Library of Congress Catalaging In Publication Data Senior, John, M., 1951— Optical fiber communications. Bibliography: p. Includes indax. 1. Optival communications. 2. Fibor optics. . Title. TK5103.59.846 1984 621.380414 a4-8315, ISBN 0-13-638248-? (caso) ISBN 0-13-638222-3 {pbk} British Library Cataloging in Publication Data Sesion he M Optical fiber communications. SE ar opts oe 621.38'0414 TK5103.59° \seno-13-ec028-7 ak6 Sev ocisesezneo roe 32566 21985 by Prentice-Hall International, Ine., London All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in @ retrioval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any moans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the aria: permission of Prentice-Hall Internetional, inc., London. For permission within the United States contact Prentice-Hall inc., Englewood Clits, NJ 07632. ISBN 0-13-b38246 7 ISBN O-13-b38222 3 {PBK Prentice-Hall International, Inc. London Prentice-Hall of Austral.a Pty. Ltc., Sydney Prentice-Hall Caneda, Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall of India Private Lid., New Dethi Prentice-Hall of Sautneas! Asia Pte., Ltd, Singapore Prentice-Hall Ino., Englewood Clits, Now Jersey Prontice-Hall da Bresil Ltdo.,Aio de Janaira Whitehall Books Ltd., Wellington, New Zealand 987654921 ‘Typeset by Pintail Studios Lte., Ringwood, Hants., UK. Printed in tha United States of AmericaContents Preface ix Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations —_ xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Historical Development — 1 1.2 TheGenaral System 4 1.3 Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication 7 References 10 2 OPTICALFIBER WAVEGUIDES 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Ray Theory Transmission 12 22.1 Total internalrefiection 42 2.2.2 Acceptance angle 14 2.2.3 Numerical aperture 15 2.2.4 Skewrays 19 2.3. Electromagnetic Moda Theory For Optical Propagation 22 Electromagnetic waves: 22 Modes in a plarar guide 24 Phase and group velocity 27 Phase shift with total intemal reflection and the evanescent fild 29 Goos-Haenchen shift 34 Cylindrical fiber Mode coupling 41 2.4 Step Index Fibers 43 2.4.1. Multimode step index fibers 44 24.2 Single made step index fibers 45. 2.5 Graded IndexFibors 48 Problems 57 References 59 3 TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBERS 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Attenuation 63 3.3 Material Absorption Losses 65 3.3.1 Intrinsic absorption 65 3.3.2 Extrinsic absorption 66 3.4 Linger Boattering Lost 68 3.41 Rayisigh scattering 69. 34.2 Miescattering = 713.5 Nontinaar Scattering Losses 71 3.5.1 Stimulated Brillouin scattering 72 3.5.2 Stimulatad Raman scattering — 72 3.6 FiberBondLoss 73 3.7 Dispersion 76 3.8 Intramodal Dispersion 80 3.8.1 Materialdispersion 81 3.8.2 Waveguide dispersion 84 3,9. intermodal Dispersion 84 3.9.1. Multimode step index fiber 85. 9.9.2 Multimode graded index fiber 90. 3.10 Qvarall Fiber Dispersion 93 3.10.1 Multimode fibers 93 3.10.2 Single mode fibers 94 3.11 Modai Noise 98 3.12 Polarization 100 3.12.1 Modal birefringence 100 Problems 104 References 108 OPTICAL FIBERS, CABLES AND CONNECTIONS 44 4.2 43 44 45 46 47 48 43 4.10 441 Introduction Preparation of Optical Fibers uid Phase (Melting) Techniques Fiber drawin: Vapor Phase Deposition Techniques 431 4.4.1 442 443 444 445 Optical Fibers 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 484 4.5. Optical Fiber Cables 4.6.1 4.6.2 Cable Design 474 4.7.2 473 ara Optical Fiber Connection 4.8.5 Fiber Splices 49.1 4.9.2 4.9.3 Fiber Connectors Butt Jointed Connectors 4,114 Ferrule connactor 4.11.2. Bieonical connector 141 112 113 14 118 ‘Outside vapor phase oxidation (OVPO} pracess Vapor axial deposition (VAD} 124 Modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) Plasme-activated chemical vapor deposi Summary of vapor phase deposition techniques 128 Multimode step index fisers Multimode graded index fibers Single mode fibers 130 Pisstic-clad fibers 131 Aikplestic fibers 132 133 Fiber strenath and durabil 134 Stability of the fiber transmission characteristics 138 Fiber buffering Cable structural and strength members 138 139 Cable sheath and water barrier Examples offiber cables. 141 144 Fiber alignment and joint loss 156 Fusion splices 157 Mechanical splices Multiple splices. 164 140 146 159 163 168 166 167 ” in (PVD) CONTENTS aw 120 123 126 126 138CONTENTS. v 4,11.3 Ceramic capillary connector 168 4.11.4 Double eceentricconnector 168 4.11.5 Triple ball connector 169 4.11.6 Single mode fiber connector 170. 