PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE Packag. Technol. Sci.

2007; 20: 275286 Published online 9 July 2007 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/pts.789

Non-Thermal Food Processing/Preservation Technologies: A Review with Packaging Implications#

By Caroline Morris, Aaron L. Brody* and Louise Wicker
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

Non-thermal food processing/preservation methods interest food and food packaging scientists, manufacturers and consumers because they exert a minimal impact on the nutritional and sensory properties of foods, and extend shelf life by inhibiting or killing microorganisms. They are also considered to be more energy efcient and to preserve better quality attributes than conventional thermally based processes. Non-thermal processes also meet industry needs by offering valueadded products, new market opportunities and added safety margins. This study reviewed non-thermal processing technologies currently available or developmental for the inactivation of microorganisms and thus microbiological shelf life in foods, and to identify packaging interactions that might result. Processes include ultra-high pressure, ionizing radiation, pulsed X-ray, ultrasound, pulsed light and pulsed electric elds, high-voltage arc discharge, magnetic elds, dense phase carbon dioxide and hurdle technologies. Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 14 January 2007; Revised 29 May 2007; Accepted 29 May 2007
KEY WORDS:

packaging, high pressure processing, non-thermal processes

INTRODUCTION
Thermal inputs for conversion and/or preservation of food dominate the food processing industry. Thermal treatments generally, however, cause undesirable changes in food avour, colour, texture and nutritional attributes such as protein and vitamin destruction. On the other hand, non-thermal processing methods interest food scientists, manufacturers and consumers because they have a minimal impact on the nutritional and sensory properties of foods, and extend shelf life by inhibiting or killing microorganisms. Non-thermal food preservation processes are considered to be more energy ef-

cient and to preserve better quality attributes than conventional processes.1 Non-thermal processes also meet industry needs by offering value-added products, new market opportunities and added safety margins. This paper summarizes non-thermal processing technologies currently available or developmental for the inactivation of microorganisms and thus microbiological shelf life in foods, and to identify packaging interactions that might result. Processes include ultra-high pressure, ionizing radiation including pulsed X-ray, ultrasound, pulsed light and pulsed electric elds, high-voltage arc discharge, magnetic elds, dense phase carbon dioxide and hurdle technologies.

* Correspondence to: A. L. Brody, Packaging/Brody, Inc., PO Box 956187, Duluth, GA 30095, USA. E-mail: AaronBrody@aol.com # This paper was originally submitted by author Morris as part of her requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology.

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ULTRA-HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING (HPP)
HPP, high hydrostatic pressure and ultra-high pressure are all names for the same process. HPP is a cold pasteurization method employed for shelf life extension and pathogen reduction while retaining the foods inherent colour, avour, nutrients and texture. HPP can inactivate vegetative microbial cells by breaking non-covalent bonds and causing damage to the cell membrane. High pressure disrupts secondary and tertiary structures of macro-molecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides, and alters their structural and functional integrity in a pressure-dependent way.2 The process causes non-covalent bonds to break, interrupting cellular function and inactivating the pathogenic bacterial cells. The product can be solid or liquid food, packaged or not, to which 1001000 mega pascals (MPa) of pressure is applied at temperatures ranging from 0110C, from a millisecond pulse to over 20 min, in batch or semi-continuous systems. The heat generated during compression adiabatically raises the temperature of a product 3C for every 100 MPa, a change reversed during decompression. Critical process factors for HPP are listed in Table 1. HPP often yields better results when combined with thermal processes. A temperature range of 4550C is optimal for the inactivation of food pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. Clostridium botulinum cells, but not their spores, can be destroyed at 90110C and at 500700 MPa. Developments are underway to increase the pressure to 800 MPa and combine with low or high temperature to possibly achieve ambient temperature microbiological shelf stability.3 HPP applies very high pressures (up to 6000 times atmospheric pressure) to packages or bulk liquid, or to solid foods, in a hydrostatic press. Baskets containing packaged foods are introduced into steel vessels lled with water, and high pressure is applied (through a piston) to the incompressible water to be transferred to the food uniformly from all surfaces. The effect of high pressure on dairy proteins includes size reduction of micelles, denaturation of whey protein, increased solubility of calcium and colour change. HPP has been found to accelerate

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Table 1. Critical process factors in HPP

Time to achieve pressure Time under pressure Time of decompression Product temperature Temperature during process Vessel temperature pH Product composition and water activity Package integrity Pre- and post-processing factors

