366

CHINA FOUNDRY
Vol.6 No.4
Colour Metallography of Cast Iron
By Zhou Jiyang, Professor, Dalian University of Technology, China
Translated by Ph.D Liu Jincheng, Fellow of Institute of Cast Metal Engineers, UK
Note: This book consists of five sections: Chapter 1 Introduction, Chapter 2 Grey Iron, Chapter 3 Ductile Iron, Chapter
4 Vermicular Cast Iron, and Chapter 5 White Cast Iron. CHINA FOUNDRY publishes this book in several parts serially,
starting from the first issue of 2009.
2.5 Crystallization of the LTF
during nal stage of eutectic
solidication of grey iron
In the nal stage of eutectic solidication, eutectic cells grow gradually
into large sizes; the liquid iron between the cells enters the last stage
of solidication. At this time, the region of the remaining liquid iron
is called last to freeze volume, LTF in short, as shown in Fig.2-39.
It is difcult to quantitatively and strictly dene the boundary of the
LTF, since crystallization conditions (composition, cooling rate and
the melt state etc.) in the LTF is obviously different to other regions,
leading to difference in solidification structure which influences
subsequent solid phase transformation. Because the LTF situates in the
boundaries of eutectic cells, the structure, purity, inclusions and density
or compactness in the LTF exert important effects on the mechanical
properties of cast iron.
2.5.1 Crystallisation characteristics of the LTF

The volume fraction of the LTF is very small, and the LTF are
surrounded by solidied metal, as solidication in a hot metal mould.
In addition, the graphite projecting into the LTF has good thermal
conductivity, can transfer heat out the regions; thereby the liquid iron
in the LTF has relatively fast solidication velocity.

The element concentrations in the LTF are very different from that
of mother iron liquid; the carbide formation elements such as Cr, Mn,
V and Mo etc. are enriched; while graphitization elements, Si, Cu, Ni
and Al are signicantly depleted.

The nal liquid to solidify often has more non-metallic inclusions
and low melting point metals, which inuence the solidication of the
LTF. When the LTF is large, it is prone to forming micro shrinkage
porosity.
All the cast irons have such characteristics.
2.5.2 Crystallization of the LTF
According to the chemical composition, nucleation state and cooling
condition (section thickness), the solidification of the LTF has
following several situations:
>
The graphite flakes in eutectic cells continue to project to
and branches in the LTF; at the same time, following graphite,
austenite continues to epitaxially grow, forming zigzag shape and
interpenetrating with neighbour eutectic cells, see Fig. 2-40. Hereafter,
Chapter 2
Grey Iron
()
Fig. 2-39: The LTF during the nal stage of eutectic solidication
Fig.2-40: Eutectic cell epitaxial growth in the LTF
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the LTF gradually becomes smaller and smaller, until all the liquid is
depleted, no any other structure forms.
>
If the volume fraction of the LTF is larger and there exist graphite
nuclei in the region, new graphite nuclei are possible to form and grow
in carbon atom rich area. The graphite presents independently in the
LTF, see Fig. 2-41; while the formed austenite is connected with the
austenite in eutectic cells and difcult to be distinguished.

When the carbon is depleted or reduced to a lower value, due to lack
of condition for graphite nucleation and growth, graphite stops growing;
but austenite continues to grow and extend to remaining liquid until all
the liquid is nished. At this time, the eutectic cell boundary is wider,
clear and easy to be distinguished, as illustrated in Fig.2-42.

