1. Measuring sleep a. Three standard psychophysiological measures of sleep b. These are used to detect different stages of sleep i.

EEG 1. Scalp EEG measures summated activity of post-synaptic currents (flow of ions not or out of dendrite). EEG is not sensitive to axonal action potentials a. Summation of synchronous activity of thousands of neurons that have similar spatial orientation, radial to the scalp b. Poor spatial resolution c. Cant measure signals from deep structures of from signals tangential to surface d. Great temporal resolution e. Measures activity directly, not indirectly like PET or fMRI ii. EOG electrooculogram (eye movt) iii. EMG electromyogram- face muscle movt 2. Sleep is not a unitary process it consists of several stages a. 1. Light sleep. Muscle activity slows down. Occasional muscle twitching. b. 2. Breathing pattern and heart rate slows. Slight decrease in body temperature c. 3. Deep sleep begins. Brain begins to generate slow delta waves. d. 4. Very deep sleep. Rhythmic breathing. Limited muscle activity. Brain produces delta waves. e. 5. Rapid eye movement. Brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs Muscles relax and heart rate increases. Breathing is rapid and shallow. f. Waking, NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, NREM 4, REM i. EMG activity decreases until almost non-existent in REM sleep. ii. Eye movement most active in REM sleep iii. EEG goes from rapid small waves to slower higher amplitude waves (deeper sleep) iv. Stage 2: sleep spindles (abrupt rise) and K-Complex (dips) v. Deeper sleep-> more and more neurons firing at same time, synchronized activity 3. Neural mechanisms for staying awake and going to sleep a. The generator is the basal forerain in the verntral frontal lobe b. Electrical stimulation of this region induces SWS c. Neurons in this region become active at sleep onset and release GABA d. Note that many anesthetis work by making GABA receptors more sensitive to GABA e. Also raphe nucleus promotes SWS via serotonin 4. Reticular formation wakes up forebrain a. Mechanism for maintaining wakefulness locate somewhere in brainstem in mid and hindbrain

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b. Moruzzi & mAgoun i. Electrically stimulated reticular formation of sleeping cats 1. Awoke and desynchronized EEG Mechanisms for REM Sleep a. Pons triggers REM sleep i. Lesions of region near the locus coeruleus eliminates REM sleep ii. Electrical stimulation of this region or stimulation with acetylcholine can induce or prolong Rem sleep iii. Some neurons only active during REM sleep iv. Pons inhibits motorneurons via GABA v. Lesions or blocking of GABA allow acting out of dreams We all sleep but sleep varies cross individuals and across species (development) Functions of sleep a. Why do we sleep? b. Why do we dream? Narcolepsy a. Frequent intense sleep from 5-30 min occurring anytime b. Cataplexy-sudden loss of muscle tone (REM sleep_ c. Triggered by emotional experience d. Narcoleptic dogs i. Mutation in gene that encodes for hypocretin a type of orexin/hypocretin receptor ii. Mice with orexin/hypocretin receptors knocked out also show narcolepsy iii. Humans with narcolepsy have lost 90% of hypocretin neurons iv. Neurons for hypocretin are in hypothalamus and send their axons to excite locus coeruleus and raphe, and enhance reward pathway in ventral tegmental area. Perhaps switch for sleep? 1. 2. 3. 4. Sleep is not a state of neural quiescence. There are sleep promoting circuits in brain Physiological correlates o sleep are dissociable Other NT systems involved in sleep

3 important discoveries: