The Journal of Positive Psychology Vol. 3, No.

3, July 2008, 202210

Cultural orientation, ego resilience, and optimism as predictors of subjective well-being in African Americans
Shawn O. Utsey*, Joshua N. Hook, Nicole Fischer and Benita Belvet
Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, VA, USA (Received 15 June 2007; final version received 16 January 2008) This study tested a portion of a model proposed by Constantine and Sue (2006) that examined whether certain attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors thought to be consistent with the cultural orientation and worldview of African Americans (i.e., religiosity, racial pride, and time orientation), would predict ego resilience, optimism, and subjective well-being in a sample of African American college students (N 215). Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesis that cultural orientation would predict ego resilience, optimism, and subjective well-being in the current sample of African American college students. Religiosity and racial pride positively predicted psychological functioning and well-being. Present time orientation, however, negatively predicted psychological functioning and well-being. Implications of the studys findings are discussed in the context of future research and clinical interventions. Keywords: cultural orientation; positive psychology; subjective well-being; African Americans

Introduction The study of positive psychology has flourished in recent years (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Once focused primarily on assessing and relieving mental illness, psychologists have begun to examine human strength and virtue, empirically studying constructs such as subjective well-being (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999), resilience (Masten, 2001), flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999), positive emotion (Fredrickson, 1998), optimism (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994), hope (Snyder, 2002), and forgiveness (Worthington, 2005). Questions have been raised, however, about the level of multicultural awareness within the positive psychology movement (Sandage, Hill, & Vang, 2003). Indeed, there has been little effort among self-identified positive psychologists to study the cultural factors that influence strength and virtue, and most positive psychology research has studied predominantly White populations (Lopez et al. 2005). It has been argued that definitions of optimal human functioning are culturally bound (Constantine & Sue, 2006), and a multicultural positive psychology will require that researchers explore the roles of cultural and contextual factors in the diverse expressions of strengths and virtues (Sandage et al., 2003). Very few studies have examined positive constructs with populations of color (Constantine & Sue, 2006). Most research on the psychological functioning of
*Corresponding author. Email: soutsey@vcu.edu
ISSN 17439760 print/ISSN 17439779 online 2008 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/17439760801999610 http://www.informaworld.com

populations of color has used the deficit model. The deficit model proposed that ethnic differences were the result of environmental factors such as prejudice. These hostile environments created higher rates of distress among minorities, which brought out inferior or self-destructive coping strategies (Kaplan & Sue, 1997). There is a need to move beyond this deficit focus when researching populations of color. Indeed, psychology has begun to move toward models that recognize the importance of culture and its contribution to healthy functioning (Lopez et al., 2005). Constantine and Sue (2006) have proposed a model that explains how cultural variables impact optimal human functioning of people of color in the USA. In their model, cultural values, beliefs, and practices (e.g., collectivism, racial and ethnic pride, spirituality and religion, interconnectedness of mind/body/spirit, family and community) interact with strengths gained through adversity (e.g., heightened perceptual wisdom, ability to rely on nonverbal and contextual meanings, bicultural flexibility) to predict optimal human functioning of people of color in the USA. The current study empirically tests the first part of Constantine and Sues (2006) model, the impact of cultural values, beliefs, and practices on the optimal human functioning of people of color in the USA. We selected three cultural variables that we believed were especially pertinent to the experiences of African

The Journal of Positive Psychology

Future time e2 1

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Present time

Optimism

e1 1

Religion

Life satisfaction

Racial pride

Ego resilience 1 e3

Figure 1. Cultural orientation and positive psychology conceptual model.

Americans (i.e., religiosity, racial pride, and time orientation). Furthermore, we believe that the relationship between cultural variables and well-being is mediated by optimism and ego resilience. Our hypothesized model is seen in Figure 1.