The positive segregation elements (such as Cr, V and Ti) enriched in
LTF reduce the temperature interval between T
EG
T
EM
, (see Fig.1-21).
When the content of those elements is high, it is prone to forming
intergranular carbides. At this time, thick section thickness seems not
to signicantly reduce the tendency of carbide formation in the LTF,
since the slow cooling of thick section will aggravate segregation.
Thick section castings without Cr, V, Ti will not occur intergranular
Fig.2-41: Graphite precipitation in the LTF
Fig.2-42: Austenite extends epitaxially to the LTF
carbides, since under the slow cooling, the point S, the end of
solidication, is above the T
GM
line.
When the cooling rate is increased, the solidification process is
accelerated, the temperatures of the end of solidication, T
ES
, is quickly
decreased below T
EM
, as illustrated in Fig. 1-17(d), thus promoting
carbide formation.
For iron melt containing low carbon equivalent and high content of
positive segregation elements, it is prone to forming eutectic carbides
between eutectic cells, as shown in Fig. 2-43.
In grey iron containing high content of alloying elements, the
carbides are also distributed, except in eutectic cell boundaries, in
honeycomb structure inside eutectic cells, see Fig. 2-44; this is because
there exists remaining iron liquid in the honeycomb structure, which
solidifies in later stage. All this is resulted from the characteristics
of eutectic cells of grey iron. Besides, carbides in grey cast iron are
also situated between austenite dendrites, see Fig. 2-45. Therefore,
the carbides in grey iron are more dispersed than that in spheroidal
graphite iron.
If carbide formation elements are pushed to centre area of castings, a
large amount of ledeburite is formed in the centre of castings (see Fig.
2-46). At this time, white solidication is formed inside the castings,
called inverse chill.
Fig.2-43: Carbides in the boundaries of eutectic cells
Fig.2-44: Carbides in the honeycomb structure of eutectic cells
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load, the tips will develop into crack initiations that cause the frames to
fracture prematurely. The author observed the microstructures of thirty
tensile samples and found that there occur zigzag shaped metal frames
in most of the samples having low strength (3050MPa). The metal
network frames of eutectic cells in type D graphite cast iron are mainly
meniscus frames (see Fig. 2-51); maybe, this is the reason that type D
graphite cast iron has higher strength.

Precipitate phases, such as graphite, carbides, phosphorus
eutectics and inclusions in the LTF all are brittle phases; their
morphology and amount have direct inuence on the strength and
brittleness of the metal frames. The isolated particles (such as TiC,
TiN) have less detrimental effect; but continuous network, angular
or lathy precipitates (for example phosphorus eutectics and
cementite) will cause significant detriment to properties. Figure
2-52 shows crack propagations along carbides.

The positive segregation elements (Mn, Cr. Mo and V etc)
enriched in the LTF increase austenite transformation undercooling
and rene transformed structure (see Fig. 2-53), thereby increase
properties of the material. However, if these elements are too
much enriched in the LTF, thus leading to formation of carbides
and phosphorus eutectics; at this time, the detriment effect will
exceed positive effect.

Since the volume of final solidifying liquid in the intercellular
regions can not get compensation, small holes, i.e. shrinkage porosity,
are formed in site. For low carbon equivalent hypoeutectic grey irons
(such as grey iron 250, 300), this type of defect is prone to forming in
hot spot area of castings; after machining, small dispersed black spots,
i.e. shrinkage holes, can bee seen on the machined surface.
2.5.3 Inuence of solidication structure in the LTF
on property of grey iron
The structure solidied in the remaining liquid between eutectic cells
has following three inuences:

If no graphite, carbides or phosphorus eutectics, only austenite is
formed in the liquid in the LTF, metal network frames constructed
from metal matrix will envelope eutectic cells. When under load, the
metal network frames can bear part of the load, release the un-favourite
inuence of graphite on the mechanical property; the cutting effect of
graphite is restricted within eutectic cells. It is seen from this that metal
frame has signicant effect on the mechanical properties of cast iron.
It is considered that the strength characteristics of cast iron are mainly
dependent on the primary austenite and boundaries of eutectic cells
which are not cut by graphite akes
[63]
.
The metal network frames can be divided into two types: meniscus
Fig. 2-49: Vertical section of stable and meta-stable Fe-C-P
systems (the dash line is with addition of Te)
[61]
(a) Meniscus shape (b) Zigzag shape
Fig. 2-50: The types of metal frames formed in the LTF
Fig. 2-51: Metal frames in type D graphite cast iron (brown colour)
Fig.2-52: Crack propagation along intergranular carbides in
eutectic cell boundaries
and zigzag shape. Spheroidal eutectic cells form meniscus frames and
zigzag eutectic cells form zigzag frames, as illustrated in Fig. 2-50.
It is obvious that due to the tip effect of zigzag frames, when under
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K
S
=
Solute concentration in the centre of dendrite (or eutectic cell)
Solute concentration in the boundary of dendrite (or eutectic cell)
Denition:
K
S
= l no segregation
K
S
< l positive segregation. Solute concentration in the
boundary of dendrite (or eutectic cell) is higher than in the centre
of dendrite (or eutectic cell)
K
S
>1 inverse segregation. Solute concentration in the boundary
of dendrite (or eutectic cell) is lower than in the centre of dendrite
(or eutectic cell)
Similarly, segregation ratio S
.
R can also be used to describe the
segregation degree of solute elements
[64, 65]
.
S
.
R=
Solute concentration in the boundary of dendrite (or eutectic cell)
Solute concentration in the centre of dendrite (or eutectic cell)
S
.
R >1 positive segregation
S
.
R <1 inverse segregation
The relation between the two equations:
K
S
=
1
S
.
R
The solute elements in above equations refer to common
elements (Si, Mn, P, S), alloying elements (Cu, Ni, Mo, Cr, V, Ti,
etc.) and other elements studied in cast iron, except Fe.
Table 2-6 lists the K
S
for the elements in cast iron. Due to
different measurement conditions, the data from different
literatures have quite big difference. It is seen from Table 2-6, the
graphitizing elements (Si, Ni, Cu, Co, Al) have K
S
>1 and belong
to inverse segregation elements; carbide formation elements have
K
S
<1 and belong to positive segregation elements. Sulphur and
phosphorus do not belong to carbide formation elements, but
present positive segregation.
Electron probe analyses indicate that phosphorus has serious
segregation and non-uniformity. In grey iron with w(P)=0.11%,
phosphorus eutectics can reach 8.23% 11.29%; the ratio of the
P content in phosphorus eutectics to the P content in pearlite can
reach as high as 51.4 70.6
[64]
.
2.6.2 Factors affecting segregation in cast iron
(a)Alloying factor
Different alloy elements have different segregation behaviours;
Element
Primary
austenite
[26]
Eutectic
cell
[26]
References
[65]

