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Thursday, September 2, 2010
6. 1
Class Outline
The dielectric tensor Plane wave propagation in anisotropic media The index ellipsoid Phase velocity, group velocity and energy Crystal types Propagation in uniaxial crystals Propagation in biaxial crystals Optical activity and Faraday rotation Coupled mode analysis of wave propagation
Thursday, September 2, 2010
6. 2
Denitions
Isotropic material A material that has optical properties that are independent of the orientation of the material (glass is an example of an isotropic material) Anisotropic material A material that has optical properties that are dependent of the orientation of the material (many crystals are anisotropicwhy?)
6. 3
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D = E = 0 E + P
In anisotropic materials the polarization may not be in the same direction as the driving electric eld. Why?
6. 4
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Anisotropic Media
Charges in a material are the source of polarization. They are bound to neighboring nuclei like masses on springs. In an anisotropic material the stiffness of the springs is different depending on the orientation. The wells of the electrostatic potential that the charges sit in are not symmetric and therefore the material response (material polarization) is not necessarily in the direction of the driving eld.
6. 5
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Analogies
What every-day phenomena can have a response in a direction different than the driving force?
6. 6
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P = 0 E
or
Px 11 Py = 0 21 Pz 31
12 22 32
13 Ex 23 Ey 33 Ez
D = E = 0 E + P
= 0
Thursday, September 2, 2010
I +
6. 7
Tensor Notation
For brevity, we often express tensor equations such as
D = 0
in the form
I + E
Di = 0 (ij + ij )Ej
where summation over repeated indices is assumed, so that this is equivalent to
Di =
0 (ij + ij )Ej
6. 8
ij =
ji
In a lossless material all elements of are real so the tensor is symmetric! ! ! =! ji and can be described by ! ij ! 6 (rather than 9) elements
11 12 13
12 22 23
13 23 33
6. 9
6. 10
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B E+ t
= 0
D H t
i H i D k
= J
= J
i E + i B k
= 0
E = H k
H = E k
= 0
Which is the wave equation for a plane wave, most easily analyzed in the principle coordinate system where is diagonal (i.e. a coordinate system aligned to the crystal axes)6.11
Thursday, September 2, 2010
E + 2 E k k
E + 2 E k k
kx ky 2 2 2 y kx kz kz ky
2 2 2 x ky kz ky kx kz kx
Thursday, September 2, 2010
for which the determinant of the matrix must be zero for solutions (other than k==0) to exist
kx kz Ex Ey = 0 ky kz 2 2 Ez 2 z kx ky
kx ky 2 2 2 y kx kz kz ky
kx kz =0 ky kz 2 2 2 z kx ky
6. 12
Normal Shells
In a given direction, going out from the origin, a line intersect this surface at two points, corresponding to the magnitude of the two kvectors (and hence the two values of the phase velocity) a wave of frequency can have in a material with permittivity can have in this direction. The two directions where the surfaces meet are called the optical axes. Waves propagating in these directions will have only one possible phase velocity.
6. 13
Thursday, September 2, 2010
kz ky kx
E + 2 E k k
2 2 2 x ky kz ky kx kz kx
kx ky 2 2 2 y kx kz kz ky
2 2 2 2 where E0 Ex + Ey + Ez
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kx Ex k2 2 x Ey = E0 2 ky2 k y kz Ez 2 2
k z
kx kz Ex Ey = 0 ky kz 2 2 2 Ez z kx ky
6. 14
Example
Find the possible phase velocities (vp=/k) for a wave propagating along the x-axis in a crystal, and the associated polarization directions.
6. 15
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2 2 2 x X X ky kz kX x yk kX x zk 2 2 2 2 2 x y k z k = 0
1 1 = 0, = , or = k y k z
1 vp = y
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or
1 vp = z
6. 16
Writing kx=kcos, ky=ksinsin, kz=ksincos the eigenpolarization can be evaluated using LHopitals rule with variable . For!vp! = ! !y we get ! ! 1/ ! eigenpolarization!y, for!vp!=! 1/ !z we get z. ! ! !
kx Ex k2 2 x Ey = E0 2 ky2 k y kz Ez 2 2
k z
6. 17
Thursday, September 2, 2010
But the Poynting vector S = E H which gives the direction of energy ow is orthogonal to the electric eld E, not the displacement vector. Thus energy does not ow in the direction of the waves propagation if the polarization of the wave (E) is not an eigenvector of the materials dielectric tensor!
