension bridge and cable stayed bridges, respectively. In addition to this many other bridges are listed among the worlds long span bridges. Along with bridge span, there are many matters that are noteworthy such as the fact that bridges with large deep water foundation are numerous.

ADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE OVER OTHER TYPE OF BRIDGES

A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and common wire rope. Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to remain open while the bridge is built above May be better to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid bridges DISADVANTAGES OVER ANOTHER BRIDGES

Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge deck vibrating under high winds The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur

According to the given task of constructing a bridge in the sea, it requires great work from the designers point of view. From the available technologies that mankind has ever foreseen, suspension bridges are the most viable solution. The problem with suspension bridge is highlighted in the disadvantage section of the above presentation. To tackle this awkward situation we have developed a packaged solution which takes these problems into consideration: As a countermeasure against storms for long span, particularly super long span suspension bridges with the center span exceeding 2000m, there is provided a super long span

suspension bridge which can be improved of its static and dynamic wind resistance performance by applying a mass to a portion of the girder.

CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
Typical suspension bridges are constructed using a sequence generally described as follows. Depending on length and size, construction may take anywhere between a year and a half (construction on the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge took only 19 months) to as many as a decade (the Akashi-Kaiky Bridge's construction began in May 1986 and was opened in May, 1998 - a total of twelve years).

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

If vertical loads applied on cable suspended between two points,it will assume a definiye polygonal for determined by the relations between the loads. The end reactions (T1 & T2) will be inclined and will have horizontal components H. simple considerations of static equilibrium show that H will be the same for both end reactions, and will also equal the horizontal component of the tension in the cable at any point .H is also called

the horizontal component of the end reaction, acts with a lever arm y, the total moment at any point of the cable will be M=M-H.y This moment must be equal to zero if the cable is assumed to be flexible.Hence, M=H.y Y=M/H This equation gives the ordinates to the cable curve for any loading,if the horizontal tension H is known.Since H is constant , the curve is simply the bending moment diagram for the applied loads,drawn to the proper scale .The scale for constructing this diagram is determined if the ordinate of any point of the curve ,such as the lowest point is given.If f is the sag of the cable ,or ordinate to the lowest point C and if M is the simple-beam bending moment at the same point.then H is determined from eqn, by H=M/f To obtain the cabke curve graphically, simply draw the equilibrium polygon for the applied loads, as indicated in figure. The pole distance h must be found by trial or computation so as to make the polygon pass through the three specified ponts A, B 7 C.the tension T at any point of the cable is given by gthe length of the corresponding ray of the pole diagram.H, the horizontal component of all cables tensions,is constant .By similar triangles,the figure yields T=H. ^s/^x=h sec a Where a is the inclination of the cable to the horizontal at any point.it should be noted that tensions T in the succesive members of the polygon increase toward the points of support and attain the ir maximum values in the first and last members of the system.

1. FOUNDATION &TOWER CONSTRUCTION

Tower foundations are prepared by digging down to a sufficiently firm rock formation. Some bridges are designed so that the towers are built on dry land, which makes construction easier.

 If a tower will stand in water its construction can be begun with lowering a caisson (a steel and concrete cylinder that acts as a circular damn) to the ground beneath the water. Removing the water from the caisson's interior allows the worker to excavate a foundation without actually working in water. When the excavation is complete a concrete tower foundation is formed and poured. If the bedrock is too deep to be exposed by excavation or the sinking of a caisson, pilings are driven to the bedrock or into overlying hard soil, or a large concrete pad to distribute the weight over less resistant soil may be constructed, first preparing the surface with a bed of compacted gravel. Such a pad footing can also accommodate the movements of an active fault (fault which has had displacement or seismic activity during the geologically recent period).

