ME 106 Spring 1997

Sensors: Applications
Displacement Linear and Angular
Potentiometer (linear and rotary (through gears or belts)) Encoder LVDT and RVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) Synchros and Resolvers Inductive Sensors Capacitive Eddy current Magnetic Hall effect Magnetostrictive Magnetic encoder Switches and proximity sensors Micro Optointerrupter Reed switch Inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic Optical lever Interferometer

Strain Strain gages Force/Torque Load cells Torque sensors Pressure Temperature Thermocouple Thermistor RTD IC temperature sensor Motion Accelerometers Tachometers and velocity pick-ups Acoustics/Sound Microphones Others Near-infrared (880 nm) proximity sensors (VCR remote control)

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997 Pyroelectric (8-10 micron) Sonar (Polaroid) Humidity

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Sources for more information on sensors

1. Beckwith, T. G., Marangoni, R. D., Lienhard, J. H., Mechanical Measurements, 5th ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1993. 2. Dally, J. W., Riley, W. F., McConnell, K. G., Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements, 2nd ed., J. Wiley, New York, 1993. 3. Trade journals such as NASA Tech Briefs, Mechanical Engineering, Design News, Power Conversion and Intelligent Motion (PCIM). 4. The Internet!! Thomas Register (www.thomcat.com)

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Sensors: Applications
Displacement Linear and Angular
Potentiometer (linear and rotary (through gears or belts)) A resistive element with a movable contact (wiper), hence a resistor whose resistance varies as function of displacement. Translational strokes from 0.1 in to about 20 in. Rotational motion from about 10 to about 60 turns (or single turn no-limit versions) Resistance element: wire-wound, carbon film, or conducting plastic Ideally linear input output relationship Accuracy (linearity) 0.01% to 0.5% FSO Be careful with loading the potentiometer. Keep Rp/Rld << 1 (Use amplification stage with sufficiently high input stage, or voltage follower)

+ Vex -

Rp

wiper Rld A

+ Vo -

-1 Vo/Vex = [1/(xi/xt) + Rp/Rld(1 - xi/xt)] Where: xi/xt = the fraction of Rp measured between the wiper and point A. Max error is about 12% FSO if Rp/Rld=1 For Rp/Rld < 0.1, max error will occur near xi/xt=0.67, and is about 15(Rp/Rld)% FSO. Repeatability: typically 10 times the accuracy Sensitivity Depends on Vex, but will be limited by power dissipation Resolution Depends on construction of resistance element. Lower limits: wire wound, (limited by number of turns of wire, 0.001 in. linear, 0.12/D degrees rotational) carbon-film, conductive plastic (5E-6 in.) Frequency Response: Linear, 1 - 25 m/s; Rotary, 100 rpm max. Life: 50E6 to 200E6 cycles Other Concerns Friction Noise Inertia Environmental effects Pros: Relatively inexpensive, $10 - $150 Easy to use Various resistance functions available: sinusoidal, log, etc. Cons: Wear Friction Limited speed Vendors: Systron-Donner, Novotechnic

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Encoder Ex. - HP printer carriage, linear encoder Widely used in machine tools, photolithography tools, etc. Incremental vs. absolute optical pulse train vs. coded number Phototranmissive or photoreflective (Hamamatsu P306201) Resolution absolute limited by number of bits (20 about max, 0.0003) incremental limited by diffraction. (with interpolation, 0.01 micron, 3.6E-5 possible) 0.5 micron, 0.1 typical Repeatability: linear 0.5 m to 0.05 m; rotary, 0.05 - 0.0005 Accuracy: half (or worse) of the repeatability Frequency Response: linear, 0.5 - 1 m/s; rotary, 4000 - 10,000 rpm. Pros: Non-contact Digital output Relatively inexpensive modular units are available Cons: High resolution devices are expensive $30 - $10k Alignment Need to keep contamination away Other varieties: magnetic, magnetoresitive: rugged, flexible, long lengths Vendors: HP, Oak-Grigsby, DRC LVDT and RVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) Consists of a movable core, primary coil, and two secondary coils symmetrically spaced on a cylindrical form. Core couples excitation voltage in primary to the two secondaries. Phase and amplitude of the secondary outputs varies with the position of the core. Range and Resolution Full scale ranges from 0.05 to 10 in. Linear range in RVDTs is about 40 Resolution is infinite. Practical limits are about 0.1 micron (linear), 0.001 (rotary) Accuracy (linearity): Typically 0.25%, best is 0.01% Repeatability: typically better than 0.1 micron Frequency Response: 400 Hz - 10 kHz Pros: Non-contact displacement measuring device! No friction, no wear, etc. Infinite resolution, readability limited only by external electronics Can isolate core and coil by simply a static seal for high pressure or corrosive environments. Complete isolation of excitation and output. Relatively insensitive to temperature changes. High reliability. IC driver and demodulator available, compact unit. (Signetics NE/SE5520, Analog Devices) Cons: Limited frequency response, about 10% of driving frequency. Mass of core Cost: min $400 Vendors: Omega, Lucas Schaevitz Synchros and Resolvers Are rotary variable transformers, but instead of a movable magnetic core, there is primary coil wound on a rotor. Magnitude and phase of induced secondary voltages depends on position and voltage applied (through slip-rings) to rotor.

