Image Reconstruction From Projections

Image Reconstruction
Resmi N.G.
Reference:
Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing
A.K. Jain
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CS04 804B Image Processing -
Module 4 2
Overview

Introduction
Transmission Tomography
Reflection Tomography
Emission Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Projection-based Image Processing
Radon Transform
Back-Projection Operator
The Projection Theorem
The Inverse Radon Transform
Convolution Back-Projection Method
Filter Back-Projection Method
Two Dimensional Filtering via the Radon Transform

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Module 4 3
Convolution/Filter Back-Projection Algorithms: Digital
Implementation

Convolution Back-Projection Algorithm
Filter Back-Projection Algorithm

Fan-Beam Reconstruction
Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques

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Overview

Introduction
Emission Tomography
Radon Transform

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What is Projection?

Shadowgram obtained by illuminating an object by penetrating
radiation.

Each pixel on the projected image represents the total absorption
of the X-ray along its path from source to detector.

Rotate the source-detector assembly around the objectto obtain
projection views at different angles.

Image reconstruction aims at reconstructing an image of a cross-
section of an object from images of its transaxial projections.
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Module 4 7
Imaging Techniques



Emission Tomography


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Module 4 10
Let f(x,y) denote the absorption coefficient of the object at a point
(x,y) in a slice at some fixed value of z.

The intensity of the detected beam is given by
0
exp ( , )
L
I I f x y du
(
=
(

}
where I
0
is the intensity of the incident beam, L is the path of the
ray, and u is the distance along L.

Observed signal is defined as
0
ln
I
g
I
| |
=
|
\ .
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Module 4 11
The linear transformation is obtained as
( , ) ( , ) , , 0
L
g g s f x y du s u u t = = < < s <
}
where (s,) represents the coordinates of the X-ray relative to the
object.
The image reconstruction problem is to determine f(x,y) from
g(s,).

The method is called transmission tomography since the
transmission characteristics of the object are being imaged.

Example : in medical imaging
0
ln ln exp ( , ) ( , )
L L
I
g f x y du f x y du
I
| |
(
| |
= = =
|
(
|
|
\ .

\ .
} }
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Module 4 12

When a projection of the reflectivity of the object is obtained, it is
called reflection tomography.

Example : in radar imaging
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Emission Tomography

Example : Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

The emissive properties of isotopes planted within an object are
being imaged.

Upon detection of the rays emitted, a measurement representing
the line integral of the absorption distribution along each path is
obtained.

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Module 4 14

Example: For measuring density of protons in tissue

Based on the property that protons possess a magnetic moment
and spin.

When placed in a magnetic field, protons are aligned either
parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field.

When an RF signal is applied, protons absorb energy and more
of them switch to the antiparallel state.

When the signal is removed, absorbed energy is emitted and is
detected by an RF receiver.

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Proton density is determined from characteristics of this signal.

When these events are made to occur along one line within an
object, the detected signal can be expressed as a function of the
line integral of MRI signal in the object.

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Module 4 16

Example: Use of Hough Transform

Consider a straight line at a distance s from the origin and
orientation in the Cartesian coordinate system.

It can be represented as

Hough transform of the straight line is just a point in (s, ) plane.
That is, all points on the line map to a single point.

Hough transform is a representation of a straight line in the
projection space.

cos sin s x y u u = +
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Module 4 18
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hough_transform
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Module 4 19
For each data point, a number of lines(solid lines) are plotted
through it, all at different angles.

For each solid line, a line(dashed line) is plotted perpendicular to it
and which intersects the origin.

The length (perpendicular distance to the origin) and angle of each
dashed line is measured.

This is repeated for each data point.

A graph of the line lengths for each angle, known as Hough space
graph is then created.
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Module 4 20
The point where the curves intersect gives a distance and angle.

This distance and angle indicate the line which intersects the points
being tested.