(Anonymous, FDA, Executive, 2000.16)

the ripening of some cheeses and eliminate Listeria monocytogenes in soft cheeses. HPP has been tested with fruit yogurts to extend shelf life. Several researchers have found that moderate pressure treatment can immediately change the microstructure in fresh curd to that of aged Cheddar and used for shreds. Expediting of the cheese-making process by approximately 30 days, eliminating steps in the process and decreasing the amount of refrigerated storage space are important potential benets. Other studies on the effects of HPP on liquid whole eggs and tomato juice thus far have demonstrated 35 log reductions in microbiological counts. The most widely used commercial applications for HPP are in refrigerated guacamole, refrigerated salsas, chilled entrees, delicatessen meats and smoothies, with all but the last in-package processing. HPP can also be used for non-thermal processing of avocado halves, applesauce, cured ham and chopped onions. It is employed in the seafood industry to pasteurize oysters while maintaining a raw designation, as well as to relax the shell for easier shucking, and to help separate lobster meat from its shell. HPP can be used as a post-packaging lethality step for the inactivation of L. monocytogenes on in ready-to-eat meats such as sliced ham and deli meat. HPP cannot yet successfully deliver low acid foods that are ambient temperature shelf stable.4 Since a major portion of foods is high acid and so can be stabilized by HPP, and a large fraction is distributed under refrigeration, foods processed by

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clusion that it will become a more signicant food preservation force in the future.

HPP could become part of the growing proportion of extended shelf life chilled foods. HPP can cause a shift in the pH of foods and affects enzymatic reactions by . . . altering the kinetic constants or by producing conformational changes in the structure of the enzymes and/or substrates.5 Flexible packages of foods may be subjected to high pressure to achieve egg white gelation, increase cheese yield and to extend the shelf lives of milk, juice, jams and jellies. With HPP, gelatinization of starch occurs even at low temperatures. The starch maintains its granular character, has limited swelling, with little amylase release. They also display lower gel strength and viscosity. These attributes portend a promising future with new and innovative products such as an. HPP can be used in a continuous process for liquids and can process foods in their packaging. The liquid being processed is pumped through a venture tube to increase the pressure exerted on it and exits to be aseptically packaged. Freezing quality is improved because of smaller ice crystal formation.6 HPP is reported to lead to disruption of exible laminations by virtue of uctuations of pressure due to increasing and decreasing during initiation and ending of HPP operations. Blistering, especially of aluminum foil laminations, alters the barrier properties of such package structures and reduces their effectiveness for protection. Since much HPP is performed with product in sealed packages, this deciency will have to be addressed by packaging engineers before universal application of the process is possible. Already, some laminated package structures that do not display the vulnerability to pressure damage have been developed. Coextruded plastics are next on the list for evaluation. Some companies are batch processing the naked food product in high pressure vessels with the piston imparting the pressure and subsequently packaging aseptically, thus avoiding potential damage attributable to the ultra-high pressure.7 Despite all the drawbacks, and certainly all food processing and packaging encountered challenges when developed in laboratories and pilot plants, HPP has demonstrated sufcient benets of minimal alteration of the product to lead to a con-

IONIZING RADIATION
Ionizing radiation is a non-thermal food pasteurization process that reduces or eliminates spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, L. monocytegenes and Campylobacter jejuni, by fragmenting DNA. Irradiation processes minimize post-harvest loss, decrease perishability and inhibit sprout formation in products such as potatoes. Post-packaging potentials for irradiation includes the disinfection of grains, legumes, spices, fruits, melons, lettuces, vegetables and tubers; colour retention in fresh meats; and microbiological control in eggs, pork, poultry and meat. Not all foods are suitable for irradiation processes. Milk and other protein foods can develop off-avour, odour and colour, and some fruits may exhibit softening and discolouration, especially at higher dose levels. All radiation processes must obtain approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) because they are dened as a food additive. This ruling included package materials, all of which are subject to the regulation. In 1990, the FDA approved the use of irradiation of poultry products at the level of 1.53.0 kilogray (kGy). In 1997, the FDA approved its use for fresh or frozen meats including beef, lamb and pork. The use of irradiation, at a dose of 1.5 kGy, in conjunction with reduced oxygen packaging and refrigeration, can increase the shelf life of ground beef to more than 15 days, compared to a four-refrigerated-day life of non-irradiated. A dose of 1.0 kGy, however, is recommended for ground beef to minimize the deterioration of sensory qualities. More than 40 countries have approved irradiation in over 100 food items. Of the freshnessenhancing non-thermal technologies, many consider irradiation to be the most effective approach to eliminating pathogens and spoilage microorganisms from the food supply.8 Irradiation processes can be gamma from radioisotopic sources such as Cobalt60 or Cesium137, electrons, X-rays from electron beam accelerators, or ultraviolet (UV) sources.

