Ss Chapter 3 (Sec 4) Venice

CHAPTER 3 VENICE A Great CityState Of Its Time/ SEC 4
STUDY NOTES FOR Background of Europe from 1st Century In 1AD, Roman Empire was the only major power in Europe. It faced many challenges, such as external threats, internal strife and little economic growth. In 285 AD, Roman Emperor divided empire into 2 parts to better manage empire. Known as Western and Eastern Roman Empire. Western Roman Empire declined due to repeated conflict with Germanic tribes from Central and Eastern Europe. 476AD, Western Roman Empire collapsed and split into smaller kingdoms and territories. Frequent warfare as kingdoms competed for territories. Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantine Empire, survived due to favorable geographic position allowed it to control trade in Adriatic Sea, Black Seas and Middle East. However, came under attacks by Germanic tribes in west and Muslim kingdoms in east. Venice thereby emerged and eventually grew to become an empire. 1. Venice between 5th and 9th Centuries 1.1 Geography Venice located in northern Italy. Consisted of cluster of 120 small islands situated 3km away from mainland. Islets are in a lagoon. Deep channels of water run in between islets. To west of lagoon is Po River. Several salt marshes on lagoons, in early centuries, which became profitable resource for Venetians. Venice strategic location contributed to development as city-state and rise as maritime empire. 1.2 Early Settlers 1.2.1 Life of early Venetians Early settlers in Venice were refugees from Roman cities in mainland escaping raids by Germanic tribes in 5th and 6th centuries. Venice was suitable area of protection against raids as made up of numerous swampy islands.
Sec 4/CHAPTER 3 VENICE
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Germanic tribes knew little of sea and realizing there were no natural or rich resources on islands, they turned attention on richer mainland. Early Venice settlements consisted of small fishing villages. They included men who had knowledge of crafts, fishing and salt production. They became seamen since small land meant agriculture could not be practiced on large scale. Depended heavily on mainland states for food and raw materials. Venetians constructed system which rainwater could be collected in communal wells, so settlement would have constant water supply.
1.2.2 Venetian society Venetians created urban planning system to organise way they lived and worked. System of administration created sense of belonging and neighbourliness among Venetians. Foundation of Venices social stability. Venice divided into 6 districts. Houses were built close to each other since land was scarce. Hardly any distinction between rich and poor. Each of islets had own market place and church with central square. During festive occasions, people would gather in square for celebrations, which allowed poor and rich to interact. 1.2.3 Economic activities Early Venetians took advantage of their knowledge of salt production. Venice able to monopolize salt trade in region. Boatmen traded salt and fish for grain with the communities along Po River. Through establishing trade agreements with different communities, they dominated region where river mouth and surrounding mainland. Gain access to mainland and forested areas. Venice able to obtain source of wood from trading and ship building. Wood traded with Middle-Eastern states in return for valuable goods such as gold, spices and incense. Venice recognized as rising trade power from 7th Century. Byzantines even relied on Venice to protect some territories along Italian shores. 1.2.4 System of government Although Venice was vassal state (state under control) of the Byzantine Empire, Venetians allowed to choose own leaders through elections. Leader known as Doge, was most experience official and chosen from ruling families of Venice.
Doge was appointed for life.
8th to 10th centuries government structure: Doge Ducal Council General Assembly Doge assigned 2 advisers who form Ducal Council. Ducal Councillors select men who were eligible for dogeship. General Assembly function was to elect Doge. They passed laws on essential issues such as trade and housing.
1.3 Challenges faced by early Venetians 1.3.1 Piracy By the 10th century, Byzantine Empires control of territories was weakening as faced increasing threat from Arabs. Byzantine could not provide Venice protection it needed against increasing privacy in Adriatic Sea. Venice had not built strong navy and unable to defeat the pirates. Venetian traders decided to pay annual gifts to them so they could have safe passage along Adriatic Sea. Venetian ships also travelled in convoys for safety. 1.3.2 Maintaining diplomatic relations From 5th Century, Venice established good terms with Germanic tribes who set up kingdoms on Italian peninsular. At the same time, Venice remained vassal state of Byzantine Empire. Venice wanted to maintain friendship with Byzantine emperor and Germanic kings who were rivals. Due to Venice being middleman for Eastern products which were sold to countries in Europe. Difficult to trade in mainland because of rivalry among mainland states. Venetian leaders turned to establishing friendly relations with the states and negotiated for favourable trading terms to expand its trade. Maintaining diplomatic relations with neighbours was challenges in following centuries when Europe underwent changes. [ Europe at beginning of 10th Century ] After centuries of warfare, Germanic tribes which invaded Europe settle down and establish kingdoms and cities. Farming resumed and food production gradually increased. Increase in food production facilitated growth of trade as surplus food exchanged for other goods. Cities become prosperous as they became centres for trade.
