Training

Pagoda Training Grammar Reference Manual

This manual will look at the main structures associated with the SLE course books you will be using here at Pagoda. It should not be considered a course in grammar, we recommend that if you feel you need some help polishing up your grammar, you can go to a book shop and find a good grammar textbook there. As the lowest level students you will possibly have (1A) are at a pre-intermediate level, you can assume a certain amount of language knowledge from them. Your job as a teacher is to be able to explain why certain structures are used and how they are used, every lesson you teach will contain a certain amount of grammar (whether you have planned to teach it or not) that you must be prepared to explain. Before you begin to teach, we suggest that you read through and familiarize yourself with these structures, remember though that simply knowing what the grammar is is not enough, you have to be able to communicate it in the following way;

Meaning

What does the sentence communicate, past, present , future, real/unreal etc

Structure

How do we construct the sentence? (subject + verb + object etc)

Use

What topics is this grammar linked to? (Talking about hobbies, routines etc)

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Contents
Page 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 9 10 14 17 18 19
Topic The Verb Tenses (referring to time) Used to and Would Passive Voice The Conditionals Modal Verbs Infinitives & Gerunds Relative Clauses Time Clauses Comparatives & Superlatives Reported Speech Adjectives & Adverbs Quantifiers / Articles Prepositions Phrasal Verbs & Idioms References & Resources

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Verb Tenses
Tense Use (active) Form

Simple
Present I speak Base verb + s (3rd Person) Facts, measurement, routines, hobbies, future plans

Continuous
I am speaking (to be + present participle) situations currently happening changing situations Future Plans Present Participle: speak + ing (main verb) Passive: I am told / I am being told Past Participles go / went / gone See / saw / seen Passive: I have been spoken to Having been spoken to Passive: I was spoken to I was being spoken to

Present Perfect

I have spoken (Have/has + past participle) Change over time A recent event Duration from past until now Experience Accomplishment I spoke (regular; verb + ed, irregular different forms) A completed action. Polite Requests (Would you like etc) Past habits (used to) I had spoken (had + past participle) One action before another in the past.

I have been speaking (have/has been + present participle) Duration from past until now. Change over time.

Past Simple

I was speaking (was/were + present participle) Actions with duration in the past. To set the scene in a story

Past Perfect

I had been speaking (had been + present participle) One action before another in the past with duration I will be speaking (will be + present participle) Future event with duration. To express main activity in the future.

Passive: I had been spoken to

Future

I will speak (will + base infinitive) Future plans/events Certainties

Passive: I will be spoken to

Future Perfect

I will have spoken (will have + past participle) An action that will be completed in the future)

I will have been speaking Passive: (will have been + present I will have been spoken to participle) An action that will be completed in the future expressing duration. Passive: I am going to be spoken to

To be going to

I am going to Speak ( to be going to + base infinitive) A future action that expresses more certainty than 'will'. Can also express a certainty in the past (hypothetical)

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Used to and Would
Both refer to past hobbies / actions no longer true I used to be very good at playing the Oboe. (used to + infinitive) I would go to the river and swim with my friends in summer. (would + infinitive) 'Used to' can also refer to present actions that were not true in the past. I didn't use to smoke or drink. (didn't + use to + infinitive) Do not confuse it with the phrasal verb / adjective 'to be used to' I am used to eating spicy food (I am accustomed to in the present)

Passive Voice

The passive voice in English is composed of the structure: to be + past participle It changes the normal active voice where the subject of the action is emphasised. (I took the cake) In passive voice the object of the action is emphasised. (the cake was taken) An agent can be added to the end of the sentence using 'by'.

a) Subject Unknown My car was stolen during the night. b) Subject too numerous 20,000 cars were sold during 1998. (by probably hundreds of people) c) Subject known but less important than object. The movie was released in 1981 ( by a movie company) agent There are also several other ways to make the passive using 'get' and 'have'

I had my hair cut last weekend (by a hairdresser) I am going to get my car fixed. (by a mechanic)

The Conditionals

In English we have 3 main conditional forms, they are created by forming two clauses, a condition and a result. If I teach English well, my students will improve more quickly. (with comma) Condition result

These clauses can be reversed without changing the meaning. My students will improve more quickly if I teach English well. (without comma) Result condition

First Conditional (Type 1) can be used with 'if' (uncertain) or 'when' (certain) 'as long as ' If/When + subject + present, subject + modal (will/may/might/can) + base infinitive When I go to University, I will study hard. I will go for dinner with you if I finish my homework. Facts, advice & Warnings If you park here, your car will be towed. If you want to lose weight, stop stuffing your face. Sea levels will rise if the icecaps continue to melt.