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Combinations of modied atmosphere packaging (MAP) and irradiation have demonstrated synergistic effects on the shelf life of produce. In studies cited by Boynton et al.,9 irradiation reduced the microbiological load in romaine lettuce by 1.5 logs CFU/g, and maintained, by the 18th day of storage, a 4 log CFU/g difference over that of nonirradiated. However, undesirable sensory quality changes such as lipid oxidation, off-avour and pink/red colour may occur during irradiation that affect product quality and acceptability by consumers.10 Irradiation also causes contraction of meat myobrils, yielding a tough texture. Lower-fat foods can be irradiated at higher doses than foods with a higher fat content. In irradiation, foods are exposed to a form of energy, which produces free radicals that then reacts with food biochemicals; alternatively, the radiation directly attacks the cellular nuclei. Forms of ionizing radiation include UV, gamma and beta ray or electron beam.3 A high dose (1074 kGy) is required for sterilization, which usually damages the food, but a lower dose (0.1 kGy) may be employed for pasteurization. Microbial inactivation by all types of ionizing radiation is believed to happen through two main mechanisms: direct interaction of the radiation with cell components and indirect action from radiolytic products such as water radicals H+, OH and eaq.11 Ionizing radiations primary target is the chromosomal DNA, and it exerts a secondary effect on the cytoplasmic membrane, either of which can cause microbial inhibition or inactivation. Gamma rays are photons or electromagnetic waves that are emitted from the nucleus of the atom. This energy dislodges electrons from food molecules, converting them to electrically charged particles or ions. Since gamma rays do not have enough energy to affect the neutrons in the nuclei, they are incapable of inducing radioactivity. Gamma radiation has high penetrating power. Optimally, irradiation is used in post-packaging where pallets of packaged products are conveyed into a chamber behind a labyrinth. The Co60 gamma ray source is raised from a water pool, allowing the products to absorb gamma radiation. The source then returns to the pool for shielding, and the product exits the chamber.3

C. MORRIS, A. L. BRODY AND L. WICKER

The World Health Organization has declared that irradiation of any food commodity, up to 10 kGy, is not a toxicological hazard. Gamma irradiation has been shown to preserve nutritive content and prolong shelf life by preventing post-harvest insect and pest infestation of beans and grains. The advantage of gamma radiation over chemicals, e.g. fumigation with ethylene oxide, is that the irradiation does not leave a chemical residue or induce other adverse effects in the quality of products being treated such as spices.12 Irradiation is widely used for sterilization of package structures for aseptic packaging. Examples include laminated pouches for bag-in-box for food service and industrial containment of uid foods, and thermoformed unit portion-size plastic cups for liquid coffee lighteners packaged on aseptic deposit/ll/seal equipment. Ionizing radiation is or has been used commercially in the USA for spice sterilization or reduction of infestation, microbial reduction in strawberries and some other fruits, and pathogen reduction on poultry and ground beef. Gamma irradiation provides enhanced microbial safety in green onions with a dose as low as 1 kGy, and cilantro with 2 kGy, for retention of sensory attributes and increased shelf life of 14 days, and extends the shelf life of minimally processed gourds by 7 days.13 Ground beef products in the form of frozen ground beef patties and fresh ground beef chubs, loaves and patties have been irradiated in the USA since May 2000. Important hurdles to the practice have been the limited number of package materials approved for food irradiation and sensory changes associated with the irradiation of high oxygen content modied atmosphere packaged case-ready meats. The high oxygen modied atmosphere package has been the preferred caseready package format. The high oxygen, 7080%, and carbon dioxide, 2030%, gas mixture extends the shelf life of the product by reducing the rate of oxymyoglobin oxidation and by inhibiting the growth of the spoilage bacteria, respectively. The presence of oxygen during the irradiation process results in the production of ozone, which severely oxidizes the cherry-red colour (oxymyoglobin) of ground beef to a brown colour (metmyoglobin), which is undesirable to consumers.7

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UV RADIATION
In UV light processing, radiation is obtained from an electromagnetic spectrums UV region. Exposure of 400 joules per square metre (J/m2) in all parts of the product must be obtained to achieve microbiological inactivation. Critical factors include the transmissivity of the product, the geometric conguration of the reactor, the power, wavelength and physical arrangement of the UV source(s), the product ow prole and the radiation path length.16 UV also reacts synergistically with oxidizing agents, such as ozone, and so can be used to treat fruit juice and cider microbiologically, although, of course, ozone can oxidize desirable moieties. UV radiation suffers from an inability to penetrate food all action is on the surface. UV is not infrequently employed to irradiate the surfaces of food package materials ostensibly to sterilize or at least sanitize them prior to aseptic or ESL packaging. Some of the microbicidal effects are attributable to the generation of ozone, a powerful oxidizing agent. In some ESL operations for dairy products, UV is applied in synergy with chemical sterilants on package material surfaces to increase the microbicidal effect and to reduce the residual chemicals.3

Three operations in the USA employed radiation pasteurization for the extended chilled shelf life of ground beef, but all have been closed. One reopened on a limited basis in 2006. Other facilities reduce the pathogenic microbial load and retard oxidation of ground beef by packaging it in barrier expanded polystyrene trays, conveying it through a tunnel where it receives a ush of nitrogen and X-ray irradiation, and nally being sealed in a modied atmospheric barrier package. This system minimizes the potential adverse effects of ionizing radiation on the package structures.3 It has been found that at low doses, irradiation has little effect on nutritional and organoleptic food qualities, but can minimally affect some vitamins such as thiamin. At higher doses, ionizing radiation forms compounds in meats and poultry, known as 2-alkylcyclobut-anones, which have been claimed to be carcinogenic.