Cultural orientation The cultural reality and worldview of many African Americans is grounded in a strong religious belief system, a collective social orientation, strong family/ kinship bonds, communalism, cognitive flexibility, affective expressiveness, and a present time orientation (Hill, 1999; Holloway, 1990; Jones, 2003; Nobles, 2004; Taylor, Chatters, & Levin, 2004). These cultural values yield culture-based strengths, such as spiritually-based coping, broad social support networks, flexible family roles, strong kinship bonds, positive ethnic group identity, and a high level of psychological and emotional hardiness (Harvey & Hill, 2004; Mattis, 2004; Miller, 1999; Miller & MacIntosh, 1999; Nobles, 2004; Utsey, Adams, & Bolden, 2000; Utsey, Bolden, Lanier, & Williams, 2007; Utsey, Bolden, Williams, Lee, & Lanier, 2007; Utsey, Giesbrecht, Hook, & Stanard, 2008; Utsey, Hook, & Stanard, 2007). Denby (1996) noted that, among African Americans, spiritually-based cultural protective factors can be manifested in a belief structure of perpetual optimism and the ability to recover from adversity (p. 153). Jones (2003), in his TRIOS model of culture and psyche, proposed that present time orientation, rhythm, improvisation, oral expressiveness, and spirituality moderated and/or mediated important behavioral outcomes in African Americans.

Specific cultural variables found in African American culture such as religiosity, present-time orientation, and racial pride may be important factors related to the psychological functioning and general well-being of African Americans. Past research has often viewed religion as a unidimensional construct that can be assessed by religious involvement indicators such as church attendance (Dezutter, Soenens, & Hutsebaut, 2006; Ellison, Boardman, Williams, & Jackson, 2001). Recent definitions of religiosity, however, are broader, incorporating cognitive, emotional, motivational, and behavioral aspects (Dezutter et al., 2006; Hackney & Sanders, 2003; Kendler, et al 2003). Research has shown that religiosity can serve as a buffer from stress and negative mental health outcomes, and can also predict psychological well-being (Dezutter et al., 2006; Hackney & Sanders, 2003). The concept of time orientation is generally used to describe how individuals and cultures unconsciously understand, experience, and relate to their past, present, and future (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Furthermore, these temporal frames (i.e., past, present, future) provide order, coherence, and meaning to how individuals and cultures experience the world. For example, individuals and cultures with a present time orientation are said to be more flexible with time, live in the moment, focus on immediate events and consequences, are flexible when making decisions, and value efficiency over effectiveness (Brislin & Kim, 2003). In contrast, individuals and cultures who adhere to a future time orientation tend to plan for the future, pay attention to long-term consequences, take longer to make decisions or to act, and value

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S.O. Utsey et al. the degree to which an individual holds positive expectancies for his or her future (Scheier & Carver, 1987). A persons belief that a goal is attainable helps one to overcome adversity faced in reaching their goal. Dispositional optimism has been found to be beneficial for physical and psychological well-being (Scheier et al., 1994). Aspinwall and Taylor (1992) found that favorable adjustment to important life transitions was more common among optimistic participants than pessimistic participants. Scheier and Carver (1992) found that optimistic college students experienced less stress adapting to college life than pessimistic college students. Ego resilience refers to the ability to flexibly and resourcefully adapt to internal and external stressors (Block & Kremen, 1996). It is an individuals predisposition to resist anxiety and engage the world in a positive way, as manifested by a positive temperament and openness to experiences (Block & Kremen, 1996). Ego resilience is a personality trait that allows individuals to modify the way in which they express ego-control in order to shape and thrive in their environment (Klohnen, 1996). Ego resilience has been linked to a number of positive and negative outcomes, and has been studied in a variety of populations. Ego resilience was found to be positively correlated with global adjustment, work and social adjustment, and psychological and physical health adjustment (Klohnen, 1996). It was also found to be positively correlated with life satisfaction, psychological well-being, relationship satisfaction, relationship quality, work engagement, physical well-being, and positive body image, and negatively correlated with psychological distress, relationship conflict, and health problems (Klohnen, Vandewater, & Young, 1996). Elasticity, a latent variable consisting of measures of ego resilience, ego control, and hardiness, negatively predicted emotional distress (Gramzow, Sedikides, Panter, & Insko, 2000).