Thursday, September 2, 2010
6. 18
Spatial Walkoff
6. 19
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Eigenstates of a material
For any direction of propagation there exists two polarization directions in which the displacement vector is parallel to the transverse component of the electric eld. These are the eigenstates of the system. Requiring and be parallel in the matrix equation D E is equivalent to nding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of satisfying
D = E
i ui = i u
6. 20
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Index Ellipsoid
Index of refraction as a function of polarization angle
D1
n1 n2 D2
The polarization directions (of the electric displacement) that have a max and min index of refraction form the major and minor axes of an ellipse dening n(), the index for a wave with the electric displacement vector at an angle of in the transverse plane.
6. 21
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Index Ellipsoid
The union of all index ellipses plotted in three dimensions is the index ellipsoid, dened by
of (^k.) n io n ct tio re ga D i pa o pr
x2 y2 z2 + 2 + 2 =1 n2 ny nz x
The optical axis is the direction of propagation that has an index of refraction independent of polarization angle. (i.e. a circular index ellipse)
6. 22
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Example
Find the angle of the direction of the optical axis for Lithium Niobate (LiNb03 uniaxial negative nx=ny=n0=2.300, nz=ne=2.208)
6. 23
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Example
Consider topaz (nx=1.619 ny=1.620, nz=1.627) What plane is the optical axis in? How many optical axes are there? Find the angle of the direction of the optical axis for Topaz
6. 24
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Crystal Types
The index ellipsoid is determined by the three principle indices of refraction nx, ny and nz. A crystal with nxnynz will have ____ optical axes A crystal with
6. 25
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Crystal Properties
The geometry of a crystal determines the form of the dielectric tensor
6. 26
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Crystal Properties
The geometry of a crystal determines the form of the dielectric tensor
2 n = 0 0 0
Isotropic
0 n2 0
0 0 n2
6. 27
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Crystal Properties
The geometry of a crystal determines the form of the dielectric tensor
= 0 0 0
Unaxial
n2 0 0 n2 0 0
0 0 n2 e
6. 28
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Crystal Properties
The geometry of a crystal determines the form of the dielectric tensor
= 0 0 0
Biaxial
n2 x
0 n2 y 0
0 0 n2 z
6. 29
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Biaxial Crystals
By convention nx<ny<nz so the optical axis is always in the xz plane
6. 30
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Uniaxial Crystals
By convention nonx=ny and nenz The optical axis in a uniaxial crystal is always in the zdirection A negative uniaxial crystal is one in which ne<no while a positive uniaxial crystal has ne>no.
6. 31
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Example
A wave is propagating in the [1,1,1] direction in Mica, what are the two principle indices of refraction and in which polarization directions do these correspond to? (Mica: nx=1.552, ny=1,582, nz=1.588)
6. 32
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Example
A wave is propagating in the [1,1,1] direction in Mica, what are the two principle indices of refraction and in which polarization directions do these correspond to?
Since is orthogonal to the plane of polarization is given by r.k=00 D k, k = r so for in the [1,1,1] direction x+y+z=0. k The intersection of this plane and the index ellipsoid, given by
is,
x2 y2 z2 + 2 + 2 =1 2 nx ny nz x2 y2 (x + y)2 + 2 + =1 2 2 nx ny nz
Find extremes of r2=x2+y2+z2 subject to the preceding two constraints to nd directions of transverse eigenpolarizations. Plug directions back into r=(x2+y2+z2)1/2 to nd index for each polarization
6. 33
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Find x and y values corresponding to the z values at the extermum of r(z), i.e. x and z for the elipse axes List index (r) and polarization (x,y,z) for the ellipse axes
Solve 3 equations with 4 vaariables (x,y,z,r) for distance (r) of point at intersection of Find extremum of r (z) corresponding to plane and ellipoid major and minor (as a function of z) axes of index ellipse
6. 34
The extra-ordinary ray sees an index of refraction that is a function of the ray propagation angle from the optical axis. In a uniaxial crystal the index ellipse in a plane containing the optical axis (call it the x-z plane) is described by
x no 2 + z ne 2 =1
()D ne z x
where for a wave propagating at an angle to the optical axis! ! x =!ne () cos , ! = ne! sin giving ! ! ! ! z ! () ! !
1 cos2 sin2 = + 2 () 2 ne no n2 e
Thursday, September 2, 2010
6. 35
Double Refraction
Finding the angle of refraction into an anisotropic n ! 1 sin ! material using Snells law !! 1 sin ! =!n2 ! 2 is possible but n2 depends on 2. Recognizing that Snells law requires the tangential component of the k-vector be continuos across a boundary a graphical solution is possible using the normal shells.
i i
kisini
n
knsinn
n
kisini
ne no
knsinn
e o
6. 36
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Conical Refraction
The normal surface is a surface of constant in k-space. Group velocity vg=k is perpendicular to the normal surfaces, but in a biaxial crystal the normal surfaces are singular along the optical axis. The surrounding region is conical, thus a wave along the optical axis will spread out conically
6. 37
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Optical Activity
Quartz and other materials with a helical molecular structure exhibit Optical Activity, a rotation of the plane of polarization when passing through the crystal.