ELECTRON BEAM (EB)

EB radiation can be applied to fresh fruits in order to reduce infestation, lower respiration rate and extend shelf life. It provides high throughput, and is reportedly efcient. The cost of EB radiation is lower than gamma or X-ray. Electron beams have lower penetration. Penetration of the accelerated electron beam is improved by passing the beam through a metal lm . . . producing X-rays, which have penetrating power similar to gamma rays.14 EB irradiation has been studied and performed commercially on hamburger patties, strawberries, mangoes, blueberries, cantaloupes, romaine lettuce hearts and sweet cherries.15 Two entry EB radiation was employed in the short-lived ground beef irradiation programme during the early 2000s: EB was applied top and bottom to achieve the penetration that otherwise could not have occurred with EB. This double entry enhanced the damage to package materials, but was evidently accepted by regulatory authorities.3 EB sterilization of plastic bottle interiors for aseptic packaging [in place of chemical sterilization or treatment for extended shelf life (ESL)] was developed on a pilot basis, but this interesting process was not seen on the commercial scene.3

PULSED X-RAY
Pulsed X-ray involves a high voltage, which is pulsed through foods at ambient or refrigerated temperatures. In pulsed X-ray, the source of radiation is electrically driven, making it easier to incorporate into an existing operation. It does not require permanent massive shielding, as do radionuclide sources. Instead, a solid stateopening switch is used to generate pulses of EB Xrays with high intensity. The practical application of food irradiation in conjunction with existing food processing equipment is further facilitated by (a) the possibility of controlling the direction of the electrically produced radiation; (b) the possibility of shaping the geometry of the radiation eld to accommodate different package sizes; and (c) its high reproducibility and versatility.11 We can only postulate that pulsed high-intensity electromag-

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netic energy could result in chemical and physical alterations to package polymer structures beyond those of steady low-dose gamma rays that could adversely alter the functionalities and also produce possibly undesirable components that would fall under regulatory scrutiny. With all the promise and study over the past 60 years, and the repeated calls for ionizing radiation to solve problems of microbiological pathogens in foods, the challenges of the past continue to haunt the technology: consumer concern (despite documented reports that consumers are willing to buy irradiated foods), labelling, potential sensory changes, a paucity of acceptable package materials, special structures and economics. Since no fullscale food irradiation facility has ever operated, time costs remain a mystery. Irradiation has been characterized by starts and stops, each boosted by an external driver, e.g. military eld rations, space food, pathogen reduction in poultry and ground beef, banning of chemical pesticides, etc. Never has irradiation been fully tested, and so the promise continues, as scientists and technologists continue to study the means to overcome the objections. Whether the reduction in pathogenic microbiological growth on meats or fresh produce, which undergo no other overt processing, can be justied by the costs is a question that must be addressed.

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vacuolar structures, can be utilized to extract proteins, lipids, and oils from beans and seeds such as soybeans, and can also be used to help extract red and yellow pigments from foods such as beets. Ultrasound can also be used in emulsication, dispersing, homogenizing and crystallization processes. This technology works best when used in conjunction with heat and pressure, but it can be used alone for fruit juices, sauces, purees and dairy products. Ultrasound treatment has been found to be more effective when combined with other processes such as mano- and thermo-sonication, pressure and/or heat. Ultrasonication uses highfrequency (>16 kHz) sound waves to lyse bacteria through cavitation [and] . . . could be utilized in the food industries because it can radiate through large volumes of liquids in the 20- to 500-kHz frequency range.17 Foods with particulates and other interfering substances do not react well to ultrasound. Ultrasonics has not yet been demonstrated to achieve major benecial effects that warrant serious consideration for processing or packaging. Perhaps in the future, some food or food packaging technology will be developed for this intriguing source of non-thermal energy.

PULSED VISIBLE LIGHT ULTRASONICS

Ultrasound utilizes the energy produced from sound waves, with at least 20 000 vibrations per second, to achieve a bactericidal effect in microorganisms and cause enzyme inactivation by cell lysis. Ultrasound is one of the simplest and most versatile methods for cellular disruption and for food extract production. Critical processing factors for ultrasound include the wave amplitude; type, exposure and contact time of microorganisms; and the composition and volume of food to be processed. Ultrasound affects cell membrane permeability in fruits, like plums, grapes and mango, and can improve the dispersion stability in juices, and thus reduce settling. Ultrasonic extraction disrupts plant tissue phenolic compounds from their Pulsed light (PL) involves eeting but intense, pulses of broad spectrum light that can inactivate many microorganisms in just a few ashes, and within a fraction of a second. This process is utilized for the microbiological inactivation on food package material surfaces and in package natural sterilization. PL can reduce the need for preservatives and chemical package sterilants, for produce quality and extension of shelf life. In package material surface sterilization, PL is superior to chemical sterilization, e.g. hydrogen peroxide or peracetic acid, because it does not leave an undesirable chemical residue. The disadvantage of PL is that it can only be used on product surfaces. Foods in which PL may be employed include baked goods for mould inactivation, and shrimp and sh for chilled shelf life extension. Other prod-