Expresses future plans

Possibilities

I can improve my French if I move to France. We can stop at the supermarket if you like.

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Second Conditional (Type 2) Can be used with 'if' or 'unless' (to indicate a predetermined condition). If + subject + past, subject + would/could/should/might + base infinitive

Unclear or unlikely situations Hypothetical situations Unreal or fantastic ideas To give very personal advice

If I bought 20 tickets, I would win the lottery. We could increase productivity if we had shorter lunches. If I stopped smoking, would you be happier? Would the government react if we protested the new tax. If I were a superhero, I would be Storm from the X-men. If I could be a famous person, I might be the President I would stop drinking so much If I were you. If I were him, I would treat her like a princess.

Third Conditional (Type 3) Only used with 'If' / 'If only' If + Subject + past perfect, subject + would/could/should/might + have + past participle (past) OR subject + would/could/should/might + be (+ present participle) present

Refers always to a past event, real or unreal. (hypothetical) To refer to a regret If only I had studied harder, I would have gone to Harvard. To reminisce I wouldn't have met your mother If I hadn't gone to that dance. To refer to a hypothetical present If I hadn't come to Korea, I would still be in Spain.

Modal Verbs Pronoun Modal

will would ought to may might can could must shall should

Verb

I You He She We They It

move

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Modal verbs are the closest English gets to a subjunctive tense. They are always auxiliary verbs and modify a main verb. They can have multiple meanings depending on how they are used. I can speak French. He could speak French as a child. I will go to the party this Friday. I shall see you after school. I have to be at work by 9. You should talk to her? Shall I clean up for you? Can I use the bathroom? I could go to Paris this year. He must have taken the money I might have left it on the subway Etc. Can you read Korean? Could you dance when you had legs? Will you be finished before six? Must I clean my room mommy? Shall we take the subway? Would you join me? May I leave early today? I might see her later. You must be the new teacher. You may be right about Ian.

Ability - (present) (past) Certainty

Obligation Suggestion Offer / Invitation Requests / Permission Possibilities Assumptions Speculations

Infinitives (to) and Gerunds (ing)

A verb being used as a subject or an object in a sentence.

Walking is good for your health Talking things though helps a lot. ('is' is the verb here) ('helps' is the verb here) Modern English does not use the infinitive as a subject, but it exists in literature and proverbs To sleep perchance to dream To want is to lose She began to lose control. ('began' is the verb) I avoid eating spicy food

As subject (gerund)

As object (gerund and infinitive) I like shopping. ('like' is the verb) Some verbs only take a gerund as object She suggested postponing the meeting

Some verbs only take an infinitive as object (infinitive of purpose) He agreed to buy the presents. I drove to save time. Some verbs can take both an infinitive or gerund and keep the same meaning. I hate to drive / driving I started working/to work when I was 18. Some verbs can take both an infinitive or gerund and the meaning changes. I stopped smoking/to smoke I paused to watch / watching the game. After a preposition, the gerund is always used. He left without saying goodbye I exercise by running I am against allowing the new tax

Native speakers learn these rules by ear, therefore you should allow for a lot of practice and correction in the classroom.

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Relative Clauses

Relative Clauses A relative clause is part of a sentence that tells us more about the subject. A relative clause uses a relative pronoun to join the ideas together.

Relative Pronouns Who, When, Where, Whose, Whom, That, Which.

Stephen is a lion tamer. Stephen is from Narnia. Stephen, who is from Narnia, is a lion tamer. Ian works at YumYum chicken. He works at the branch in Bulgaria. This is Ian who works at YumYum in Bulgaria. There are two types of relative clause; DEFINING This gives essential information about the subject and cannot be removed Jeju is an island where you can eat great seafood. The house that is on the corner is for sale. Christmas is a holiday when we give gifts.
NON-DEFINING This gives non-essential information about the subject and can be removed. Jeju, which is warmer than Seoul, is the biggest island in Korea. The house on the corner, which is red, is for sale. Christmas, which starts earlier and earlier, happens in December.