In the graph shown the lines intersect at the pink point; this
corresponds to the solid pink line in the diagrams above, which
passes through all three points.
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Module 4 21
Overview

Introduction
Emission Tomography
Radon Transform

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Module 4 22
Radon Transform

Radon Transform of a function f(x,y) denoted as g(s,) is
defined as its line integral along a line inclined at an angle from
the y-axis and at a distance s from the origin.

The Radon transform operator is also called the projection
operator.

The function g(s,), the Radon transform of f(x,y), is the one-
dimensional projection of f(x,y) at an angle in the rotated
coordinate system (s,u).

( , ) ( , ) ( cos sin )
, 0
g s f f x y x y s dxdy
s
u o u u
u t
= 9 = +
< < s <
} }
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cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
s x y
u x y
Or
s x
u y
And
x s u
u s u
Or
x s
y u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
= +
= +
( ( (
=
( ( (

=
= +
( ( (
=
( ( (

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( , ) ( , ) ( cos sin )
( cos sin , sin cos ) ( )
( cos sin , sin cos )
, 0
g s f x y x y s dxdy
f s u s u s s du
f s u s u du
s
u o u u
u u u u o
u u u u
u t
= +
= +
= +
< < s <
} }
}
}
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Module 4 26

g(s,) is called the ray-sum as it represents summation of f(x,y)
along a ray at a distance s and at an angle .

Radon transform maps the spatial domain (x,y) to the domain
(s,).

Each point in (s,) space corresponds to a line in spatial domain
(x,y).

Note: (s,) differs from the polar coordinates.

If (r, ) are the polar coordinates of (x,y), ie; x = r cos,
y = r sin, then, s = r cos( - ).
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Module 4 27

For a fixed point (r, ), s = r cos( - ) gives the locus of all the
points in (s, ) which is a sinusoid.

Let U be the space of functions defined on R
2
, where R denotes
real line.

2D Fourier transform for a function f(x,y) U is denoted by

In polar coordinates,

( , ) ( cos , sin )
p
F F u u u =
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Inner product in U is defined as

Let V be the space of functions defined on Rx[0,].

The one-dimensional Fourier transform of a function g(s,) V ,
defined with respect to variable s is indicated as
*
1 2 1 2
2
, ( , ) ( , )
,
u
u u
f f f x y f x y dxdy
f f f
=
=
} }
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Inner product in V is defined as

Radon transform of f(x,y)
g = Rf
where g V, and f U.

*
1 2 1 2
0
2
, ( , ) ( , )
,
v
v v
g g g s g s dsd
g g g
t
u u u
=
=
} }
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Module 4 30
Properties of Radon Transform
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Overview

Introduction
Emission Tomography
Radon Transform

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Module 4 32
The Back-Projection Operator

The Back-Projection Operator B is defined as

b(x,y) is called the back projection of g(s,).

In polar coordinates, it can be written as

0
( , ) ( cos sin , ) b x y Bg g x y d
t
u u u u = = +
}
0
( , ) ( , ) ( cos( ))
p
b x y b r g r d
t
| u | u = =
}
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Module 4 33
Back projection represents the accumulation of the ray-sums of
all of the rays that pass through the point (x,y) or (r, ).

For a fixed point (x,y) or (r, ), the value of back projection Bg
is evaluated by integrating g(s,) over for all lines passing
through that point.
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
; ,
( , ) ( ) ( )
cos( ) cos( ).
p
If g s g s g s
ie if thereareonlytwo projections then
b r g s g s
where s r and s r
u o u u o u u
|
u | u |
= +
= +
= =
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Module 4 34
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Module 4 35
The back-projection operator B maps a function of (s,)
coordinates into a function of spatial coordinates (x,y) or (r, ).

The back-projection b(x,y) at any pixel (x,y) requires
projections from all directions.

The measurements obtained at each projection are projected
back along the same line, assigning the measured value at each
point in the line.