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PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD (PEF)
During PEF processing, energy is stored in a capacitor, retrieved from a high-voltage power supply, and is discharged through foods that are either static or are owing through a treatment chamber. PEF uses short bursts of electricity (sub-microseconds to milliseconds), yielding few to no detrimental affects on quality attributes in pumpable foods. This process pulses high voltage (1080 kV/cm) into foods placed between two electrodes, for less than one second, near ambient temperature, then packaged aseptically and distributed refrigerated. This process attains a 5 log reduction on most pathogenic bacteria by rupturing the cell membranes in liquid media. It causes only minimal detrimental changes to the physical and sensory properties in foods, helps retain fresh quality and assists in nutrient retention. PEF can be applied to the pasteurization of liquid products, in continuous systems, such as milk, yogurt, juices, liquid eggs, soups, brines and other products that can withstand high electric elds. High electric eld pulses can be employed to aid in the extraction of polysaccharides and peptides. PEF has limited effects on microbial spores, cannot be used on products that contain or could form air bubbles, and cannot be used on foods that have higher or variable electrical conductivity. Pressure is applied to inhibit the formation of air bubbles in which electrical arcing could occur with elds above 20 000 V/cm.4 Since PEF kills cells and impairs water retention, it can aid in ltration methods and can also be used for the extraction of sugars and starches from root vegetables. PEF only affects a few enzymes, a concern in the juice industry. Enzymes negatively affect juice processing by reducing pectin, which aids in fruit particle suspension, and may cause sedimentation, discolouration and avour degradation. Critical factors that can affect the inactivation of microorganisms using PEF include process variables, media and microbial factors, which are listed in Table 2. PEF processing variables include pulse wave and width, electric eld intensity, temperature and time of exposure. Electric elds are produced on equipment that can be compared to that of radar. The most typical equipment generates a

ucts that may benet from PL include chicken wings, hot dogs, eggs and cottage cheese. PL operates by the multiplication of power, from the electrical energy accumulated in a storage capacitor, releasing the storage energy in a very short time (millionths or thousandths of a second), thus magnifying the power that is applied, which expends only moderate power consumption. Intense and short duration, pulsed, broad-spectrum white light pulses have a power density of 0.012500 J/m2, at a frequency of 1702600 nm, with a pulse duration of 1 ms0.3 millisecond, numbering 120 pulses/s. Pulsed light wavelengths range from UV to visible, to the nearly infrared spectrum. Shorter UV wavelengths of 200320 nm have higher energy levels and yield a higher rate of microbiological inactivation than do longer wavelengths. The lethality of the light pulses varies at different wavelengths. Wavelengths that are known to produce undesirable attributes are eliminated by ltering, and so a selected wavelength or a full spectrum may be employed to treat various foods. Critical process factors in pulsed light include the light characteristics, e.g. intensity, duration, wavelength and number of pulses, as well as the attributes of the packaging and/or food, e.g. type, colour and transparency. Due to failure of light to penetrate opaque and irregular surfaces, there is generally less microbial inactivation with pulsed light, compared to other technologies.18 Irreversible microbial inactivation occurs from chemical modications and DNA cleavage affecting enzymes, proteins, membranes and the nucleic acid. The antimicrobial affects of these wavelengths are primarily mediated through absorption by highly conjugated carbon-to-carbon double bond systems in proteins and nucleic acids.18 For most applications, a few pulsed light ashes within a fraction of a second will yield high levels of microbial inactivation. Pulsed high-intensity light has shown some promise in package material and product microbiological destruction. Transparent products, such as water and ophthalmic solutions, have been treated with pulsed high-intensity light with good results. The concept of sterilizing exible package materials in aseptic packaging was proposed and tested with good technical results, but little if any commercial application.3

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Process Pulse wave and width Electric eld intensity Temperature Time
(FDA, Exec, 2006.)