effectiveness over efficiency (Brislin & Kim, 2003). Individuals with a past time orientation tend to focus on discovering how the present resembles the past and using such memories to inform current and future behavior (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). For the most part, much of what we think, feel, and do is to some degree influenced by these learned temporal preferences. Time orientation is influenced by both individual difference variables (i.e., personality factors) and culture (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). In Western cultures, time is viewed as a commodity to be controlled, bought, and sold. Hence, many Western cultures tend to be future time oriented, with a focus on material acquisition (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). According to Nobles (1991), the time orientation of African Americans tends to be flexible, with a preference toward a present time focus. Given the 400 year history of racial animosity toward African Americans, it seems intuitive that a present-time orientation (focusing on the here and now) may have served as a buffer against any deleterious psychological consequences associated with planning for and/or managing an uncontrollable and unknowable future. Racial pride refers to having interest and involvement in traditional practices and holding positive attitudes about ones race (Lukwago, Kreuter, Bucholtz, Holt, & Clark, 2001). Racial identity and racial socialization theory and research suggests that psychological well-being requires active recognition and rejection of socially constructed dominance-submission hierarchies based on race and a subsequent immersion into and affirmation of ones racial, ethnic, and cultural identity. For African Americans, an active embrace of ones Black identity has been found to be an important psychological element in countering the effects of racism and developing a positive sense of worth. Having a positive racial identity has been found to be a resource in coping with race-related stress (Fischer & Shaw, 1999; Sellers & Shelton, 2003; Utsey et al., 2008) and individuals with high racial identity and positive attitudes about ones race generally have lower psychological distress and better mental health (Neville & Lilly, 2000). A recent study by Bynum, Burton, and Best (2007) found that cultural pride messages communicated by parents predicted lower levels of psychological distress in African American college freshmen. Wills et al. (2007) found that ethnic pride was inversely correlated with substance use and risky sexual behavior among African American youth.

Current study In the current study, we empirically tested the first part of Constantine and Sues (2006) model of optimal human functioning for people of color. We adapted the model to include variables specific to the experience of African Americans. Furthermore, we predicted that the effects of culture on well-being would be mediated by optimism and ego resilience. Our model included three variables that reflect the cultural orientation of African Americans: religiosity, racial pride, and time orientation. Our first hypothesis was that cultural orientation would have a direct and positive effect on optimism and ego resilience. Our second hypothesis was that the ego resilience and optimism would have a direct and positive effect on subjective well-being. Last,

Optimism and ego resilience We believe that the relationship between cultural variables and well-being will be mediated by optimism and ego resilience. Dispositional optimism refers to

The Journal of Positive Psychology we hypothesized that ego resilience and optimism would mediate the effect of cultural orientation on subjective well-being.

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Method Participants Participants were 215 self-identified African American undergraduate college students enrolled in an introductory psychology course at a large, urban, public university in the southeastern United States. Participants were 83 (38.6%) men and 132 (61.4%) women, ranging in age from 18 to 26 years (mean 19.17, SD 1.78). Slightly more than half (n 112; 52%) of the participants came from two-parent homes; 48% were from single parent homes. Household income was distributed as follows: 12.6% were below US$20,000, 18.1% were between US$20,000 and US$40,000, 20.5% were between US$40,000 and US$60,000, 17.5% were between US$60,000 and US$80,000, and 28.8% were US$80,000 and above.

Instruments The Sociocultural Scales (SCS; Lukwago et al., 2001) is a 32-item self-report instrument that assesses the degree to which African Americans endorse a cultural orientation of collectivism (6 items), religiosity (9 items), racial pride (7 items), present time orientation (5 items), and future time orientation (5 items). Participants indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with statements describing beliefs and practices characteristic of an African American cultural worldview on a 4-point scale (1 strongly agree to 4 strongly disagree). To score the SCS, items are summed across each of the subscales. Higher scores represent greater proclivity toward a given cultural belief, behavior, or practice. The collectivism subscale was administered to only half of the current sample and was therefore not used in the data analyses. Cronbachs alpha coefficients for the SCS subscales in the current study were 0.91 (95% CI 0.880.93) for religiosity, 0.85 (95% CI 0.800.93) for racial pride, 0.75 (95% CI 0.660.82) for present time orientation, and 0.72 (95% CI 0.630.80) for future time orientation. The Life Orientation Scale-Revised (LOT-R; Scheier et al., 1994) is a 6-item self-report measure of optimism. The LOT-R conceptualizes optimism as the expectation that a positive (versus negative) outcome will occur. To complete the LOT-R, respondents indicate their agreement with statements reflecting an expectation of a positive outcome (e.g., in uncertain times, I usually expect the best) versus a negative outcome (e.g., I hardly ever expect things to go my