Time Clauses

A time clause is the part of a sentence related to 'when' something happens. They can begin, be in the middle, or end a sentence.

They can be joined together by adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions, some of the most common are;

While, during, when, whenever, as, before, after, having + past participle, as soon as, following, prior to etc

I decided to teach in Korea during my summer vacation (preposition) while looking at my bank statement. (adverb) As soon as I finished college. Having worked in Japan for 2 years. Before traveling in South East Asia. When I saw the movie 'Old Boy'.

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Time clauses can be put into three main categories to help students learn them;

Sequence

Same Time

Each Time

Before After Following Having Done Prior to etc

While During As When

Whenever

Comparatives and Superlatives

The function of the comparative is to compare two things, we form them from adjectives. The function of the superlative is to compare one thing to a group, it has the most or the least of the original adjective.

Adjective tall nice hot

Comparative Ian is taller than Stephen

1 syllable adjective + er + than

Superlative Ian is the tallest at Pagoda

1 syllable adjective + est + the

Stephen is nicer than Ian

1 syllable adjective ending in 'e' + er + than

Stephen is the nicest at Pagoda

1 syllable adjective ending in 'e' + est + the

Stephen is hotter than Ian.

1 syllable adjective ending in hard consonant + 1 extra consonant + er + than

Stephen is the hottest at Pagoda.

1 syllable adjective ending in hard consonant + 1 extra consonant + est + the

happy

Ian is happier than Stephen.

2 syllable adjective ending in 'y', drop the 'y', add 'I' + er

Ian is the happiest man on earth

2 syllable adjective ending in 'y', drop the 'y', add 'I' + est +the

beautiful

Stephen is more/less beautiful than Stephen is the most/least beautiful. Ian.

3 or more syllable adjective + more/less + than 3 or more syllable adjectives + most/least + the

We can also compare equalities by using as + adjective + as: The Mercedes is as nice as the Subaru We can add 'not' to compare inequalities. Kimchi Jigae is not as spicy as Vindaloo. We can make a superlative possessive of someone: Madonna's greatest hit was Vogue .Adjectives that have already been conjugated take more/less or most/least even if they are less than 3 syllables long. He is more boring than my father Smoking cigarettes is less harmful than alcohol.

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Reported speech allows us to pass on information heard from other sources. It is broken into two parts, the reporting clause and the report clause. I heard from Mary (that) you are getting married next year.
Reporting Clause Report Clause

The reporting clause is normally in past tense but the report clause can be in any appropriate tense. Ian said that you have been studying Mongolian. (present perfect) Jason told me that you will be the next queen of the mole people. (Future Simple) I was informed by Stephen that you are going to shave your head. (to be going to future)

We usually change the pronoun in reported speech to differentiate from quoting someone.

Ian: I am meeting the Dalai Lama next week Ian said he is meeting the Dalai Lama. Kevin & Jason: We were having fun at the T-Bar They said they were having fun . Martin Luther King said I have a dream (quote)

Questions also change in their reported form. Stephen: Are you coming to the Christmas party next weekend? Sothea: Stephen wanted to know if/whether you are coming to the party.

We also sometimes change the verb to reflect the tone of what was said to us. ( a couple are driving around area 51 in Nevada when they get lost and drive up to a large gate, the husband gets out of the car and goes to ask the nice gun toting man directions) Man: I say excuse me, is this the way to Dollywood? Brett: You need to get out of here man or I'm gonna have to shoot Woman: (shouting from car) what did he say? Man: He warned us to leave or he will shoot. Brett: You'd better go now sir ( cocks rifle) Man:(getting into car) He let me know we're not welcome here.

The type of verb used in the reporting clause is important, as it gives us much more information about the report to follow.

Allege inform claim suggest declare say quote hear infer refer maintain etc

tell

warn

He suggested that the president had had an affair. He alleged that the president had had an affair. He declared that the president had had an affair. He heard that the president had had an affair. He inferred that the president had had an affair.

(an idea) (claimed without proof) (for everyone to hear) (from someone else) (not directly said)

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Adjectives and Adverbs. Adjectives describe the attributes of a noun.