Prosperity led to rise of institutes of learning which eventually transform Europe to centres of art and architecture.
2. *Rise of Venice 2.1 Leadership Capable leaders contributed to rise of Venice. Some made outstanding contributions in growth and development of Venice as they were far-sighted. 2.1.1 Establishing control in the Adriatic Sea Doge Pietro II Orseolo was a capable leader who felt that peace in region would boost trade. He reconciled feuding cities, negotiated treaties with major powers and subdued pirates in Dalmatia. Maintained friendship with Byzantine emperor in East and established relations with Germanic kings in the West to protect Venices independence and obtain favourable trading terms. Created trade links with Muslim states in North Africa. He felt it was necessary to bring piracy under control. 2.1.2 Building Venetian Empire Doge Enrico Dandolo directed the Fourth Crusade under command of Pope Innocent III in 12th Century. Crusade was military campaign to free Jerusalem (holy cities) from Muslim control. It became a campaign to overthrow Byzantine Emperor and take over capital at Constantinople. Weakened Byzantine Empire and helped Venice rise further. Venice thereby gained recognition from other states. It controlled some of the important territories which belonged to fallen Byzantine Empire. 2.1.3 Expanding the Venetian empire in Mediterranean Sea Doge Pietro Ziani succeeded Doge Enrico in 1205. Capture of Constantinople marked beginning of Venices growth as maritime empire. Need to set up military outposts along important trade routes. Doge Pietro expanded trade through conquests. He helped ensure Venice gained control of important routes in Mediterranean Sea. 2.2 Reforms in the government
10th Century: Doge Ducal Council General Assembly 12th to 18th Century: Doge Ducal Council The Council of Forty & The Senate Great Council General Assembly 2.2.1 Meeting challenges of growing city-state Creation of the Great Council Great council was to elect capable members to all councils in the government. Settled disputes between members of different councils, passed laws, meted out punishments and granted pardons to criminals. Members of Great Council came from the most influential families. With growth of nobility, there was competition to serve the government. To prevent rivalry from destabilizing the government, Great Council expanded in 13th Century. More nobles had opportunity to decide on Venices future. Specialisation of duties As Venice grew, need to reorganize duties of Great Council. More committees were created to handle affairs of state. 13th Century, Council of Forty created. Handled law, finances and coinage (making coins) matters. With expansion of trade and establishment of foreign relations with more countries, 60-member Senate was added to act jointly with Council of Forty. Senate took charge in foreign relations, commerce and operations of Venetian fleets. 2.2.2 Maintaining checks and balances Effective checks of power 14th Century, Doge, 6 Ducal Councillors and 3 Heads of Council of Forty formed the Council of Ten. Council of Ten monitored activities of organisations and officials to ensure there were no corrupt practices or abuse of power by Doge or high ranking official. Any plot to threaten government would be crushed. No one was above the law, including Doge himself. Great Council exercised its authority by limiting the power of the Doge.
Doges were forced into exile or arrested by Council of Ten for corrupt practices such as nepotism (favouritism towards family members) or attempting to be too powerful. Eventually, Council of Ten handled confidential and critical matters such as putting an end to treason. Preventing the concentration of power Nominating Committee added to election process to identify suitable male candidates for all elected positions through the process of balloting. Purpose of balloting was to prevent any individual or family from dominating the government. Nobles not allowed to campaign for support in election, thus rivalry was discouraged and no one could be appointed as a result of personal favour. Nobles appointed were not allowed to reject the position. Ensure all positions of responsibility in government were filled up. 2.3 Trade developments and expansion 2.3.1 Attitude towards trade Venetians were skilled diplomats and able to obtain favourable trading terms such as lower tax rates than competitors. Able to bring highly-prized spices from East. Venetian traders maintained a competitive edge over competitors such as Genoa, another rising Italian city-state. Venetians possessed an enterprising spirit. Venetians explored new trade routes, supplies and markets by travelling to unknown land. Example is the Polo family which took calculated risks to extend trade further beyond Middle East. Exploration of overland trade route to China earned Venice good relations with countries in the Far East, which enabled Venice to expand its trade. Wealth created by trade with Asia turned Venice into greatest cities in Europe. Foreign traders travelled to Venice, and established permanent trading posts in city-state. 2.3.2 Innovations in maritime technology 13th Century, advances in maritime technology in Europe in areas of navigation and weaponry used on ships. Nautical chart present information collected from voyages such as distance and important landmarks. Traders plan their journey more accurately. Mariners compass ensured ships stayed on course.