The point of density lies somewhere along the line of integration
for each projection measurement.
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Module 4 36
The back-projected Radon transform

is an image of f(x,y) blurred by the Point Spread Function

That is,

In polar coordinates,

( , ) [ ] f x y Bg B Rf = =
2 2
1
x y +
2 2
1
( , ) ( , ) f x y f x y
x y
=
+
1
( , ) ( , )
p p
f r f r
r
| | =
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Module 4 37
For

we have the frequency domain representation

since the two-dimensional Fourier transform of 1/|r| is 1/|| where

~
~
( , )
( , )
( , ) ( , )
p
p
F
F
Or
F F
u
u
u u
=
=
1
( , ) ( , )
p p
f r f r
r
| | =
2 2 2 2
1 2
r x y and = + = +
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Module 4 38
Hence, to remove the (1/|r|) blurring and restore f(x,y) from
, a two-dimensional inverse filter whose frequency
response is || is used.

Therefore, we have
1
2 2
( , ) | | [ ] f x y F F Bg
=
( , ) f x y
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Module 4 39
The operation gives the summation
algorithm. For a set of isolated small objects with a small number
of projections, this method gives a star pattern artifact.
( , ) [ ] f x y Bg B Rf = =
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Module 4 40
Ref: http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/courses/engs167/12%20Image%20reconstruction.pdf
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Module 4 41
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Module 4 43
Ref: http://www.dtic.upf.edu/~afrangi/ibi/reconstruction_color_2.pdf
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Module 4 44
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Module 4 58
Overview

Introduction
Emission Tomography
Radon Transform

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Module 4 59

This theorem gives the relationship between two-dimensional
Fourier transform of a function and the one-dimensional Fourier
transform of its Radon transform.

Projection Theorem or Projection-Slice Theorem

The one-dimensional Fourier transform with respect to s of the
projection g(s, ) is equal to the central slice, at angle , of the
two-dimensional Fourier transform of the object f(x,y).

That is, if , then

( , ) ( , ) ( cos , sin )
p
G F F u u u u = =
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Module 4 60
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Module 4 61

Proof:

( , ) ( , ) ( cos , sin )
p
G F F u u u u = =
2
2
2 ( cos sin )
2 ( cos sin )
( , ) ( , )
( cos sin , sin cos )
( , )
( , )
( cos , sin )
j s
j s
j x y
j x y
G g s e ds
f s u s u e dsdu
f x y e dxdy
f x y e dxdy
F
t
t
t u u
t u u
u u
u u u u
u u
=
= +
=
=
=
}
} }
} }
} }
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Module 4 62
Convolution-Projection Theorem

The Radon transform of the two-dimensional convolution of two
functions f
1
(x,y) and f
2
(x,y) is equal to the one-dimensional
convolution of their Radon transforms.

1 2
1 2
, 1, 2,
( ', ') ( ', ') ' '
( ', ) ( ', ) '
k k
If g Rf k then
R f x x y y f x y dx dy
g s s g s ds u u
= =

`
)
=
} }
}
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Module 4 63
Overview

Introduction
Emission Tomography
Radon Transform

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Module 4 64

The image reconstruction problem is theoretically equivalent to
finding the inverse Radon transform of g(s,).

Inverse Radon Transform Theorem

2
0
( , ) , , 0 ,
( , )
1
( , )
2 cos sin
Given g s Rf s
itsinverse Radontransformis
g s
s
f x y dsd
x y s
t
u u t
u
u
t u u
= < < s <

c
| |
|
c | |
\ .
=
|
+
\ .
} }
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Module 4 65
2
0
,
( , ) ( cos , sin )
( , )
1
2 cos( )
p
In polar coordinates
f r f r r
g s
s
dsd
r s
t
| | |
u
u
t u |
=
c
| |
|
c | |
\ .
=
|