way). Respondents indicate their agreement with statements on the LOT-R using a 5-point Likert scale from 0 strongly disagree to 4 strongly agree. Prior to scoring the LOT-R, three negatively-worded items are recoded. A total optimism score is then computed by summing the items (minus the filler items) across the scale. LOT-R scores range from 024, with higher scores indicating greater optimism. Cronbachs alpha for the LOT-R in the current study was 0.76 (95% CI 0.700.81). The Ego-Resiliency Scale (ER89; Block & Kremen, 1996) is a 14-item measure of ego resilience. Ego resilience is defined broadly as the personalitys capacity to adapt to uncertainty (Block, 2002). Respondents complete the ER89 by indicating, on a 4-point scale from 1 does not apply to 4 applies very strongly the degree to which statements apply to them (e.g., I quickly get over and recover from being startled). An ER89 total score is computed by summing items across the measure. Scores range from 14 to 56, with higher scores indicating greater ego resilience. Cronbachs alpha for the ER89 in the current study was 0.77 (95% CI 0.720.81). The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) is a 5-item Likerttype scale intended to evaluate a persons judgment about their overall satisfaction with life. In completing the SWLS, participants indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with each item using a 7-point Likert scale from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree. Scores on the SWLS range from 5 to 35, with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. Cronbachs alpha for the SWLS in the current study was 0.84 (95% CI 0.790.86).

Procedure Participants were solicited from introductory psychology courses in the Department of Psychology at the host institution. To enroll in the study, students visited the Web site for the departments Web-based experiment administrator and selected an appointment time for administration of the survey instruments. The studys announcement specifically solicited African American students, but non-African Americans were not excluded if they signed up. Only one non-African American signed up for the study; however, their survey responses were not included in the data analyses. Upon arrival at the study site, participants were briefed regarding the studys procedures, allowed to ask questions, and then administered the survey questionnaires. Surveys were administered in small groups (310 participants). Following completion of the survey questionnaires, participants were debriefed, given an opportunity to ask questions, compensated US$20, and awarded two course credits.

206 Results

S.O. Utsey et al. RMSEA values between 0.05 and 0.08 suggests a fairto-adequate fit to the data (Hui & Bentler, 1999). The RMSEA value obtained for the current study was 0.06 (95% CI 0.00, 0.11).

Means, standard deviations, and subscale intercorrelations were calculated for the studys variables. See Table 1 for the studys descriptive statistics.

Model estimation Using AMOS 7.0 (Arbuckle, 2006), we performed a structural equation modeling (SEM) procedure to evaluate the hypothesized path model (see Figure 1), and to compare it to an alternative model. The SEM analyses were based on a covariance matrix and used the Maximum Likelihood estimation procedure. To determine the degree of fit, both absolute and incremental fit indexes were assessed. Path coefficients were examined to test the hypothesized relationships between variables. First, we computed the chi square (X2) statistic for the hypothesized model and tested its significance. According to Byrne (2001), the likelihood ratio or chi square test statistic (X2) represents the discrepancy between the unrestricted sample covariance matrix and the restricted covariance matrix. For the current analysis, there was a non-significant chi square for the overall model, X2(7, 215) 12.34, p 0.09. This finding would indicate that the observed and specified models were not statistically different from each other, thereby suggesting that the hypothesized model produced a good fit to the data. Two additional fit indexes were calculated to evaluate the hypothesized path model. First, we calculated the comparative fit index or CFI. The CFI compares the hypothesized model to the null, adjusting for sample size (Byrne, 2001). A CFI value ranges from 0 to 1 and has been recommended by Bentler (1990) as the index of choice. Our model produced a CFI of 0.97, reflecting a good fit to the data. A CFI goodness-of-fit index above 0.95 indicates a good fit to the data. Last, we computed the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). RMSEA is an estimate of the lack of fit in a given model compared to a perfect model. For the RMSEA, values less than 0.05 are said to reflect a model with a good fit to the data, while