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Synchros have 3 secondary stator coils separated by 120 Resolvers have 2 secondary stator coils separated by 90 Accuracy (linearity): 0.1 Repeatability: 2 to 5 times the accuracy Resolution: 0.0003 to 0.03 Frequency response: 0 to 20 Hz Vendors: Litton Inductive Sensors Linear Related to LVDTs, but only two inductive coils, connected in a bridge circuit. Rotary Have a specially shaped rotating core Range and Resolution 10 mm to 75 mm range 0.3 m to 2.5 m resolution Accuracy (linearity): 0.2% to 0.15%, best 0.05% Frequency Response: Flat, 0 to 6 kHz Pros: Smaller, lower temperature coefficient, higher frequency response, better shock and vibration resistance, and CHEAPER than LVDTs. Vendors: Omega Capacitive Probe and conductive target form parallel plates of a capacitor. Change in spacing and resulting change in capacitance modulates the ouput of an oscillator. Range: on the order of 0.13 mm Accuracy: 0.1% - 0.2% FS range Repeatability: two to five time resolution Resolution: 2.5 nm typically, but special probes and electronics can achieve sub-nanometer resolution Frequency Response: 20 kHz - 40 kHz Working range is very limited, standoff distance is small (0.01 in) Pros: Very good frequency response Non-contact Cons: Expensive!! Vendors: ADE Eddy current High frequency magnetic field induces eddy currents in a conductive target. Secondary coil senses change of eddy currents as a function of displacement. Accuracy (linearity): typically 0.1% at 25% FS range, 0.5% at 75% FS range, and 1% at FS range. Resolution: from several ms to 0.1 m. Repeatability: typically twice the resolution Range: 0.5 - 50 mm Frequency response: from 5 kHz to 20 kHz Working range is approx. diameter of sensor (0.06 to 3 in.) Very robust, non-contact Rotating machinery failure monitoring Pros: Less expensive than capacitive sensors Larger measuring range than capacitive sensors Cons: Non-homogeneity in material will give spurious readings

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Vendors: Bently-Nevada, Kaman Magnetic Hall Effect Induced voltage orthogonal to current flow in certain semiconductors when a semiconductor experiences a magnetic field. (need a magnet) Range: 0.25 - 2.5mm Accuracy (linearity): 0.1% - 1% of FS range Repeatability: 10 - 20 microns Resolution: on the order of 5 micron or better Frequency response: up to 100 kHz Applications: hydraulic and pneumatic cylinder position, brushless dc motor rotor position sensing, electronic ignition, fuel injection timing Magnetostrictive Magnetic field from current pulse interacts with permanent magnets field causing strain pulse in magnetostrictive material. Time of flight of strain pulse proportional to location of permanent magnet Pros: Excellent linearity (<0.05%) Repeatability (up to 16 bit of full scale range), hysteresis (0.0008% FS up to 16 ft.) Long lengths: up to 30 ft. Non-contact Flexible shaft models are available Good temperature stability Excellent reliability Cons: Slow, update rate is (50 + 10xLength in inches) sec Vendors: Temposonics, Schaevitz Magnetic encoder Accuracy (linearity): 2.5 micron + 2.5 micron/m Resolution: 0.5 micron Vendors: Sony Magnescale, Schneeberger Switches and proximity sensors Simple means to detect end-of-travel Micro Inexpensive Optointerrupter Non-contact Be careful with fouling Reed switch Non-contact High reliability Inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic Vendors: Pepperl+Fuchs, Square-D Optical lever Laser diode and photodetector. Output of photodector depends on location of impinging beam reflected off of target. Capable of very precise displacement measurements Atomic force microscopes (10-10 m resolution) Can have very high frequency response (100 kHz) Laser vibrometer Large working range Long standoff distances (40 mm) Small spot size (0.05 mm dia to 1 mm dia) Vendors: Keyence, MTI Fotonic Interferometer