The piers are then extended above water level, where they're capped with pedestal bases for the towers Factory made, hollow cassions can be towered to the bridge site to serve as the foundation for the bridge towers once in place, and the cassions can be filled with concrete and sunk in to the seabed. They support bridge load of the order 10^5. Generally for the tower foundation, towers of single or multiple columns are erected using high-strength reinforced concrete, stonework, or steel. The support ground for laying out the foundation under water may be excavated with the help of a grab bucket dredger . The caissons may be prefabricated, towed to the site, installed in placed, and grouted with underwater and standard concretes. Lasers and ultrasonic measuring devices may be used to guarantee precise and accurate installation of the caissons. The circular shape of the caissons is unidirectional and therefore more stable and easier to handle in the strong currents of the Strait. A new type of under-water concrete"under-water non disintegration concrete," can be used for the foundation works which was recently invented. Advantageous in terms of fluidity and consistency, it can be poured for long distances without a weak layer forming on its surface.*Low heat cement can be used for foundation along with admixtures for preparation of concrete.

FOUNDATION

The structures that support the bridges cable are massive concrete blocks securely

attached to the strong rock formations. The towers are made of steel or concrete .They are actually vertical cantilevers which offer some resistance to cable movement span wise. The bridge towers can be built using a boot-straping crane that constructed the tower onetier at a time.presently the towers for a 2 km span used are 30 tiers high.each tier can be divides in to three sections so as to remain within the lifting capacity of the crane. Mass dampers, weighing 10 tons each, inside the tower work like a pendulum for stability. Earthquake resistant design considering dynamic interactions between the foundation and ground. When the towers and anchorages have been completed, a pilot line is strung along the cables eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers to the other anchorage. The towers are divided horizontally into thirty tiers, each of which is divided vertically into three blocks so as not to exceed 160 tons in weight. For better aerodynamic performance, the tower shafts are designed cruciform in cross section, and have been equipped with stabilizers called tuned mass dampers (TMD).

 Bridge would be fitted with huge flexible isolation bearings and dampers that crews would place between the super structure and the supporting columns .the devices essentially act like shock absorber to multi gate the effects of the quake.

TOWER VIBRATION CONTROLLER

2.ANCHORAGE CONSTRUCTION

Anchorages are the structures to which the ends of the bridges cable are secured.

During the construction of anchorages, strong eye bars (steel bars with a circular hole at one end) are embedded in concrete.

Mounted in front of the anchorage is a spray saddle, which will support the cable at the point where its individual wire bundles fan out-each wire bundle will be secured to one of the anchorages eye bars.

 Since the anchorages, which hold bridge in place, had to be constructed on the shores of the Strait. This was possible only after the work bases had been built on reclaimed land. The underground slurry wall method can be employed for the anchorage and artificial bedrock can be constructed for suspension bridge foundations in the world. Spread foundation construction method using retaining walls can be employed. If the supporting stratum of the site is inclined both in the bridge axis direction and in the transverse direction, retaining walls can be installed in multi layers of blocks fitting the contours of the site.

RETAINING WALL METHOD For the anchorages, retaining walls arranged in circular form were installed first and the soil inside these retaining walls is excavated in the open-air while the ground water inside should pumped out. A continuous underground wall with 92 sections of the same length is constructed using an excavator for continuous wall construction. Using this retaining wall, the 85-m-diam area was excavated. The excavation work was started at 2.5 m above sea level and reached 80 m below sea level. After the excavation, roller-compacted applied to make a foundation consolidated with the retaining wall. If supporting ground, however, is slanted, a spread foundation can be chosen while stability will be. In some cases, pillar piles are driven into the ground first to construct retaining walls and then the inside is excavated.

Next is the installation of the cable anchor frame, a steel structure used to tie down a cable, which is eventually buried by cement in the anchorage. The main bodies of the anchorages, which support the tension of the cables, were made from highly workable concrete. This concrete, which is highly fluid and needed no compacting, greatly increased efficiency in casting and reduced construction time.

ANCHORAGE

3. CABLE CONSTRUCTION

When the towers are completed a temporary cable is stretched between both and a wire mesh gangway (temporary) built so that workers could start construction of the main cables.

 Workers and machinery pulled the main cables from one tower to the other. Two begin spinning the cable the large spool of wire is positioned at the anchorage. The free end of the wire is looped around a strand shoe; the wire is looped around a spinning wheel that is mounted on a pillar line. The wheel carries wire across the bridge path, and the wire is looped around a strand shoe at the other anchorage; the wheel then returns to the first anchorage, laying another strand in place, process is repeated until a bundle of the desired number of wire strands is formed during the spinning, workers standing on the catwalk make sure the wire unwinds smoothly,freeing any kinks as Spools are exhausted; the end of the wire is spliced to the wire from a new spool, forming a continuous strand. When the bundle is thick enough, tape or wire straps are applied at intervals to keep the wires together. The wire coming off the spool is cut and secured to the anchorage. Then the process begins again for the next bundle. Once the vertical cables are attached to the mail support cable, the deck structure must be built in both directions from the support towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all times. Moving crane lifts deck sections in to place, where workers attach them to previously placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension cables. The number of bundles needed for a complete cable varies; on the golden gate bridge it is 61, and on the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge it is 290. When the proper number has been spun, a special arrangement off radially positioned jacks is used to compress the bundles in to a compact cable and steel wire is wrapped around it. Steel clamps are mounted around the cable at predetermined intervals to serve as anchoring points for the vertical cables that will connect the decking to the support cable. The main cables are made of parallel wire strands (PWS). Each cable consists of 290 strands, each strand 127 wires, each measuring 5.23 millimeters in diameter. The strands are hexagonal in shape and prefabricated.

CARBON NANO TUBE

 Spanning long distances in bridge construction relies mainly on the structure's efficiency and materials used. Whereas structural design for high rise building is fast-expanding, the overall design of long span bridges has not progressed significantly, and the increase in span chiefly depends of new materials. Carbon nanotubes, with their extraordinary Young's modulus and tensile strength far exceeding steel, allow the production of ultra-strong cables which can be used for cablebased structures like suspension bridges. However, since nanoscopic elements are used to produce kilometer-long cables, it is difficult to calculate their real strength, taking into account physical and production defects. This thesis provides the background necessary to understand the complexities involved in creating a kilometer-long cable made of carbon nanotubes. It also presents a computer program that computes the theoretical tensile strength of such a cable for a given set of assumptions about nanotubes. Scenarios varying the mechanical properties (tensile strength and Young's modulus) are applied to a cablestayed and a suspension bridge, and it is shown than spans longer than five kilometers could be realized with such technology. The analysis shows that the use of realistic (thus defective) carbon nanotube bundles as suspension cables can enlarge the current limit main span by a factor of ~3. Too large compliance and dynamic self-excited resonances could be avoided by additional strands, rendering the super-bridge anchored as a spider's cobweb.

4. DECK CONSTRUCTION
After vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck structure can be started. The structure must be built in both directions from the support towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all times. In one technique, a moving crane that rolls atop the main suspension cable lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to previously placed sections and ton the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension cables, extending the complete length. Alternatively, the crane may rest directly on the deck and move forward as each section is placed. As a countermeasure against storms for long span, particularly super long span suspension bridges with the center span exceeding 2000m, there is provided a super long span suspension bridge which can be improved of its static and dynamic wind resistance performance by applying a mass to a portion of the girder. In a suspension bridge with the centre span exceeding 2000m a mass application member capable of temporarily carrying a predetermined amount of additional load is provided on either side of the stiffening girder for a distance equal to 1/3 at the maximum of the center span so that a mass weighing 30% or less of the weight of the girder is temporarily applied