Alternative nested model Next, we tested an alternative nested model, with the path from racial pride to optimism deleted. Originally, we thought that having positive feelings about ones race would increase optimism. However, African Americans often must face challenges associated with racism and discrimination. Perhaps for African Americans, especially those that have experienced hurts and offenses related to their race, having high racial pride may not positively predict dispositional optimism. Consequently, a chi-square difference test was used to assess the relative change in goodness of fit between the hypothesized model and the nested model. The chi-square difference test evaluates the difference in chi-square values for a competing model (with exactly one path added or subtracted from the previous model; Byrne, 1994). The model with a significantly better fit is retained as the best description of the observed data. If models are not significantly different, parsimony dictates that the model with fewer paths is a better description of the structural relations among the constructs (Byrne, 1994). Findings from the chisquare difference test indicated that the nested model did not differ significantly from the original hypothesized model, X2 dff 0.93, ns. Note that the nested model also provided a good fit to the data; this evaluation is based on a non-significant chi square, X2(8, 215) 13.27, p 0.10, a CFI of 0.97, and a RMSEA 0.06 (90% CI 0.00, 0.11). Because the nested model is more parsimonious, and there is a good theoretical reason to delete the path from racial pride to optimism, the nested model will be taken as the final model. The final path model with significant path coefficients indicated is presented in Figure 2.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations. Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Present time Future time Religiosity Racial pride Optimism Ego resilience Life satisfaction Mean 16.19 10.40 16.95 11.69 14.50 49.91 16.05 SD 2.46 2.58 5.85 3.42 4.15 5.64 6.29 1 2 0.17* 3 0.03 0.27** 4 0.11 0.18** 0.45** 5 0.17** 0.27** 0.23** 0.16* 6 0.01 0.19** 0.18** 0.17* 0.32** 7 0.02 0.14* 0.17* 0.21** 0.41** 0.31**

Notes: *p 5 0.05; **p 5 0.01.

The Journal of Positive Psychology Test of the structural model Direct effects The path coefficients in the final model were all statistically significant. The relationships between religiosity, racial pride, ego resilience, and optimism supported our hypotheses. Religiosity had a significant positive effect on optimism ( 0.13, p 5 0.05). Racial pride had a significant positive effect on ego resilience ( 0.15, p 5 0.05). However, the relationships between time orientation, ego resilience, and optimism did not support our hypotheses. In fact, time orientation affected optimism in the opposite direction as hypothesized. Contrary to our hypothesis, present time orientation had a significant negative effect on optimism ( 0.14, p 5 0.05), and future time orientation had a significant positive effect on optimism ( 0.16, p 5 0.05). Consistent with our hypotheses, ego resilience had a significant positive effect on optimism ( 0.27, p 5 0.01) and a significant positive effect on life satisfaction ( 0.20, p 5 0.01). Optimism had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction ( 0.34, p 5 0.01). Indirect effects In causal modeling, once all direct effects between variables have been specified the model may imply indirect effects. We conducted Sobel tests for the six indirect effects implied by the model. Of this number, four produced statistically significant results. First, racial pride exerted a positive indirect effect on optimism through ego resilience (z 1.917, p 5 0.05). Second, future time orientation exerted a positive indirect effect on life satisfaction through optimism

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(z 2.236, p 5 0.05). Third, present time orientation exerted a negative indirect effect on life satisfaction through optimism (z 2.060, p 5 0.05). Finally, ego resilience exerted a positive indirect effect on life satisfaction through optimism (z 3.288, p 5 0.01). The remaining indirect paths were statistically nonsignificant.

Discussion Many conceptualizations of optimal psychological functioning and well-being are of limited applicability to people of color (Constantine & Sue, 2006). To help with this problem, in the current study, we proposed and tested a hypothetical model for how cultural orientation affected ego resilience, optimism, and subjective well-being in African Americans. In most instances, endorsing a cultural orientation consistent with African American cultural values predicts positive psychological functioning and subjective well-being. For example, people who were more religious were also more optimistic, which in turn increased well-being. This finding supports prior research that has shown that religion and spirituality represent an important resource for coping and social support (e.g., Constantine, Wilton, Gainor, & Lewis, 2002; McRae, Thompson, & Cooper, 1999; Utsey, Adams, & Bolden, 2000; Utsey, Bolden, Lanier, & Williams, 2007; Utsey et al., 2008). Religion may provide African Americans with an overall framework to place positive and negative events. Religion may also provide African Americans with a hope of a better future in times of trouble (e.g., looking toward heaven). Participants who exhibited a high level of racial pride were also more

Future time 0.17 0.27 0.18 0.11 0.46 0.15 Racial pride 0.04 Religion Present time 0.16 0.14 0.13

e2

Optimism 0.34

e1

0.27 0.20

Life satisfaction

Ego resilience

e3

Figure 2. Final cultural orientation and positive psychology path model.