[66]

[67]
Al 1.10 2.50 - - -
Si 1.15 1.60 1.17 1.60 1.60
Cu 1.10 1.80 1.50 - 1.05
Ni 1.15 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.60
Co 1.14 1.40 - - -
Mn 0.75 0.63 0.75 0.85 0.90
Cr 0.85 0.84 0.60 - 0.70
W 0.95 0.21 - - -
Mo 0.87 0.24 0.40 0.70 -
V 0.97 - - - -
P 0.69 0.53 - 0.20 -
S - - - 0.002 -
Ti - - - 0.60 -
Table 2-6: Segregation coefcient of elements in cast iron, K
S
The structures when measuring K
S
was not indicated.
2.6 Segregation in cast iron
Similar to other alloys, segregation in cast iron has macro
segregation and micro segregation.
Macro segregation is a non-uniform distribution of chemical
compositions in macro scale, which is caused by long range ow of
liquid in casting and redistribution of solute elements in large area.
Micro segregation is called short range segregation; which is a
phenomenon of chemical composition non-uniform in grain scale.
According to their forms, segregation is divided into cellular,
dendrite and inter-granular segregation. Micro segregation of
solidication is the result of solute redistribution, depending on the
diffusion process of micro area.
Micro segregation in cast iron is more obvious than macro
segregation. The non-uniform distribution of elements during
solidification often causes stuctural diversity, for example, the
region with high silicon is prone to forming ferrite, Mn, Cr, Mo
enriched regions prone to carbides, and phosphorus segregation
regions prone to phosphorus eutectics etc. In addition, segregation
also affects solid phase transformation during cooling or heat
treatment, since segregation caused by non-uniform distribution
of alloying elements will result in difference in stability and
hardenability of austenite. Therefore, segregation in cast iron has
always been paid attention.
2.6.1 Measurement of micro segregation
Micro segregation is caused by redistribution of solute elements in
an alloy. For most of the alloys, distribution coefcients of solutes,
K
0
, are all less than 1. For alloys with K
0
<1, solutes are rejected
from grains, causing constitutional difference between inside and
outside grains.
An important parameter measuring micro segregation is
segregation coefficient K
S
, which is a ratio of centre solute
concentration to edge concentration in dendrite (or eutectic
cell). The value of K
S
indicates the degree of difference in solute
concentration inside and outside of a grain.
Fig. 2-53: Fine pearlite structure in the LTF
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this is dependent on their following attributes:

Shape of phase diagram: solute element (X) influences the
shape of FeCX phase diagram. When horizontal distance
between solid and liquid lines is increased, the solute concentration
difference between the centre and edge of austenite dendrite is
increased, the segregation becomes severe.

Effects of elements with carbon: graphitising elements (Si,
Cu, Ni etc) in cast iron can increase activity of carbon and cause
carbon to be rejected from austenite, but enrich themselves
in austenite grains and present inverse segregation. While,
carbide formation elements (Mn, Cr, V, Mo, etc.) can decrease
thermodynamic activity of carbon, and are prone to combining
with C rejected from austenite, but enrich themselves in the LTF
and show positive segregation.