in mass application member in the girder on the windward side when the bridge is subjected to storm, and cross stays are provided each at a point inward from either end of the center span section at a distance equal to 1/4 to 1/3 of the center span. a mass application tank arranged in the girder and provided with two pumps and a valve at each end of said center portion along the bridge axis, and liquid such as water that can be freely charged, retained and discharged in and from the tank. As a countermeasure against winds for suspension bridges, it has been known to provide an additional mass such as water and fluid having high specific gravity & specific fluidity can be used in the stiffening girder of the bridge to suppress vertical and torsional vibrations of the girder .The additional load which acts to suppress the vertical and torsional vibrations in the stiffening girder must be incorporated as a dead load in the form of water be us, fluid having high specific gravity& specific fluidity can be used. first temporary mass application member being capable of temporarily applying a predetermined amount of additional load on a first side of the stiffening girder and second temporary mass application member being capable of temporarily said applying a predetermined amount of additional load on a second side of the stiffening girder first and second temporary mass application members being located at and being coextensive with a center portion of said center span, said center portion having a length equal to 1/3 of the center span length and one of said first and second temporary mass application members being on a windward side of said center span during a storm.

a mass application tank arranged in the girder and provided with two pumps and a valve at each end of said center portion along the bridge axis, and liquid such as water that can be freely charged, retained and discharged in and from the tank. The super-long span suspension bridge temporary mass application tank comprises a flexible tube made of an elongated rubber or plastic sheet which is safe against corrosion The smaller the dead load of the main cable, anchors, towers, hangers, etc. that are designed by considering the vertical load, the better it is in terms of economy under the normal conditions. Conversely, the heavier the dead load, the better the static and aerodynamic stabilities against vibrations would be under stormy conditions

In the case of super- long span bridges having a center span of more than 2,000 m, however, so-called coupled flutter in which bending and torsion are coupled is the predominant factor that determines the wind resistance. It is critically important to devise measures to raise the wind speed at which the coupled flutter occurs (coupled flutter speed) to a level above the required value (velocity). From the standpoint of this so-called coupled flutter, the temporary application of additional mass on the girder during a storm is not satisfactory because a considerably large amount of additional mass is necessary in order to increase the coupled flutter speed to a level which is significantly high in terms of

engineering, because such an additional mass must be applied along the center portion of the girder cross section. An object of the project is to solve the problem encountered in the prior art that the level of wind speed at which coupled flutter occurs in a super- long span suspension bridge during a storm cannot be raised unless a considerable amount of additional mass is applied because the temporary load is applied at the center portion of the girder cross section, and to thereby raise the coupled flutter speed by a relatively small amount of additional mass. Under the normal conditions, said mass application tanks are kept empty. If a typhoon is forecast, water is supplied into either one of the tanks through a water pipe and retained therein by closing the valve to apply a predetermined amount of additional load. As the predetermined amount of water is pooled inside the tank, water remaining in the pipe is evacuated toward the ends of the bridge so that water is pooled only in the tank. After the typhoon, water inside the tank is returned via the pipe to empty the tank. suspension bridges having a center span of longer than 2,000 m, the level of the wind speed at which the coupled flutter would occur due to strong winds can be raised to as high as 80 m/sec, which is the required velocity of 78 m/sec for a super- long bridge such as Akashi Channel Bridge, by applying a relatively small amount of additional mass. The present invention is an effective countermeasure for such super- long span suspension bridges against heavy storms Instead of flexible sheet of rubber or plastics as the material for the tank, a metal such as aluminum can be used. Two or more storage tanks may be constructed on either side of bridge on land so as to provide water in emergency situations to fill the temporary mass application member situated at central span

CALCULATIONS FOR TEMPORARY MASS APPLICATION

Let weight of girder is W Weight of water tank =30% weight of stiffening girder =0.3W Weight of fluid(sea water or water) in terms of its density =volume of water x density x acceleration due to gravity

= /4 x D^2 x L x d x g Where, D L d = diameter of cylinder tank = length of cylinder tank = density of fluid used

0.3w

= /4 x D^2 x L x d x g WIND VELOCITY

let maximum allowable instantaneous velocity of wind be' Vm/s' Weight of fluid required for balancing of bridge for instantaneous velocity V = 0.3w

So, weight of fluid required for balancing wind having instantaneous velocity V 1= V1/V x 0.3W Weight of fluid required in terms of volume of fluid for balancing Wind having instantaneous velocity V1 = V1/V X /4 x D^2 x L x d x g

5. FINISHING
When the deck structure is complete, it is covered with a base layer and paved over. Painting the steel surfaces and installing electric lines for lighting may be done. The cables may be coated with fluoroplastic paints so that it becomes resistant to corrosion for a long period of time.