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Table 2. Factors in PEF for microbial inactivation

Media pH Antimicrobials Ionic compounds Medium ionic strength Electrical conductivity Microorganism Type Concentration Growth stage

short square wave and reverses polarity, in part to avoid erosion of electrodes.4 Two other wave forms can be produced, which include sinusoidal and exponential decay. In reverse polarity, bipolar generators are twice the cost of non-polar units, making this an expensive process at this time. One operation has received FDA approval and is being used by Genesis Juice Corp. for fresh juice processing. The sinusoidal wave form uses equipment comparable to that of a radio and is less difcult to generate. A square wave can deliver more energy per cycle because the sinusoidal only reaches maximum power for a split second. Although PEF is a non-thermal process, an increase in temperature occurs in the processing chamber. A typical temperature change is about 30C for orange juice and less for apple juice . . . [and] processes typically operate at 3550C.4 Time of exposure depends on several factors, rst of which is the chamber design of which there are two categories: owing and non-owing. Flowing processes include co-axial, parallel plate or coeld. In the co-eld method, the electric eld is cycled 1000 times a second through various treatment chambers, separated by ceramic or polymer insulators, while receiving multiple pulses. In nonowing, the process is static and can be applied to solids. PEF imposes a strong electric eld on pumpable foods for a very short time to kill vegetative cells. Critical eld strengths of about 15 000 V/cm are used on foods, whereas at 35 000 V/cm, PEF is used as a disinfectant. Under PEF, cell membrane pores develop or enlarge, and can be reversible or irreversible. Pores affect membrane permeability by allowing external matter to enter, causing a loss of cellular content, thereby killing the cell. Perfo-

ration of cell membranes caused by PEF in fruit and vegetable cell walls can yield improved extraction of juice from cells. Disadvantages that must be overcome in order to commercialize PEF . . . are (a) scale up of the system . . . in such a way that protable production is possible, (b) the presence of bubbles, which may lead to non-uniform treatment as well as operational and safety issues, (c) treatment of suspensions with solid particles, with a minimum risk of breakdown and (d) availability of commercial units.19 If bubbles are present in the PEF treatment chamber, dielectric breakdown will occur. This happens because the spherical gas bubbles elongate, causing the ends to have up to a ve times more intense electric eld. The bubbles grow larger as the electric eld overcomes the dielectric strength of the bubbles, causing partial discharge, and eventually connecting the two electrodes, causing a spark. Vacuum de-gassing and pressurized treatment during processing can minimize the presence of gas bubbles. Concerns must be addressed when considering PEF for the treatment of suspensions with particulates: include the potential for dielectric breakdown on the surface of particulates; uniform treatment distribution of the applied electric eld; the manufacturing of a treatment chamber and feed pump system designed for particulates; control of heat induced by the process; and the particle size must be smaller than the gap in the treatment region to ensure proper processing.19 Technical issues that must be addressed in order to fully commercialize PEF as a food processing method include consistent generation of highstrength PEF; reliable data acquisition systems and

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ization because it demonstrates no thermal effects, and because 90% of microorganisms are destroyed within 10 discharges. Charge-reversed electrical pulses are applied to food that is between two electrodes within a treatment chamber. Each electrical pulse has a pulse width from 1 to 5 s, increasing the voltage to a peak. This is followed by a decrease in voltage, and continues until the voltage peaks at the opposite polarity. The vertical pulses are 0.125 J/pulse with eld strengths of 15120 kV/cm. Inactivation of enzymes occurs with HVAD due to free radicals and oxidation reactions. The major drawbacks of this electrical method, however, are contamination of the treated food by chemical products of electrolysis and disintegration of food particles by shock waves.22 HVAD appears to be a relative of PEF requiring marriage to aseptic or ESL packaging technologies, and still a research curiosity.

measuring devices; identication of the critical, maximum and optimum eld strengths for microbial destruction; ow rate and dosages; temperature control and minimization of heat production during processing; the potential for gas bubbles and interference from suspended particles; the design of a full-scale treatment chamber; and aseptic packaging systems that are compatible with the process. To date, PEF has been applied mainly to improve the quality of foods . . . Application of PEF is restricted to food products that can withstand high electric elds.20 PEF may be classied as an interesting laboratory research process.

HIGH VOLTAGE ARC DISCHARGE (HVAD)

HVAD . . . promotes the formation of an arc in the media (liquid food) while the pulse is applied.21 HVAD is the application of electricity to pasteurize uids by rapidly discharging through an electrode gap, generating intense waves and electrolysis, thereby inactivating the microorganisms. This . . . chemical action is a complex effect and depends not only on the voltage applied, but also on the type of microorganism, initial concentration of cells, volume of the media used, distribution of chemical radicals and electrode material.22 The use of arc discharge on liquid foods may be deterred because of electrolysis and the formation of highly reactive chemicals, which sometimes occurs during the discharge. Fresh-squeezed grapefruit juice processed with HVAD was demonstrated to have a fresh avour and a shelf life for more than 100 days. Research is also being conducted in the use of pulsed highvoltage arc discharge for surface contamination in food and beverages because it has been shown to be a highly efcient and effective method for microbial destruction. With indirect arc discharge, energy from the electric eld can be converted to plasma, then to shock waves, generating free radicals and oxidizing agents within the product. The plasma generation is a non-thermal process, thereby retaining the nutritional and organoleptic properties in foods, especially liquid products. High-voltage electrical pulses can be used as a means of non-thermal pasteurization and steril-

MAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetic eld technologies include static magnetic elds (SMF) where magnetic wave intensity is applied at a constant strength over time, and oscillating magnetic elds (OMF) where magnetic waves alternate amplitudes. With OMF, food is sealed in a package and receives 1100 pulses at a frequency of 5500 kHz, within 25100 ms, and between 050C. The intensity of each pulse decreases 10% with each sequential pulse. OMF has been shown to inactivate microorganisms in bread roll dough, juice, milk and yogurt. However, factors involved in magnetic elds are not yet fully understood.23

DENSE PHASE CARBON DIOXIDE (DPCD)

DPCD or pressurized carbon dioxide gas is a method of cold, i.e. below ambient temperature, pasteurization. DPCD affects enzymes and microorganisms by subjecting foods to pressurized CO2, below 50 MPa, and thus does not expose foods to the adverse effects of heat. Critical processing factors are pressure and temperature. Treatments include batch, continuous and semicontinuous systems. It is believed that DPCD inac-

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tivates microorganisms by several mechanisms such as oxygen elimination, lowering of pH, inhibition of certain enzyme systems, rapid physical disruption of cells, modication and penetration of cell membranes, cytoplasmic acidication inhibiting metabolic activity, and the extraction of intracellular substances such as phospholipids. DPCD has been shown to eliminate vegetative forms of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, moulds, yeasts, and can inactivate some enzymes at temperatures that are ineffective in thermal processing. These enzymes include polyphenol oxidase, which causes browning of fruits, juices, seafood and vegetables; pectinesterase in fruit juice, which causes cloud loss; peroxidase, which causes food discolouration; and the enzyme lypoxygenase, which destroys chlorophyll and contributes to the development of off-avours in frozen vegetables.24 Current applications of DPCD for the inhibition of mould growth on products include whole honeydew melon, cucumbers and strawberries. However, it has been known to cause tissue damage at low pressure in several fruits. In studies, DPCD has been applied to fruit juices to improve colour, detention of ascorbic acid, and cloud formation and stability. DPCD has been added to cottage cheese, ice cream, yogurt and ricotta cheese because CO2 is highly soluble in lipids and aqueous solutions. When it dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid, causing a reduction in pH, thereby increasing cell permeability that interferes with cytoplasmic enzymes and inuences metabolism. The gas decreases the growth rate of microorganisms, displaces oxygen thereby minimizing rancidity, and can be combined with barrier packaging to extend shelf life, in some cases by triple. To date, there is no commercial food product processed by DPCD.24 Other non-thermal processes include compressed carbon dioxide (cCO2) and supercritical carbon dioxide (ScCO2).

C. MORRIS, A. L. BRODY AND L. WICKER

HURDLE TECHNOLOGIES
Hurdle technologies employ several methods, some of which may include mild heat in synergy to preserve foods. Hurdle technologies include the use of MAP, active packaging, cryogenic cooling, antioxidants, ozonation and enzymes in conjunction with the aforementioned and other technolo-

gies. In MAP, the CO2 level is increased within the package, providing a shelf life markedly greater than that of traditional packaging. O2 is often reduced and other gases may also be added. The CO2 exhibits a microbistatic effect. When employing MAP, packaged food products should be stored at temperatures under 5C. Active packaging is the addition of absorbing or emitting agents that limit product degradation or microbial growth by controlling oxygen, moisture, carbon dioxide and odours.3 Cryogenic cooling and freezing may be employed to rapidly chill a product, thus extending shelf life. Hurdle technologies may also employ combinations such as antimicrobials, moderately high temperatures (<55C) and PEF to provide a synergistic effect, and are being studied to eliminate microorganisms in such products as apple cider, grape juice, mango juice and tomato juice. In Gauri Mittals research, a hurdle approach was employed using a temperature of 44C, acidity at pH 3.5, PEF of 80 kV/cm and 100 U nisin/ml. They achieved a 6 log reduction in orange juice that had a shelf life of 28 days without the use of aseptic packaging, and no signicant differences were found in aromatic compounds analyzed by gas chromatography.25 Antioxidants as hurdles have demonstrated effectiveness in the minimization and retardation of lipid oxidation. Combinations of antioxidants from plant extracts and irradiation have been shown to reduce oxidation in chicken, and decrease warmed-over avour in ground beef. Other forms of non-thermal food preservation methods include the use of enzymes to inactivate or inhibit the functions of other enzymes, due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant affect.26 Packaging also plays a major role as a non-thermal preservation process in that it can extend shelf life and help preserve freshness in concert with other non-thermal processes. Thus, hurdle technologies appear to the best method to achieve results that the non-thermal technologies individually have not been able to accomplish.