Advanced technology, travels become possible in winter and poor weather, enabling Venice to continue to dominate trade in Mediterranean Sea. Venice designed and built superior vessels to meet sailing needs. Venetian fleets propelled by oars and sails that do not depend solely on wind. Merchant and battle fleets travel further, facilitating the expansion of trade and territorial control. Venetian great galley built as combination of merchant and war vessel. Formidable enough to discourage most pirates from launching attack on Venetian trading ships.
2.3.3 Efficiency in managing voyages Maritime technology enables efficiency in arrival and departure of voyages. Voyages more frequent as Venetian traders able to travel during winter. Great galleys also capable of transporting more goods. Senate came up with an effective management system so as to make full use of maritime advances to oversee rapid expansion of trade and territorial control. Organised and monitored schedule of trade voyages. Grouped traders and ordered them to travel in convoys as more profitable to trade in large quantities. Efficiency meant Venice was able to expand its trade into many regions. 2.3.4 Overcoming trade competition Main trade competitor Venice faced was Genoa, which was also dependent on maritime trade. Genoa competed fiercely with Venice especially in Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. At Genoa ports, Venetian traders risked confiscating and looting by Genoese when trading there. Venetian controlled ports were also unfriendly to Genoese traders. At sea, Genoa attacked commercial fleets belonging to Venice and took over cargoes. Venice did the same to Genoa. Venice and Genoa had conflict of political and commercial interests which resulted in many wars. After series of wars, Venice defeated Genoa in later 14th Century. From then on, Venetian control the Mediterranean Sea which resulted in more international trade. 2.3.5 Trade monopoly 9th to 15th Century, trading activities in Europe dominated by Venice, Genoa and Hanseatic League.
Venice was most successful among them. After Genoas defeat by Venice in 14th Century, Venice gained monopoly in Mediterranean region. Central and Southern Europe relied on Venetians for goods from East such as spices, sugar, and diamonds. Venetian traders went to Arabian ports such as Alexandria and Hormuz to buy and sell goods to other European states. The goods were sold at very high price, enabling Venetian traders to reap large profits. Venice able to provide large variety of goods to the East. Made possible as Venices navy dominated the region. European states had very little choice other than to buy them from Venice.
2.4 Industrial Development 2.4.1 Trade-related industries Ship-building industry benefited the expansion of trade. Initially, ship building industry was small and scattered all over Venice. After advances in maritime technology, around 1100 ship builders were centralised at a new location known as Arsenal. Reason for setting up Arsenal was to prevent overcrowding and minimise noise pollution at its main trading port in the lagoon. When demand for great galleys increased in 13th Century, Arsenal expanded to facilitate production. Eventually, Arsenal became backbone of Venices maritime industry and power. 2.4.2 Manufacturing Industries With trade expansion, Venetians gained more wealth. Led to increase in demand for goods which promoted manufacturing industries. Most well-known was glassmaking industry which concentrated on Murano. Venetians also produced candles and scented soap. New industries began to emerge, such as printing industry which serves the large reading population in Venice. With new industries, more jobs were created for people and Venice continued to prosper. The attracted skilled craftsmen from other parts of Europe settle down and work in Venice. 2.5 Innovative Practices Venice introduced innovative practices in trade and business.
Double-entry bookkeeping: Record business transactions and amount of goods in possession. Useful system to record business transactions. Help meet needs of business. Giro-banking: Do not have to carry large amounts of money and different currencies. Giro-banking allows making or receiving payment by request of bank. Able to carry out several transactions a day and check if there are sufficient funds. Thus, trade was further facilitated. Many traders come to Venice as they enjoyed convenience and efficiency of Venetians trader-related services.