It is a long way to Ullung-do. Our company is a good employer. The map was very detailed. The new plan met the users requirements. It was a scorching hot day. Were you at Samsung launch yesterday? It was an impressive event. I didnt meet the deadline because of the constant interruptions.

Adjectives can end with...ed or ing

He gave an entertaining speech. He was an entertaining speaker. I was very entertained by his speech. The meeting was very boring. It was a very boring meeting. They were bored by the meeting.

Be careful when using Interesting and Interested when referring to people.

Ian thought that Stephen was an interesting person. Ian was interested in Stephen.

Incorrect Correct He was disappointing when his horse lost the He was disappointed when his horse lost the race. race.

Adverbs An adverb provides more details about a verb.

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She

She pirouetted beautifully. The lack of planning will severely alter our objectives. He ran so fast, we could barely keep up with him. Stephen speaks clearly. The team from Busan plays well. I didnt arrive on time because the traffic was moving slowly. skated Verb beautifully. Adverb

Incorrect She skates very good. She dances beautiful.

Correct She skates very well. She dances beautifully.

Not all words that appear to be adverbs are adverbs.

Babies are bare when they are born. (They are born naked) He barely had time to finish. (He had little time to finish) She bared her innermost thoughts to the world. (She told everyone her most intimate thoughts) I try hard to be good. (I try with great effort to be good) He hardly had time to finish. (He had little time to finish)

Examples of standard adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives Cheerful Slow Positive Adverbs Cheerfully Slowly Positively

Examples of standard adjectives ending in Y and adverbs. Adjectives Funny Happy Hungry Some exceptions. Adjectives Adverbs Adverbs Funnily Happily Hungrily

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Good Fine With speed Well Fine Speedily

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Adverb + adjective to emphasise the adjective

It was painfully obvious that he hadnt planned his lesson at all. That was and extremely boring movie. The sales literature was very outdated. The game was badly refereed. The service was just right. just Adverb right. Adjective

The service was

Incorrect We need reasonable priced equipment. Im poor dressed for the party.

Correct We need reasonably priced equipment. Im poorly dressed for the party.

Adverb emphasis usage. High emphasis Completely, absolutely, entirely, fully Extremely Very Really Quite, rather Slightly Barely

Low emphasis

Adverb + adverb to emphasise the second adverb

Time seemed to be passing fairly quickly. The new business process works very efficiently. The speech was extremely well received. The price is really very good. The traffic was moving extremely slowly extremely Adverb slowly. Adverb

The work was moving

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Adverb placement

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After to be He is quick. He is very quick.

Between the subject and its verb (if to be is not used) He travels on business. He frequently travels on business.

Between an auxiliary and its main verb He should ask for a promotion. He has asked for a promotion. Before another adverb The work was done badly. The work was done very badly. He should definitely ask for a promotion. He has never asked for a promotion.

Frequency Adverbs

These tell us how often an action is done or how many times. Stephen always arrives at the office before 8am. Jaime sometimes brings a bucket of coffee to work. Hana hardly ever dusts her computer screen. They all frequently go to cafe Huh for a caffeine infusion.

Done all the time

Not done

Always, Every day Nearly always, A lot Usually Often/frequently Sometimes Occasionally Rarely, hardly ever Never

Can be put at various places in the sentence depending on the adverb used. (better English) Before the verb I occasionally eat spicy bibimbap After to be I am never to be found in stockings. After a conjugated verb He drinks often after a meal. At the end of a sentence I only have more than 7 pints sometimes. Other Frequency expressions

We regularly meet on Monday mornings to discuss the week's events. (according to schedule) I traditionally go to my parents house for Christmas. (common in the past) I normally take a shower after exercising (common now) Once in blue moon, from time to time, every now and then, on a regular basis etc

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Quantifiers, Determiners & Modifiers

The Articles (a/an/the)

Articles come before most nouns I would like a stapler, I need an egg Sandwich, the mayonnaise is off. There are often words between the article and the noun: I would like a white shirt Cleaning his room is an extremely rare event The smaller one please.