Solid diffusion coefficient: solid diffusion coefficient of
elements has significant influence on segregation degree. The
diffusion coefficient of most elements (except C, N and O) in
solid is very small; the diffusion velocity is far lower than the
velocity of solidication interface, thereby is very difcult to reach
constitutional equilibrium. The smaller the diffusion coefficient
in solid, the stronger the segregation. Compared to solid diffusion
coefcient, the liquid diffusion coefcient has smaller inuence on
micro segregation.

Interactive effect: interactive effect between elements can
change segregation tendency
[68]
. If third constituent makes
equilibrium distribution coefcient of a certain element K
0
become
small (when K
0
<1), the segregation of the element will become
strong.


Cooling rate: according to general solidification rule, as
cooling rate increases, the segregation degree inside grains
becomes severe, since under low temperature, diffusion of
elements becomes more difficult. However, when cooling rate
reaches rapid cooling rate (10
3
10
9
K/s), segregation tendency is
decreased greatly, even no segregation occurs. This is because,
at this time, the temperature of dendrite tips quickly drops
to solidus; solid-liquid interface is planar growth rather than
dendrite growth, composition in solid becomes uniform. But for
casting, the inuence is different; the fast cooling thin wall iron
castings have less segregation, while slow cooling iron castings
(especially spheroidal graphite iron castings) have strong grain
boundary segregation. In heavy section iron castings, the austenite
boundaries, especially eutectic cell boundaries, have significant
tendency of intergranular carbide formation. This is because
positive elements have enough time to be repulsed to the LTF and
combine with carbon there. For example, Ti is prone to forming
titanium carbides, titanium nitrides and titanium carbon-nitrides.
Under fast cooling condition of metal mould, it is found that TiC
is mainly distributed in pearlite while TiN in ferrite. For slow
cooling castings titanium compounds are mainly segregated to
grain boundaries as granular particles
[55]
.

Liquid ow during solidication: liquid short range convection
can improve the degree of solute mixing and thin the diffusion
boundary layer at solid-liquid interface, which is beneficial for
precipitation of uniform solid, thus reducing segregation.

Structure factor: fineness of austenite dendrites (or eutectic
cells) inuences the degree of segregation; extremely ne grain
makes the K
S
value of solute element close to 1 and reduces the
degree of segregation.
2.6.3 Characteristics of micro segregation in grey iron

Cast iron has relatively more solute elements, the interaction
of elements increases segregation degree. Positive segregation
elements such as Mn, Cr, V, W and Mo are repulsed to the LTF
by solidifying solid and combined with carbon in the LTF, thus
making micro segregation further severe. The content of common
elements (such as Si, C, Mn, S, P) in steel is signicantly lower
than that in cast iron; thus their segregation tendency is much less
than that in cast iron. For example, Cr in steel has K
S
=0.94, while
in cast iron K
S
=0.70
[69]
.