3. Venice at the peak of its development By 15th century, Venice transformed into maritime empire. Territories it acquired expanded its trade and protected commercial interests. Venices success generated wealth and coupled with expansion of manufacturing industries, it attracted many foreigners to settle down. 3.1 Territorial Possessions Venice possessed territories along important trade routes, especially around Mediterranean Sea. Territories were important as they allowed Venice galleys to replenish their supplies without incurring more costs, before sailing to destinations. The stops also allowed large crew of oarsmen to rest. Territories captured in Fourth Crusade strengthen Venice maritime authority over Mediterranean region. Venices success at suppressing piracy, consolidate its control over Adriatic Sea region. Venice established its dominant commercial power. 3.2 Social transformation 3.2.1 A cosmopolitan city-state Success of its maritime trade brought Venice wealth and recognition. Foreign traders were attracted at ease they could conduct their commercial activities. Many merchants ended up settling down in Venice. Venice faced serious labour shortage in manual occupations such as galleys oarsmen. Shortage of labour further aggravated by Black Death plague in 1347. Fluctuations in population prompted Venetian government to create ways to promote migration to Venice.
Merchants and skilled craftsmen in Europe were offered special incentives like housing and citizenship to live in Venice. Policy ensured city-state would have enough people to sustain commercial activities. Venetian society became more diverse and cosmopolitan.
3.2.2 Artistic achievements Art achievements were so outstanding that Venice was regarded as centre of arts in Europe. Many artists produced great pieces of work that adorned the public buildings around the city. Venice was famous for mosaic act. 3.2.3 Scientific & Literary developments Venetians were exposed to ideas from other parts of world. Interest in physics, medicine, law and psychology. Universities attracted interested nobles to enrol in popular courses such as law and medicine. Venetian government provided funds to attract distinguished professors, so as to make Venetian universities more reputable and attract more foreign students. New areas of study such as astrology. No elementary and secondary education, young Venetian nobles learnt through apprenticeship, private tutoring or accompanying elder members of family on business trips. 3.3 Economic prosperity Venices trade expansion encouraged industrial development. Craftsmen in chemical industries were talented and well-paid. Guilds (Unions) were created to ensure job security and quality of goods remained high. Example is guilds coming up with rules and standards for tailoring. Tailors not abiding to rules or produced poor quality goods were fined. Venetian goods renowned for quality. Resulted in high demand and increased trade. More trade generated, Venetians enjoyed higher incomes. [ Europe between 15th to 18th centuries ] Venice entered 15th century, faced with many challenges. Challenges were from developments of both Europe and within Venice. Western Europe faced with several economic, social, political forces which affected continent. As trade competition intensified, many states wanted a greater share of resources such as trade and territories.
Engaged in conflicts to achieve objectives. Led to political instability in much of Europe. Black Dear reduced population, affecting food production and economy.
4. *Fall of Venice 4.1 Foreign threats Political developments in mainland states and emergence of Ottoman Empire in 15th Century posed serious challenges to Venice. Venice had spent large amount of resources and wealth in building military strength. Threats diverted Venices attention away from trade and resulted in loss of some of Venices overseas territories. Added to further blows as maritime empire. 4.1.1 Involvement in mainland Political development in mainland cause Venetian government turn its attention to mainland territories. Mainland territories supplied Venice with essential resources like food and water. Venice needed to secure their supply of resources. In order for Venice to protect their territories, they took advantage of the rivalry among mainland states. Venice tried to achieve balance of power by offering to help one fight against another. However, Venices act of switching alliances with different opposing states proved it was constantly treading on fragile relations with larger states. Venice could come under attack should negotiations fail. Situation put Venetians at high risk as no certainty which alliance would ultimately benefit Venice. Venetians equip themselves with strong army which could only be done so by recruiting mercenaries (soldiers employed and paid) to fight wars. Rivalry among mainland states made overland trade route unsafe as constant battles were fought in the region. Venetians concerned as they depended on commercial crossroads for trade and wealth. 4.1.2 The Ottoman Empire From 13th Century, Ottoman Empire began expanding its influence from Middle East into Europe. By 15th Century, Ottoman replaced Genoa as Venices greatest competitor. Venetian knew they could not compete with Ottoman armies as they were larger.
Venices involvement in mainland drained large part of its energy and resources. Venice thereby forced to give up some of less important territories to avoid further loss. Venetians fought hard to maintain control of Adriatic Sea. However, Ottoman acquired territories along coast of Adriatic Sea and launched attacks at Venices territories from there. Venice used galleys to fight off attacks, thus disrupting use of galleys for trading purposes. Ottoman fought 7-year war with Venetians over control of Aegean Sea and Adriatic Sea. The wars drained Venices resources and man power and disrupted trade. Venice attempted to contain power of Ottomans. Venetians willing to give concessions to Ottomans whenever it suited commercial interests but would later seek military aid from European states to fight to defend their territories. The action caused European neighbours to develop deep hostility for Venice. In 1463, Europeans decided to launch military campaign against Ottomans. However, due to resentment faced from European states, Venetians were left to fight on their own against Ottomans. In 1470, Venice lost Negroponte.
4.1.3 League of Cambrai Venices growing influence made it unpopular among various mainland states. Larger states felt Venice was gaining too much power and control over Northern Italy and wanted to recapture Venetian territories. In 1508, military alliance against Venice known as League of Cambrai was formed. Consist of main powers. League aimed to reduce power of Venice and divide power of Venice amongst the larger states. Many of Venices territories fell to members of the League. At Agnadello, Venetian mercenary army badly defeated. Venetians negotiated for separate peace with some states of the League by giving territories and wealth. Due to changing alliances, Venice created new alliances with some states and managed to recapture some of its territories. Cost of wars drained and weakened Venices resources. Venice had to raise taxes to finance employment of mercenary armies and replenish own supply of weapons.
4.2 Maritime Competition Venice continued to function as a regional trading centre, specialising in goods produced in Mediterranean. Venice was also diversifying its economy into agriculture, manufacturing industries and financial services. However, over time, rise of new powers posed severe competition to Venices position as maritime power. 4.2.1 Discovery of new sea routes 15th Century was beginning of age of exploration and discovery. Marco Polos tales encouraged many European explorers to follow his footsteps. An example is explorer Christopher Columbus, who discovered Americas. Competition to search for new maritime trade routes. Portuguese explorer, Vasco, successfully reached Calicut, a thriving spice centre in India, by going round Cape of Good Hope. Portuguese able to buy spices directly from India and led to competition with Venetians. New sea route destroyed Venices monopoly of lucrative spice trade and reduce large profits Venetian traders had earned. Venices traditional route was more time-consuming, due to overland route. Overland route considered unsafe as there were robbers and plunderers hiding in desert. Venice lost its position as middleman for spice trade. Venice continued to function as trade centre in western Mediterranean Sea as growing cities such as Lisbon in Portugal demanded more goods. Venice became main supplier of Mediterranean goods such as wine, raisin, Persian silk. Sold them to the cities. Venetian-manufactured products such as glassware were highly profitable and in high demand for both East and West. Venice expanded its trade to North Sea region and maintained trade links with England. 4.2.2 New trade rivals 17th century, new trade rivals such as Dutch East India Company was formed. The Dutch bypassed Venetians to go to East to get the supplies. Venice also faced competition from British when English East India Company (EIC) was established. EIC brought cotton and pepper from India, tea and porcelain from China. Venice was adversely affected as position as an entrepot port. Dutch and British had better-designed ships.
Venetians imitated designs of ships, however sailors lacked skills to operate them. Large states (e.g. England), more successful in negotiating favourable trading rights in new ports. Venetians imposed protectionist policy. Imposed higher duties on foreign traders. Traders felt too costly to trade with Venetians. Venice lost some of its trading partners due to its insistence on maintaining monopolistic position.