The indefinite Article (a / an) 'a' is used before a consonant sound There is a thought that a university should be a place of learning. 'an' is used before a vowel sound It is exciting to only be an hour from an elephant's picnic. Both a/an refer to the singular and can be replaced with one. We are one/an hour away. There is a/one cat staring at me. The definite Article (The) Is generally used for something quite specific whereas a/an can be more general. I have found the way out / I have found a way out.

Refers to something previously introduced Can be used to refer to a particular example Can be used for both plural & singular Can be used with a singular noun to refer to a group

There is a car outside What colour is the car. I need to go to the bank and ask about the loan. I want the banana. I want the bananas. The gorilla is a social creature The Mercedes is a luxury car.

The Zero Article Ofttimes we can leave the article out altogether before the noun both plural and uncountable. Mahogany trees are declining in the wild. Money makes the world go round. I am going home I work at Samsung She is going to University. They are usually not used in front of proper nouns (people's names, countries, Months etc) But they can sometimes be used for different emphasis There is an Ian Windsor to see you I go to the university next to the river. 'The' is used in the official title of countries The Republic of France The Dominion of Canada.

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Quantity There are many ways to refer to quantities in English and can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. Quantity Some (unspecified amount) Countable There are some apples Uncountable Other Uses

There is some money on the table Questions & Offers: Would you like some tea? I would love some. Is there any money in the bank? Negative Answers: There isn't any/There aren't any. Positive Answers I am happy to answer any questions.

Any Are there any apples? (to question the existence/amo unt) A lot of /lots of I have a lot of biscuits for you. (to express a I have lots of biscuits for you. large amount) Many (to express a high number) I have many apples in my bag.

He has a lot of advice to give you Future Actions (+ verb) Has lots of advice for you. I have a lot to do. Negative (to express a small number) There aren't many students left at the school. I have much gossip to tell you. Do you have much money? Negative) to express a small amount) There isn't much we can do. Questions (positive) Do you have a few minutes spare to discuss this? Used in proverbs Few fools in thy eyes see. There is a little wine left if you would like. Do not confuse with the adjective There is a little egg on the table.

Much (to express a high number) I have a few tasks left to do. A few (to express a small number) Few (to I have few enemies in this express a very world. small number) A little (to express a small number, positive) Little (to There is little hope that the express a very economy will improve small amount, negative.

Used to give advice/suggestions It is little wonder you're so tired, you barely slept.

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Both, either, neither used to refer to two items,

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Both

Refers to two items and takes a plural verb I like both sweaters. Both the green one and the blue one are nice. Refers to two itmes and takes a singular verb. Either Ian or Stephen will be chairing the meeting. (this one or this one) Either is good for me. (choice) Negative: I don't like either (this one or this one)

Either (or)

Neither (nor)

Refers to two items in the negative, not either. Neither Stephen nor Ian knows what they are doing. (not this one or this) I will have neither sweater. (negative choice) Neither of you can come to my party!

Each and Every Both refer to specific things. Each refers to the individual item Each employee is special to us. (you and you and you) Each student has a different talent. I will give each student a different prize. Every refers to the group as a whole. Every day I love you more and more (all days) Every company in Korea had a good year. (all companies) Our profits rise every year. (looking at all years)

They can be interchangeable but the meaning will change Each/every phone is on sale. Every phone is on sale but each is a different price. Every must be followed by a noun but each can act as a noun.

So and Such Both can be used to add emphasis to an idea (though not exclusively) So is followed by an adjectives and acts as an adverb Ian is so professional Stephen is so nice to badgers Such is followed by a noun or noun phrase. Ian is such a professional. Stephen is such a nice guy.

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Prepositions

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A preposition is a word or phrase that links two parts of a sentence. A preposition of often follows a verb or comes before a noun phrase. I decided to move to South Korea during the 2002 world cup. After I had finished my dinner I walked to the bank. I am completely against the destruction of badger's natural habitats.

Prepositions can be put into a number of categories.

Category Name Place, location Possession, support Reason, Cause Time Manner or Means Concession Addition or exception

Examples The badger is on/under/next to/behind/in front of the marmoset. Without me the badger is nothing, I am against the badger's beliefs. I went there for the badger's party, due to the badgers anger we left early. The badger will be here at six, in two hours, on Saturday. Like the badgers I am a solitary creature, he went there without his wife. Despite the heat, the badger was happy, I dug the new set in spite of the badger's protests. Apart from the new car, her was the same old badger.