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S.O. Utsey et al. intervention study that educated African Americans about their racial and ethnic heritage could be conducted to determine if experimental changes in racial pride would impact ego resilience and well-being. More research should be conducted on time orientation in African Americans. In the present study, we found that participants who endorsed present time orientation, which is consistent with the African American worldview, actually reported less optimism and well-being. Future research could examine whether there are other negative consequences for endorsing a present time orientation. Also, future research could explore whether there are other benefits for endorsing a present time orientation. Despite these qualifications, the current findings have important implications for African Americans. Having a cultural orientation consistent with the African American worldview may have positive effects on the psychological functioning of African Americans. Counselors are encouraged to consider how religiosity and racial pride might facilitate positive outcomes among African American clients. For example, psychoeducational strategies that introduce clients to the historical contributions of African Americans to science, medicine, politics, culture, and art may serve to bolster racial pride and buffer the onslaught of negative anti-African American images portrayed daily in the media and other cultural outlets. Incorporating religious and/or spiritual approaches into individual and group psychotherapy can be achieved by counselors in most clinical settings (e.g., Richards & Bergin, 2004; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005). The current study is an important first step in developing a multicultural positive psychology. Well-being and the meaning of the good life are culturally bound. Studying positive psychological constructs using predominantly White American samples and expecting results to generalize to populations of color is not ideal. Studying positive psychological constructs using diverse samples is an important first step. However, we must also begin to examine the roles of culture and contextual factors in determining wellbeing and the meaning of what is good.

resilient, which in turn increased well-being. This finding supports prior research that has linked racial pride with well-being (Fischer & Shaw, 1999; Sellers & Shelton, 2003; Utsey et al., 2008; Wilson & Constantine, 1999). Actively embracing ones Black identity may help African Americans to resourcefully adapt to internal and external stressors, especially stressors associated with racism or discrimination. Although endorsing religion and racial pride had a positive effect on the psychological functioning of the studys participants, contrary to what we had hypothesized, present time orientation was negatively related to psychological functioning. Indeed, endorsing present time orientation negatively predicted optimism, which in turn decreased well-being. One explanation for this finding may be that we sampled African American college students who, by virtue of their status, find themselves dealing with the daily stress of academic demands, developmental challenges inherent to emerging adulthood, and with social and familial isolation. In this context, the studys findings that future time orientation positively correlated with optimism and ego resilience makes intuitive sense. Perhaps by focusing on the future and the potential outcomes associated with achieving academic success, the study participants were able to make meaning of their current circumstances (i.e., academic demands, developmental challenges, social/familial isolation) and find comfort in the future. There are several limitations of the present study. First, the study used a cross-sectional, correlational design, which precludes any inference of causality among explanatory variables and outcomes. Note that several, equally plausible uni- and bi-directional relationships (e.g., life satisfaction ! optimism) exist in the hypothesized model that were not examined. Second, the study relied exclusively on self-report data from participants. It has been established that self-report data have limitations, including accuracy of recall, recall bias, and a tendency to minimize or embellish behavior. Third, given a nonrandom sample of African American college students from one urban city in the southeastern region of the United States, the findings may not generalize beyond the parameters of the current sample. Fourth, the present study only examined three aspects of African American cultural orientation: religiosity, racial pride, and time orientation. There may be other cultural variables that impact the positive psychological functioning of African Americans that were not included in the present study. Future research should test the hypothesized model in samples other than college students. Also, research could examine the impact of cultural variables on positive psychological functioning using more flexible and sophisticated designs. For example, a longitudinal design could examine whether changes in religiosity over time impacted optimism and well-being. An

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