ANALYTICAL AND FINITE ELEMENT MODELING STUDIES

An important issue pertaining to launched steel girders is the load carrying capacity due to Concentrated forces. The load on a launched girder is unique because in addition to a bending Moment, a traveling concentrated load exists, which is applied by the temporary roller bearing. The concentrated load, also called a patch load, is transferred from the bottom flange of the Girder into the web. The support reaction moves along the girder each time the launched Segment passes over a pier bearing. It is important that patch loading does not introduce residual Deformation or damage to the web plate. The effects of patch loading must be understood in order to know what web thicknesses are required. Even small increases in web thickness can add great weight and extra cost.

WIND TUNNEL TEST Objectives of wind tunnel studies were to demonstrate the safety of the structure under construction and once completed, both with respect to a aerodynamic stability as well as the possible effects of extreme typhoon wind speeds further objective was to provide dynamic response data at sever key locations to compare with full scale data from the home going Monitoring programmer conducted by highway department. A 1 to 80 scale section model of the deck in the erection stage, and a 1 to 400 scale full aero elastic model of the entire bridge can be constructed. The full model should be tested in different stages of construction in turbulent boundary layer flow, complete with the local topography in order to model the wind conditions at the site. The model test identifies critical stages of erection that allowed the construction schedule of the bridge to be tailored to avoid the typhoon season. The comparison of modal test results and the full scale monitoring will assist engineers to better understand the behavior of long span bridges in wind and to improve current design methods.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

Considering the changing social environment and surrounding public works, in order to construct a long span bridge in future, it will be necessary to pass on the technology to make

possible a drastic reduction of costs and construction period. Such a technology from a design and manufacturing perspective would include the adoption of new structural form that have superior wind and earthquake rsistance, the implementation of new design methods, relaxing material quality reqirments,stremlinig of manufacturing, and development of new material.

THE END

PROJECT MANAGEMENT REPORT

A: Materials management B: Labour management C: Money management D: Equipment management E: Activity management

A: MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

The management of different materials used for bridge construction is divided into: 1. Transportation 2. Storage 3. Usage Materials can be arranged in the order of requirement as: A: Tower foundation construction materials B: Anchorage construction materials C: Cable construction materials D: Girder construction materials E: Deck construction materials F: Tank construction materials G: Finishing materials

The materials are transported way before the construction has started and so it is stored close to the construction site. 1 .Transportation Transportation uses mainly waterways and roadways .Shipping for transporting large amount of loads at once.Some of the materials may be transported from long distances by shipping.For the movement of materials from near places mainly roadways are used.The materials are transported on the basis of the requirement. 2. Storage The materials required are stored near to the construction site days before its requirement.For this purpose large temporary godowns are constructed.The materials are stored as not affected from the various natural conditions and weather changes. 3. Usage The materials are transferred to the bridge site by means of different load moving equipments like cranes.Materials remain in the storage area till their usage arises.

B: LABOUR MANAGEMENT

The construction of the bridge requires large amount of labour.the labours are accomodated very close to the site with quarters, canteen & other amenities.The labour may include large amount of people with different qualifications mainly *B. TECH engineers-civil, mechanical & industrial *M.TECH-in bridge engineering, foundation engineering, transportation engg, geotechnical engg, structural engg, construction management, nanotechnology & environmental engg. *MBA holders for maintaining the accounts. *Diploma in mechanical & civil. *A large amount of helpers which may be from near by locality according to their wages. *Experienced operators for different equipments.