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Interference of reflected laser beam with a reference beam produces alternating light and dark interference fringes. Detector counts passage of fringes. If displacement of object is , then the number of fringes N equals 2/, where is the wavelength of the laser light. Capable of nanometer resolution (with optical heterodyne interferometers) Accuracy on the order of half of the resolution Ultraprecision machine tools Multi-axis control Measurements of spindle error motions, e.g. disk drives Pros: Non-contact Extreme precision over large distances (up to 30 m) Cons: Expensive ($6000 per axis) Need precise aligment Optics and beam path need protection from environmental effects

Strain Metallic resistance strain gage

Device that measures strain by means of the change in resistance of a metallic element bonded to the sample under study. Metallic foil resistance strain gage Length and resistivity of gage metal changes with strain Gage Factor =

R / R

in length (strain). Commonly, GF is about 2. Bonded resistance strain gage Most common Least expensive Semiconductor strain gage High sensitivity Non-linear Wheatstone bridge circuits Change in resistance in strain gage is measured as a change in bridge output voltage Temperature compensation Numerous applications General strain measurement Force, accleration, pressure, flow measurement Load cells Pressure transducers Atomic force microscopy Vendors: Measurements Group, Raleigh, North Carolina Omega Engineering

is a measure of the percentage change in resistance to the percentage change

Force/Torque Load cells

Bending beam load cell Lower cost Simple construction: cantilever, s-shape Shear beam load cell High side load rejection Lower creep Faster return to zero after load removal

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Higher tolerance of dynamic forces and vibrations Better sealing and environmental protection Vendors: Omega, Transducer Techniques

Torque sensors Pressure Typical construction based on strain gages in bridge circuits:
Micromachined Si diaphram with diffused resistors Stainless steel diaphram with bonded resistance strain gages (foil or semiconductor)

Absolute
One side of diaphram sealed in vacuum representing a fixed reference

Gage
One side of diaphram vented to atmosphere

Differential
Measurands applied to both sides of diaphram Vendors: Omega, Motorola

Temperature Four principle types of temperature sensors:

Thermocouple Thermistor RTD IC temperature sensor Vendors: Omega

Thermocouple
Two wires of dissimilar metals joined at one end will produce an emf across their junction (Seebeck voltage). On the order of millivolts for commonly used materials. Measurement of the emf entails additional junctions (at the DMM, for example). The net emf will depend on the materials used to form the circuit and the temperatures of the junctions. Hot junction (temperature to be measured) Cold junction (known fixed temperature) Most versatile temperature measuring instrument Inexpensive Easy to form Wide temperature range Self-powered Wide temperature range (-210 C to 1820 C depending on type: K, J, T, E, B, R, S) Non-linear emf as a function of temperature Can determine hot junction temperature using a voltmeter Need a reference junction or cold junction compensation Single IC chips are available to provide high level outputs (10 mV/C). For example, Analog Devices AD594/AD595

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

Resistivity increases with temperature in most materials

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997

ME 106 Spring 1997

Platinum mostly used for RTDs (-250 C to 1000 C) High accuracy Stable More expensive and less robust than thermocouples

10

Thermistor
Semiconductor sensor whose resistance changes exponentially with temperature (decreases, but increasing resistance units are available). Extreme sensitivity to temperature change. Uses include: Temperature measurement Temperature compensation Time delay elements Voltage and power control devices

IC temperature sensor
Linear output

Motion Accelerometers
Are characterized by a seismic mass restrained by an elastic element and some damping. Acceleration is transduced into a displacement or strain. Variety of detection schemes: Piezoelectric Capacitive Potentiometric Reluctive Strain gage (Si micromachined, e.g. airbag accelerometers) Vendors: Endevco, Bruel&Kjaer, Analog Devices, IC Sensors

Acoustics/Sound Microphones
Condenser microphone Metallic diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor Piezoelectric Diaphragm is piezoelectric material that produces a voltage when bent by sound waves Dynamic Small coil attached to diaphragm moves in a magnetic field and generates a proportional output current. Vendors: Bruel&Kjaer

Others Near-infrared (880 nm) proximity sensors (VCR remote control) Pyroelectric (8-10 micron) Sonar (Polaroid) Humidity
Vendors: Panametrics

BJ Furman

Sensor Broad Outline

March 1, 1997