Direction, movement The badger is walking up/across/under the hill.

Some prepositions are also adverbs I stood behind the tree (preposition) She stepped off the pavement (preposition)

I waited behind after class. (adverb) She walked off . (adverb)

Some prepositions can also be conjunctions The badger left before midnight. (preposition) The badger left before she arrived. (conj) The badger stayed indoors until lunchtime. (preposition) The badgers stayed inside until the rain stopped. (conjunction) The 'never ending a sentence rule' Although some pedants insist you must always use a prepositional phrase/compliment and not end on a preposition, sometimes this is undesirable or impossible. He gave me some photographs to look at not He gave me at some photographs to look. I will not put up with this not This I will not up with put

Sometimes different prepositions can be used differently, depending on regional variations My taste in music is different from / to / than yours. In America you might pay with a credit card whilst in the UK you pay by cheque. While I had a fight with my sister, there was a fight between my sister and me. While I might get to you in the car, you came to me on the bus. The lesson here is that prepositions can also have multiple uses depending on context and must be taught that way.

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Phrasal Verbs and Idioms

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In English we have many prepositions and adverbs that can be added to certain verbs and take on new meanings. We have to be careful to always teach these in context as the meanings can be quite different. A few examples;

Combination Carry + Preposition Fall + Preposition Put + Preposition Give + Preposition Get + Preposition Take +Preposition

Verb + Preposition She carried the child on her back. She was drunk when she fell out of the car.

Phrasal verb The teacher told them to carry on with her work. Tom cruise fell out with Jack Black on the set.

Simple Verb To continue To argue

Ian put the cat out for the night. Stephen put out the fire before it To extinguish spread. I gave in my homework. She got on the boat He took out his mother Ian gave in to the police They get on well together I took out some money To surrender To be friends To withdraw

Phrasal verbs should never be used lightly in the EFL classroom, if you use them, teach them.

Idiomatic Expressions Idioms are expressions that mean something quite different than their individual words. e.g. to spin = to move in a circular motion BUT to spin a lie = to tell an elaborate tale. They are structures and as such must be taught as grammar not vocabulary as all idioms need to conjugated according to tense; To be driven crazy He drove me crazy (past) Idioms, like phrasal verbs, must be taught in context and given a simple definition. Many idioms are regional or colloquial and won't be easily understood by all native speakers. Some examples;

Idiomatic Expression To be at the end of your rope/tether To paint the town red / pink To be on cloud nine / Top of the world. To be under the weather. To blow a gasket / your lid To be all fingers and thumbs To be at the end of the line/ road

Definition To feel stressed / under pressure To have a crazy night out. To be very happy with the situation To feel sick or sad at present. To be very angry at something To be clumsy or awkward To be finished with something

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Resources for Grammar

Coursebooks; There are three main types of grammar book

Reference structures and examples for when needed. (for those with a good grammar base) Grammar for Teachers example activities and guidance to use. Grammar for Students - Self study books to help with all aspects of learning grammar.

It is often best to go to a large bookstore in your own country (or Bandi & Luni / Kyobo) in Korea and browse through their large selection and find one that is best for you, however below are a few suggestions of know good grammar books.

English Grammar in Use - Raymond Murphy - Cambridge University Press (Beg Teacher) The Complete Guide to Grammar Ferguson & Manser - Capella Understanding English Grammar Carol Matchett Literacy Workbooks Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation John Seely Oxford University Press Oxford Modern English Grammar Bas Aerts OUP English Grammar for Dummies Geraldine Woods John Wiley & Sons The Grammar of English Grammars - Goold Browne - Kindle Just Grammar 'American English' Carol Lethaby Marshall Cavendish Grammar for English Language Teachers Martin Marriot CUP Teaching English Grammar; What to teach and how Jim Scrivener - Macmillian

Some useful resources online http://www.eslflow.com

www.world-english.org/grammar www.grammarbook.com www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/ www.grammarly.com home.comcast.net/.../grammar.ht.

http://www.filestube.com/e/english+grammar+in+use+pdf
www.ielts.co.kr www.usingenglish.com/handouts/ www.esltower.com/

http://www.azargrammar.com/materials/beg/BEG_PowerPoint.html