All the above said labours should be provided with good training regarding bridge construction techniquesHere is a format for their weekly salary and time management. WEEKLY LABOUR TIME CARD Name: Employee no: Week ending: Project : Project no: costcode Time classification Hourly Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Total rate hour Total cost

Gross amt:

C: MONEY MANAGEMENT

The various expenses for the bridge construction are carefully analysed and recorded. The construction expenses are calculated and maintained by chartered accountants and mba officials.Various high profile softwares are developed for this purpose.The purchase of different materials from different companies are correctly supervised and maintained.There should be perfect supervision for effective cost management.The maintenance of accounts are monthly audited and clarified. The money management report mainly consists of the expense form various sources as follows:

Salary Machinery Materials Transportation

SALARY CARD PROJECT NO: PROJECT: DATE: WEATHER:

EMPLOYEE NO

NAME

TIME CLASSIFICATION

HOURLY RATE

COST CODE

TOTAL HOURS

GROSS AMT

D: EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT

A large no of highly technical & modernised equipments are used for the bridge construction.the equipments may be shipped from various places and the operators are well experienced. The different equipments are used which can be divided by their requirement as: * Excavators of various capacities varying from a few m3 capacities to 100s of m3.This may be either hired or purchased.Some of the excavators should be present throughout the construction time.The excavators may be stationery or may be moving type. They may move in chains or wheels. * Cranes-this is mainly classified as fixed or moving cranes. These types of crane are classified on the basis of the amount of weight they can handle at a moment. The various cranes may be placed at that place throughtout the time when the project is completed. *Dredgers-These equipments are used for dredging the sea bed for the foundation construction.their are different types of dredgers.we use grab bucket dredger for the purpose of dredging

*Dumpers, rollers, compactors for removing and transferring earth and other materials. *Crushers may be installed in the site premises throughout the construction time. *Batching and mixing plant is also maintained for throughout the construction time. *There are also large no of other equipments which is difficult to be listed. The equipments can be maintained on rental basis or purchased.Equipments are listed and maintained as following.Equipments are largely maintained by different purposes. The different equipments require different mechanichal assistances which is to be provided from the project site for this a mechanical assistance centre should be set up at the site.there should be also a temporary arrangement for filling of fuel and other consumables for the machinery.a temporary fuel reservoir is a good option in continuous work.several other equipments for lighting and illumination should be adopted

DAILY EQUIPMENT TIME CARD PROJECT: PROJECT NO: DATE:

EQUIPMENT NO

EQUIPMENT TYPE

OPERATOR HOURLY RATE

COST CODE

TOTAL HOURS

TOTAL COST

GROSS AMT: WEATHER:

E: ACTIVITY MANAGEMENT

The progress different type of activities that is stretching from the foundation work to the final finishing work are to be carefully scheduled and executed.To make periodicv measurement of progresss in the field ,network ,activities,serve an exeptionally convenient package of work.The advancement of an activity in the process can be in different ways. 1. Estimated no of working days remaining for complete activity. 2. Estimated percentage completion of the activity in terms of time. 3. Quantities of work units put into place.

Here is a model of the activity management for 10 days.This must be done for given days till the work is completed.

CONSTRUCTION PROGRESS CHART NAME OF PROJECT: JOB NO: DATE:

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY NO

10

JAN 2010 Prefabricate abuntment forms Excavate abuntments Mobilize pile driving Excavator abuntment Driving pile abuntiment

The activities specified here are a very few all the activities are inserted and marked with the corresponding days.to get the project management chart. The different activities for the construction can be rroughly grouped as include; Foundation Tower construction Anchorage construction Deck construction Girder construction Tank construction Finishing

TIME SCHEDULE NO 1 2
3

OPERATION
PROCUREMENT FIELD MOBILIZATION AND SITE WORK PILE FOUNDATION CONCRETE ABUNDIMENTS PIERS SUSPENSION CABLES DECK TANK FINISHING

SCHEDULED
START FINISHING

REQUIRED
START FINISHING

ACTUAL
START FINISHING

4 5 6 7 8

Here the actual work is equal to the average of scheduled and required. The construction management report is subjected to several changes that happen at the time of construction. THE END