4.3 Political challenges 4.3.1 Incapable Leadership Basic structure of Venetian government remained unchanged since 12th century. Venetians ability to make good decisions dependent on quality of men selected into office. Venice faced challenge of shrinking number of nobility as other families die, such as during Black Death. This affected their appointment to highest offices. To retain family wealth and property, noble families arranged marriages among themselves. This caused wealth to be concentrated in hands of few families. From 16th Century, a small group of rich nobles dominated the government, making renewal of leadership a challenge. With power in hands of few, corruption was inevitable. Rotation of duties ensured no family could dominate government. Also meant competent officers would have to leave office after 1 term. Later times, nobles regarded office as matter of personal glory, rather than service to the state. Many nobles, previously scholars, competed to serve as naval commanders in wars against Ottomans. They did not have adequate naval expertise. Led to Venice suffering heavy losses in battles. 4.3.2 Corruption in government In order to finance cost of wars with ottomans and neighbouring states, government suspended salaries of civil servants. Together with disruption of trade in time of wars, some nobilities lost their source of income. Division in noble classes (rich nobles and poor nobles). Many poor nobles were willing to sell their votes at high price. Leadership was now determined by how much nobles could afford to pay to be elected.
Another form of corruption was sale of positions to raise funds during crises. Corrupt practices resulted in incompetent leaders taking positions in government. Government was becoming increasingly inefficient as it served the nobilitys interest.
4.3.3 Over-dependence on mercenaries Venetian army employed soldiers from its Mediterranean territories. Small population, necessary for Venice to maintain large mercenary army. Venetians over-dependence on mercenaries was very costly. Some of the paid soldiers did not remain loyal to Venice as they could always be offered higher salaries from other states. 1619, a large number of French mercenaries plotted to seize Duccal Palace and kill Senate molecules. Planned to rob nobles palaces. Although plan discovered by Council of Ten, it showed Venice could no longer trust mercenary. 4.4 Social Challenges Venetians less prepared for war as they shifted their focus away from security matters, More concerned about wealth than maintaining security in city state. Nobles become more affluent, less involved in important matters such as admin and development. More distant from commoners and gap between rich and poor widened. Lifestyle changed as they become richer. Pursuit of entertainment and pleasure helped in flourishing arts in Venice. Many wealthy nobles indulged in lavish parties and celebrations which could last as long as 6 months. Venetians were overly-complacent. Some rich nobles addicted to gambling. 4.5 Fall of Venice Venice decline in later half of 15th century when failed to respond effectively to internal and external changes. In 18th century, Frances growing power threatened many European states. Upon leadership of Napoleon, French swept across Western Europe and moved into Italian peninsula. Small number of Venetian nobles supported idea of fighting for their survival.
No capable nobles to organise and lead an army to defeat Napoleons soldier. When Venice approached by Italian states to join alliance against France, it rejected for fear of provoking the French. Small amount Venetians plotted to overthrow Venetian ruling government. They were supported by French agents and their supports allowed Napoleon to advance in Venice. The Venetian commanders who attempted to defend Venice discovered they did not have the means to defend themselves. Made worse by nobles absence of fighting spirit. On 12 May 1797, when Napoleon demanded for Venices surrender, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered Venice to Napoleon without a single shot fired. Venices sovereignty ended. No longer an independent city-state. A once-enviable maritime empire, Venices decline was now complete.
5. How can states sustain themselves in ever-changing world? [Case Study] 5.1 Nation-building Early settlers displayed determination in harsh conditions by maintaining social cohesion. Developed organisations such as guilds. Foreign talent and labourers who settled down, were integrated into Venetian society through guild memberships. However, Venetians were vulnerable to threats as society became wealthy and complacent.
5.2 Governance During Venices rise to power, Venetians made constant improvements to system of governance. Able to respond to threats by ensuring strong political leadership. With growing population and prosperity, structure of government also reformed to respond to great demands. However, corrupt practices later weakened the government and made Venetians ineffective at adapting to challenges.
5.3 Relations with other states Early years, Venice used tactful diplomacy with military capability to obtain favourable trading terms.
Venice contained threat of pirates and ensured maritime security in Adriatic Sea. Venice participated in power struggles of mainland states. Many regarded Venice as a common enemy. Venice unwilling to forge positive relations with rising nations such as Portugal, instead view them as competitor.
5.4 Sustaining economic development Took advantage of opportunities in Maritime technology. Trade efficiency increased and Venices economy expanded. Venice could not compete with European nations on discovery of new sea routes Tried to replicate Dutch & English ships but failed to operate. Introduction of trade laws unsuccessful, leading to decline as trade centre.


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CHAPTER 3 VENICE A Great CityState Of Its Time/ SEC 4

Doge was appointed for life.

Sec 4/CHAPTER 3 VENICE

Sec 4/CHAPTER 3 VENICE

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