\ .
} }
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Module 4 66
1 2
2 ( )
1 2 1 2
2
2 ( cos sin )
0 0
:
( , ) ( , )
,
( , ) ( , )
j x y
j x y
p
Proof
Inverse Fourier transform
f x y F e d d
In polar coordinatesinthe frequency plane
f x y F e d d
t
t
t u u

u u
+
=
=
} }
} }
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Module 4 67
2 ( cos sin )
0
2 ( )
0
0
2
0 ,
( , ) ( , )
( , )
( , )
( , ) ( , )
j x y
p
j s
j s
Allowing tobenegativeand
f x y F e d d
G e d d
g s d
where g s G e d
t
t u u
t
t
t
t
u t
u u
u u
u u
u u
s <
=
=
=
=
} }
} }
}
}
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Module 4 68
Any real number can be expressed as the product of its absolute
value and its sign function.

ie; x = |x|. sgn(x)
1, 0
sgn( ) 0, 0
1, 0
x
x x
x
<
= =
>
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Module 4 69
( )
( )
2
2
2
1
1
( , ) ( , )
( sgn ) ( , )
( , )sgn
( , )sgn
j s
j s
j s
g s G e d
G e d
G e d
F G
t
t
t
u u
u
u
u
=
=
=
= (

}
}
}
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Module 4 70
Convolution Theorem

If F{f} and F{g} are the Fourier transforms of f and g respectively,

Applying the theorem for inverse Fourier transform,
{ } { }. { }
{ . } { } { }
F f g F f F g
F f g F f F g
=
=
( )( )
{ } { }
1
1
1 1
1 1
( , ) ( , ) sgn
( , ) sgn
g s F G
F G F
u u
u
.

= (

( (
=

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Module 4 71
Derivative property of Fourier transform gives
{ }
( )
2 ( )
,
. . .
( , )
2 ( , ) 2 ( , )
1 ( , )
( , )
2
For function in one variable
dg s
F j G
ds
For function in two variables
taking Fourier transform wr t s
g s
F j G j G
s
g s
G F
j s
t
u
t u t u
u
u
t
(
=
(

c
(
= =
(
c

c
(
=
(
c

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Module 4 72
{ }
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 ( , )
( , )
2
1 ( , )
2
1 ( , )
2
g s
F G F F
j s
g s
F F
j s
g s
j s
u
u
t
u
t
u
t

c
(
=
`
(
c

)
c
(
=
`
(
c

)
c
=
c
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Module 4 73
{ } { }
{ } { }
1 2
1
0
2 2
0
sgn sgn
1 0 1
1
j s
j s j s
F e d
e d e d
j s
t
t t

t
(
=

= + +
=
}
} }
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Module 4 74
{ } { }
1 1
1 1
2 2
2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
( , ) ( , ) sgn
1 ( , ) 1
2
1 ( , ) 1
2
1 ( , ) 1
2
( ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
g s F G F
g s
j s j s
g s
j s s
g t
dt
t s t
convolutionof two functions f and f f f is givenby
f t f t f f t d
u u
u
t t
u
t
u
t
t t t
.

( (
=

( ( c
=
( (
c

c
( (
=
( (
c

c
=
c
=
}
)
}
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Module 4 75
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
( , ) ( , )
1 ( , ) 1
2
1 ( , ) 1
2
( , )
1
2 ( cos sin )
,
( , )
1
( cos , sin )
2 cos( )
f x y g s d
g t
dtd
t s t
g t
dtd
t s t
g s
s
dsd
x y s
In polar coordinates
g s
s
f r r dsd
r s
t
t
t
t
t
u u
u
u
t
u
u
t
u
u
t u u
u
| | u
t u |
.
=
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
c
=
+
c
c
=

}
} }
} }
} }
} }
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Module 4 76
The Inverse Radon transform is obtained in 2 steps:

Each projection g(s,) is filtered by a one-dimensional filter
whose frequency response is ||.

The result is then back-projected to yield f(x,y).