The large content of solute elements and variety of solidication
structures in cast iron make solute element distribution very
complicated. For example, although primary and eutectic
austenite are all austenite, elements in the two have different
segregation coefficient K
S
. Within one eutectic cell, the solute
element concentration is also very uneven. This can be seen from
the colour difference in Fig. 2-54. In addition, the composition
difference exists in transverse section of dendrite and longitudinal
direction as well (see Fig. 2-55).
>
For most engineering alloys, the segregation characteristics of
alloying elements show positive segregation. Differently in cast
iron, in addition to positive segregation, some elements present
inverse segregation characteristics. The solute elements in cast
iron are divided into two types: positive and inverse segregation
elements:
Positive segregation elements: Mn, Cr, V, Mo, W, P, S etc.
Inverse segregation elements: Si, Al, Cu, Ni, Co.
It is not difcult to see that the segregation characteristics are
closely related to their graphitizability and carbide formation
tendency (except P and S). Positive segregation elements are
Fig.2-54: Segregation within eutectic cell
(small white grey area is the LTF having high positive segregation
elements)
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CHINA FOUNDRY
Vol.6 No.4
mainly carbide formation elements; while inverse segregation
elements are strong graphitizing elements.
The inverse segregation behaviour of silicon and other
graphitizing elements in cast iron is caused by higher carbon and
silicon content
[69]
.
Low carbon steel is a FeCSi ternary system alloy with lower
carbon and silicon content; in the steels of the FeC and Fe
Si binary alloy systems, the distribution coefficients of solute
element C and Si are K
0
<1. During solidification, according to
the principle of solute redistribution, although C and Si are also
distributed in liquid phase, the amount segregated to liquid is
relatively small; the SiC repulsion force is not enough to change
the distribution characteristics in which solid is enriched in Fe,
and liquid is enriched in carbon and silicon. However, for cast iron
with higher C and Si, the silicon in Fe-C-Si system is redistributed
in another way. At this time, the SiC repulsion force is
remarkably increased; silicon is replaced from carbon-enriched
micro volume, repulsed from liquid by carbon and enters Fe phase
preferentially. With growth of dendrites (eutectic cells), Si is
continuously dissolved in austenite, and the amount of silicon in
liquid is gradually decreased; the segregation of silicon is changed
from previous positive to inverse, while the type or sign of micro
segregation of carbon remains the same. In liquid, the reason
why Si is repulsed by C, not C repulsed by Si is that the valence
electrons on 3s3p orbit of Si atom are far from Si nucleus and
are shielded with two electron orbits K and L; while for carbon
atom, it only has one electron orbit (K) shielding. Therefore, when
forming chemical bond with Fe, silicon is superior to carbon.
The change of segregation direction of silicon in FeCSi alloy is
closely related to carbon content, see Table 2-7. When w(C)>0.35%,
K
S
>1, the segregation of silicon is changed to inverse segregation.
When silicon is increased, the critical carbon content is also increased.
(a) Segregation along transverse section (b) Segregation along longitudinal direction
Fig. 2-55: Dendrite segregation
Fig. 2-56: Ferrite caused by segregation of silicon in the centre of eutectic cell
(a) The centre of eutectic cell has higher silicon (yellow) (b) Ferrite formed in eutectic cell centre (brown)
Once mass fraction of carbon is less than 0.35%, the segregation
of silicon has nothing to do with its content, showing positive
Table 2-7: Relation of segregation coefcient K
S
of silicon
with carbon content
[69]
Alloy w(C)(%) K
S
Type of alloy w(C)(%) K
S
C15 steel 0.15 0.91 60MnSi2 steel 0.65 1.20
C35 steel 0.34 1.00 Malleable cast iron 2.60 1.51
C45 steel 0.48 1.10 Grey iron 3.15 1.60
segregation. The inverse segregation of Cu, Ni, Co and Al is
because the atom bonds of these elements forming with iron are far
stronger than Fe-Fe bond when carbon exists; the thermodynamic
potentials of solid solutions of Cu, Ni, Co and Al forming with Fe
are more stable
[26]
.
2.6.4 Effect of segregation on structure and property
of grey cast iron
At beginning of solidication, the inverse segregation of silicon
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makes the austenite dendrites rich in silicon; the austenite dendrites
are prone to forming dendritic ferrite during subsequent cooling.
During eutectic solidication, silicon is enriched in the centre of
eutectic cells. In iron with higher silicon, ferrite often appears in
eutectic centre (see Fig. 2-56), leading to decreased mechanical
property.
Manganese segregates positively to the boundaries of austenite
dendrites (or eutectics), decreases transformation temperature
of austenite in the regions, increases its stability and makes the
austenite easy to form pearlite.
Sulphur segregates to late solidied grain boundaries and forms
FeS. When manganese is low, isolated FeS is observed.
Phosphorus in cast iron is an element prone to segregation.
When mass fraction of phosphorus is 0.05%, phosphorus is
possible to form phosphorous eutectics in cast iron
[70]
. For most
iron castings, since phosphorus eutectics are very hard, with
hardness of 800950HV, and brittle, the phosphorus content
should be restricted. However for improving wear resistance,
phosphorus is often added into cast iron. But when w(P)>0.2%,
shrinkage porosity occurs because of solidification shrinkage
when phosphorus enriched liquid cools to phosphorus eutectic
temperature. When Ni, Cr and Mo elements coexist in cast iron,
the combined positive segregations increase the amount and
tendency of macro shrinkage porosity
[71]
.
Some low melting point elements (Pb, Bi, Sn and Sb etc.) often
segregate to boundaries of dendrites or eutectic cells, causing to
form special structures during solidication. Trace lead of w(Pb)
> 0.005% can cause network graphite to form round austenite
dendrites
[72]
. Loper found through experiment that for thick section
grey iron castings, if slow cooling through high temperature
region, Wiedmannstaetten graphite can form
[73]
.
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