CONCLUSION
Non-thermal technologies are being investigated due to consumer demand for food products that

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3. Brody AL. Packaging for nonthermally & minimally processed foods. Food Technol. 2005; 59(10): 75 77. 4. Clark JP. High pressure processing research continues. Food Technol. 2006; 60(2): 6365. 5. Hernandez-Andres A, Gomez-Guillen C, Montero P, Perez-Mateos M. Partial characterization of protease activity in squid (Todaropsis eblanae) mantle: modication by high-pressure treatment. J. Food Sci. 2005; 70(4): C239C245. 6. Anon. Food technology food manufacture. 1995; http://hsc.csu.au/food_technology/manufacture/ 2489/hipress.htm [accessed 29 January 2006]. 7. Han J, Yuan J. Advances in Packaging for Nonthermal Processes. Blackwell: Ames, IA, 2007. 8. Berry D. Keeping foods fresh. Food product design. 2004; http://www.foodproductdesign. com/archive/2004/0104De,html [accessed 22 February 2006]. 9. Boynton BB, Welt BA, Sims CA et al. Effects of lowdose electron beam irradiation on respiration, microbiology, texture, color, and sensory characteristics of fresh-cut cantaloupe stored in modiedatmosphere packages. J. Food Sci. 2006; 71(2): S149S155. 10. Rababah T, Hettiarachchy NS, Eswaranandam S, Meullenet JF, Davis B. Sensory evaluation of irradiated and nonirradiated poultry breast meat infused with plant extracts. J. Food Sci. 2005; 70(3): S228S235. 11. Anon, 1995; http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/ ift-xray.html [accessed 26 January 2006]. 12. Armelim JM, Canniatti-Brazaca SG, Spoto MHF, Arthur V, Piedade SMS. Quantitative descriptive analysis of common bean (Phaseolus vulgarius L.) under gamma radiation. J. Food Sci. 2006; 71(1): S8S12. 13. Khattak MK, Bibi N, Khattak B, Chaudry MA. Effect of irradiation on microbial safety and nutritional quality of minimally processed bitter gourd (Momordica charantia). J. Food Sci. 2005; 70(5): M255M259. 14. Knehr E. Making progress in food preservation. 1995; http://www.foodproductdesign.com/archive/ 1998/0398 NT.html [accessed 26 January 2006]. 15. Moreno M, Castell-Perez ME, Gomes C, Da Silva PF, Moreira RG. Effects of electron beam irradiation on physical, textural, and microstructural properties of Tommy Atkins mangoes. J. Food Sci. 2006; 71(2): E80E86. 16. FDA, Exec 2006. 17. Ajlouni S, Sibrani H, Premier R, Tomkins B. Untrasonication and fresh Produce (Cos lettuce) preservation. J. Food Sci. 2006; 71(2): M62M68. 18. FDA/CFSAN. Kinetics of microbial inactivation for alternative food processing technologies: pulsed light technology. US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. [accessed 2 June 2000].

are minimally processed, of high quality, and are convenient and safe. Non-thermal processes offer shelf life extension without the use of preservatives or additives, while still retaining colour, avour, texture, nutritive and functional qualities. To expand the use of non-thermal processes in the food industry, combinations of these technologies with traditional or emerging food preservation techniques are being studied.27 In order to le for a new or novel manufacturing process with the FDA, the following requirements must be met: rst, communicate with the FDA during every step of the process design; second, have the FDA conduct a site visit at the pilot and production facilities; third, draft the proposed ling and submit a copy to the FDA; fourth, identify the resistant organisms that are of most concern for public health and commercial viability; and last, identify the least lethal treatment zone within the system. The problems associated with non-thermal methods include spore injury instead of death, and the rise in product temperature associated with the processing method. In HPP, spore injury can occur under decompression, thus skewing quality assurance results, and other issues may arise using PEF, HVAD, PL and OMF. Currently, non-thermal technologies can be employed for acidic foods, e.g. fruit juice, but more research is needed for the processing and packaging of shelf-stable low acid foods. High pressure processing is commercially used for entrees, guacamole, salsa and fruit juices, but this process will increase greatly in the future. Little food is irradiated in the USA. The other non-thermal processes discussed are still in development stages with considerable potential.

REFERENCES
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19. Barbosa-Canovas GV. Nonthermal preservation of foods. 2005; http://www.chipsbooks.com/ nontherm.htm [accessed 26 January 2006]. 20. FDA/CFSAN. Kinetics of microbial inactivation for alternative food processing technologies: executive summary. US Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. [accessed 2 June 2000]. 21. Barbosa-Canovas GV. Personal communication, 16 April 2006. 22. FDA/CFSAN. Kinetics of microbial inactivation for alternative food processing technologies: high voltage arc discharge. US Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. 2000; [accessed]. 23. FDA/CFSAN. Kinetics of microbial inactivation for alternative food processing technologies: oscillating

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