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Module 4 77

The Hilbert transform of a function (t) is defined as

1
( ) ( )
1 1
( )
s s
s
t
s t
| |
t
|
t

| |
= =
|
\ .
=
}
~
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Module 4 78
2
1 ( , ) 1
( , )
2
1 ( , )
1
2
,
1 ( , )
( , )
2
.
g t
g s dt
t s t
g t
t
dt
s t
That is
g s
g s is the Hilbert transform of
s
for each
u
u
t
u
t
t
u
u
t
u
.
c
=
c
c
| |
|
| |
c
=
|
|

\ .
|
\ .
c
c
}
}
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Back projection corresponds to direct implementation of the
inverse Radon transform.

The reconstructed image pixel at (x,y) requires projections from
all directions.

It assigns equal weights to the pixels contributing to each point
in a particular projection.

Ref: Introduction to Biomedical Imaging by Andrew Webb
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Module 4 80

Define the derivative operator as

The inverse Radon transform can then be written as

( ) s
D
s
|
|
c
=
c
0
( , ) ( , )
1 ( , )
2
1
2
f x y g s d
g s
B
s
B Dg
t
u u
u
t
t
.
=
c
(
=
(
c

=
}
~
~
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Module 4 81
Thus, the inverse Radon transform operator is
1
1
2
R B D
t
=
~
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Module 4 82

f(x,y) can also be written as
| | { }
| | { }
0
2
1
1 1
1
1 1
( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
( , )
j s
f x y g s d B g
g s G e d
F F g
f x y BF F g
t
t
u u
u u
. .
= =
=
=
=
}
}
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Module 4 83
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Module 4 85
Two-dimensional Filtering via the Radon
transform

Convolution-projection theorem can be used to implement two-
dimensional filters.
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Implementation



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Module 4 87

Reconstruction algorithm has two major steps:

For each , filter the projections g(s, ) by a one-dimensional
filter whose frequency response is H() or impulse response is
h(s).

Back-project the filtered projections.

( , ) ( , ) ( ) g s g s h s u u
.
=
( , ) f x y Bg
.
=
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Module 4 88
1
2
2
1:
( , ) ( )
( ) ( ), 1
2 2
2: ( )
( , ) ( ) ( 1) ( ) ,
( 1)
n
M
n
M
k
n
n n n
Step Discrete convolutionof g and h
g md n g m
M M
g k h m k m
Step Linear interpolationof g m
s
g s n g m m g m g m
d
md s m d
. .
=
.
. . . .
A =
= s s
| | (
A = + +
|
(
\ .
s < +
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Module 4 89
1
0
3:
( , ) ( , )
( cos sin , )
.
N
N
n
N
Step Back projection
f x y f x y B g
g x n y n n
B is the discrete back projection operator
. .
.
=
= =
= A A + A A
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The filtering operation is performed in the frequency domain
according to the equation:
| |
1
1
( , ) ( , ) ( ) g s F G H u u
.
=
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Module 4 91
1: ( ), 1
2 2
( ) , 0 1.
( ), 0 1.
, 2 .
2: ( )
( ) ( ), ( )
n
n c
n
M M
Step Extend the sequence g m m
by padding zeros and periodic repetitiontoobtain
thesequence g m m K
Takeits FFT to obtainG k k K
Usually K M
Step Sample H to obtain
H k H k H K k H
. . .
s s
s s
s s
=
= A = *( ), 0 .
2
K
k k s s
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Module 4 92
3: ( ) ( ),
0 1.
.
( ),
1
2 2
4: ( )
.
n
n
n
Step Multiplythe sequencesG k and H k
k K
Takeinverse FFT of the product
A periodicextensionof theresult gives g m
K K
m
Step Linear interpolationof g m asinconvolution
back projectionalgorithm
S
.
.
.
s s
s s
5:
.
tep Discrete back projectionasinconvolution
back projectionalgorithm
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Module 4 93
Filter back-projection algorithm applies a filter to each
projection before back-projection in order to reduce the artifacts
associated with simple back-projection.