4.11.7 Multiple connectors 170 4.12 Expanded Beam Connectors = 172 Problems 173 References 177 6 OPTICAL FIBER MEASUREMENTS = 183 6.1 Introduction — 183 6.2 Fiber Attenuation Measurements 186 5.2.1 Totalfiber ettenuation 186 5.2.2 Fiber absorption loss measurement 190 5.2.3 Fiber scattering loss measurement 194 5.3 Fiber Dispersion Mezsurements 196 5.3.1 Timedomain measurement 197 5.3.2 Frequency domain measurement 200 5.4 Fiber Refractive Index Profile Measurements 202 5.4.1 Interferometric methods 202 5.4.2 Nearfie'd scanning method — 204 5.4.3 Endrefiection method 206 5.5 Fiber Numerical Aperture Measurements 209 5.6 Fiber Diameter Measurements 212 6.6.1 Outerdiameter 212 5.6.2 Corediameter 214 5.7 Field Measurements 215 5.7.1 Optical time domain reflectometry (OTOR) 219 Problems = 224 References 228 6 OPTICALSOURCES 1: THELASER = 231 6.1 Introduction 231 62 Basic Concepts 233 6.2.1 Absorption and emission of radiation 234 8.2.2 TheEinstein relations 236 6.2.3 Populationinversion 238, 6.2.4 Optical feedback and laser oscillation 240 6.2.5 Threshold condition for laser oscillation 244 6.3. Optical Emission From Semiconductors 245 6.3.1 Thep-njunetion 245 4.3.2 Spontansousemission 248 €3.3 Cerrierrecombination 250 ‘ 6.3.4 Stimulated emission end lasing 253 6.3.6 Heterojunctions 258 8.3.8 Semiconductor materials 260 #84 The Semiconductor injection Laser 262 . 9.4.1 Efficiency 264 6.4.2 Swipe geometry 265 28 Multimode Injectler ra 267 4 Laser mod: 267 2 Etructures = 268 2 Optlosi output power = 268 4 Recent developments = 270vi CONTENTS 6.6 Single Mode Injection Lasers 271 1 Single mode operation 272 €e7 Single Mode Structures 273 6.7.1 -Buried heterostructure (BH) laser 273 6.7.2. sTransverse junction stripe (TUS} laser 274 6.7.3 Channeled substrate lasers: 274 6.7.4 Distributed feedback (DFB) lesers 276 6.7.5 Large optical cavity (LOCH lasers 277 68 Longer Wavelength Injection Lasers 278 6a in Laser Characteristics 281 Threshold current temperature dependence 281 Dynamic response — 283 Self pulsations 284 Noise 285 9.6 Modehopping 286 6.9.6 Reliability 287 6.10 Injection Laser Coupling and Packaging = 288 6.11 Nonsemiconductor Lasers 289 Problems 290 References 292 7 OPTICAL SOURCES 2: THE LIGHT EMITTING DIODE = 296 7.1 Introduction 296 7.2 LEDEfficiency 298 7.2.1 The doubie he:erojunction LED 302 7.3 LeODStuctures 303 7.3.1 PlanarLeD 303 73.2 DomelFD 304 7.3.3 Surface emitter (Bucrus type) LED 304 7.3.4 Lens coupling — 306 7.4.5 Edge emitterLeO 308 7.4 LeDCharacteristics 910 7.4.1 Optical output power 310 74.2 Output spectrum 311 7.4.3. Modulation bandwidth — 313 744 Reliability 318 7.5 Modulation 320 Problems 321 References 323 8 OPTICALDETECTORS 326 8.1 Introduction 326 8.2 DaviceTypes 327 8.3 Optical Detection Principles 328 B.4 Absorption 329 84.1 Absorption coeffecient 329 8.4.2 Direct and indirect absorption: 843 iLValloys 331 8.5 Quantum Efficiency 332 86 Responsiviy 333 8.7 Long Wavelength Cutoff 335 ilicon and germanium = 331CONTENTS vil 8.8 Semiconductor Photodiodes Without Internal Gain 336 8.8.1 p-nphotodiode 336 8.8.2 pinphotodicde 338 8.9 Semiconductor Photodiodes With Internal Gain 340 8.9.1 Avalanche photodiodes 340 8.9.2 Silicon reach-through avalanche photodiodes 342. 8.9.3 Germanium avalanche photodiodes 343 8.9.4 IIL-Valloy avalanche photodiodes 343 8.9.5 Drawbacks with the avatanche photodiode 344 8.9.6 Multiplication factor 345 8.10 Photorransistors 345 Problems 348 References 350 9 RECEIVER NOISE CONSIDERATIONS 352 9.1 Introduction 352 92 Noise 353 9.2.4 Thermalnoise 353 9.2.2 Darkcurrentnoise 353 9.2.3 Quantum noise 354 9.2.4 Digital signalling quantum noise 365 9.2.5 Analog transmission quantum noise 357 9.3 ReceiverNoise 359 9.3.1 p-nandp-in photodicde receiver 360 9.3.2 Recsivercapacitancs 364 9.3.3 Avalanche photodiode (APD) receiver 366 9.3.4 Excoss avalanche noisa factor = 377 94 Receiver Structures 372 9.4.1 Lowimpedancetrontend 3/2 9.4.2 High impedance {integrating) frontend 373 9.4.3 The transimpedence frontend = 374 9.5 FETPreamplifies 377 9.5.1 Gallium ersenide MESFETs = 378 9.5.2 PIN-FEThybrids 379 Problems 381 References 384 10 OPTICALFIBERSYSTEMS 385 10.1 Introduction 386 10.2 The Optical Transmiter Circuit 388 10.2.1 Source limitations 388 10.2.2 LEOdrive circuits 394 10.2.3 Laser drive circuits 399 10.3. The Optical:Receiver Circuits 403 10.3.1. The preamplifier 404 10.3.2 Automatic gain control (AGC} 409 10.3.3 Equelization 412 10.4 System Design Considerstions = 415 10.4.1 Gomponentchoico 416 10.4.2 Multiplexing = 417 10.8 Digital Systeme (418