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Module 4 94
Implementation



3/25/2012
Module 4 95

The projection data is collected using fan-beams rather than
parallel beams.

This method allows rapid collection of projections compared to
parallel beam scanning.
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Module 4 96
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Module 4 97
The source S emits a thin divergent beam of X-rays, and a detector
receives the beam after attenuation by the object.

The source position is characterized by the angle , and each
projection ray is represented by the coordiantes (,), where

The coordinates of the (,) ray are related to the parallel beam
coordinates (s,) as

where R is the distance of the source from the origin of the object.

, 0 2
2 2
t t
o | t
s < s <
sin s R o
u o |
=
= +
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Module 4 98
A ray in fan-beam geometry is also a ray in parallel beam
geometry. Therefore their respective projection functions b(,),
and g(s,) as

Alternatively,

Once g(s,) is obtained, parallel beam reconstruction algorithms
can be used.

Another alternative is to derive the divergent beam reconstruction
algorithms directly in terms of b(,) by using the above equations
in the inverse Radon transform formulas.

( , ) ( , ) ( sin , ) b g s g R o | u o o | = = +
1 1
( , ) (sin , sin )
s s
g s b
R R
u u

=
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Module 4 99
Ref: Introduction to Medical Imaging: Physics, Engineering and Clinical Applications
By Nadine Barrie Smith, Andrew Webb
3/25/2012
Module 4 100

By resorting data into a series of composite datasets consisting of
parallel X-ray paths, one can reconstruct the image using standard
back-projection algorithms.

Filter back-projection can be used directly on the fan-beam data,
but each projection must be multiplied by cosine of fan-beam
angle. This angle is also incorporated into convolution kernel for
the filter.
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Module 4 101
Implementation



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Module 4 102
Iterative Approaches

2D-image is reconstructed using a matrix inversion of projected
data.

An initial matrix of projected data is assumed.

It is compared with measured projections.

Changes are made to the initial matrix.

The process is repeated until residual error between the
measured data and those from estimated matrix falls below a
threshold value.
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Module 4 103
Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques(ART)

The iterative process starts with all reconstruction elements f
i
set
to a constant such as the mean or zero.

In each iteration, the difference between the measured data for a
projection g
j
and sum of reconstructed elements along that ray is
calculated.

f
ij
represents an element along the j
th
line forming the projection g
j
.
g
j

f
ij

N elements per line
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Module 4 104

The difference is then evenly divided among the N
reconstruction elements.

Algorithm is given by

where q indicates the iteration.
1
1
N
q
j ij
q q
i
ij ij
g f
f f
N
+
=
= +

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Module 4 105
1
5 f =
1
2 f =
3
6 f =
2
7 f =
7
11
9
13
12
8
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Module 4 106
0
0 0
0
0 0
1
1
1
3
11 0
0 5.5
2
11 0
0 5.5
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
1
2
1
4
9 0
0 4.5
2
9 0
0 5.5
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
Start by setting all elements to zero.

Vertical rays
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Module 4 107
5.5
4.5 5.5
4.5
10
10
2
1
2
2
12 10
5.5 6.5
2
12 10
4.5 5.5
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
Horizontal rays
2
3
2
4
8 10
5.5 4.5
2
8 10
4.5 3.5
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
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Module 4 108
6.5
3.5 4.5
5.5
10 10
3
1
3
4
7 10
6.5 5
2
7 10
3.5 2
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
Diagonal rays
3
2
3
3
13 10
5.5 7
2
13 10
4.5 6
2
f
f
= + =
= + =
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Module 4 109
5
2
6
7
Reconstructed matrix
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Module 4 110

Image Reconstruction From Projections

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Image Reconstruction From Projections

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Image Reconstruction

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