6. 38
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Optical Activity
Optically active materials can be thought of as birefringent, having a different index of refraction for right-circular polarization and for left-circular polarization. The specic rotary power describes how much rotation there is per unit length
The source of this optical activity is the induced dipole moment of the molecule formed by changing magnetic ux through the helical molecule
B
6. 39
Thursday, September 2, 2010
= (nl nr )
Optical Activity
The displacement vector thus has an additional contribution in a direction perpendicular to the electric eld
2 = (gij ki k! /k0 )k0 is called the gyration vector and where G ! ! ! j ! ! ! 0 Gz Gy Ex i j k 0 Gx Ey = GE G E = Gx Gy Gz = Gz Gy Gx 0 Ez E x Ey Ez so we can dene an effective dielectric tensor
D = E + i0 G E
= + i0 G
so that
D = E
allowing the wave equation to be solved for eigenpolarizations of propagation and two corresponding indices of refraction that depend on G
6. 40
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Faraday Rotation
A form of optical activity induced by an external magnetic eld. where V is called the Verdet constant. The sense of rotation depends on the direction of propagation relative to the direction of the magnetic eld
=VB
6. 41
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Faraday Rotation
The motion of the charges in a material driven by the electric v ! ! eld feel a Lorentz force! !q B resulting in an induced ! ! ! ! dipole with a term proportional to!! B E such that where =-Vn00/.
D = E + i0 B E
For Faraday rotation the imaginary term is proportional to B, while for optical activity it is proportional to k. Thus a wave double passing (in opposite directions) a material will net zero polarization rotation from optical activity, but twice the one-way rotation due to Faraday rotation.
6. 42
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Exercise
Given an isotropic material that is perturbed such that
D = E + iE where is 0 Gz 0 = o Gz Gy Gx
nd the eigenpolarizations for the electric eld and associated indices of refraction. If a linearly polarized plane wave were to propagate along the z-direction through a thickness d of such material, what would the output wave look like?
6. 43
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Gy Gx 0
Exercise
6. 44
Thursday, September 2, 2010
E = A1 e
i(k1 zt)
e1 + A2 e
i(k2 zt)
e2
with
with +
6. 45
Exercise
Given an isotropic material that is perturbed such that
D = E + iE where is 0 Gz 0 = Gz Gy Gx
nd the coupled mode expression for the electric eld for a linearly polarized plane wave propagating along the z-direction.
Gy Gx 0
6. 46
Thursday, September 2, 2010
From
E 2 ( + )E = 0 E = Ex (z)ei(kzt) + Ey (z)ei(kzt) i j
amplitudes Ex(z) and Ey(z) to the unperturbed solutions. Since E varies only along z Use
E = 2 E + ( E) 2 d d d 2E + k E 2 ( + )E = 0 k dz dz dz d2 2 E k(k E) 2 ( + )E = 0 dz E j E Ex! + ! y + ! z k kEz is the transverse i ! ! ! ! ! !
! !
Et
component of E
Et = E
d = Ex (z)k e ike Ex (z) dz d d2 ikei(kzt) Ex (z) ei(kzt) 2 Ex (z) dz dz 2 d d = Ex (z) 2ik Ex (z) + k 2 Ex (z) ei(kzt) dz 2 dz
0
6.48
terms
Gx = Gy = 0; Gz = G 0 G 0 = i0 G 0 0
0 0 0
These two coupled rst-order differential equations reduce to uncoupled second order differential equaitons
dEx 2ik + 2 (i0 G)Ey (z) i dz dEy + 2ik 2 (i0 G)Ex (z) = 0 j dz 2k dEx Ey = 2 0 G dz 2 2 2 d Ex 0 G = Ex 2 dz 2k
Ex (z) = A cos
0 Gz 2k
+ B sin
0 Gz 2k
6.49
Ex (z) = A cos
0 Gz 2k
+ B sin
0 Gz 2k
Ex (0) = A cos
requiring A=E0 plugging into
0 Gz 2k
+ B sin
0 Gz 2k
= E0
gives
and with Ey(0)=0 we have B=0, and substituting 20=k0 we can write
Diagonalization
Consider the same problem where
Find the normal modes of propagation by nding the eigenvectors of the dielectric tensor
n2 = 0 i G 0
iG n2 0
0 0 2 n
6. 51
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Diagonalization
Consider the same problem where
Find the normal modes of propagation by nding the eigenvectors of the dielectric tensor =n2, n2-G,n2+G
u=[0,0,1],
n2 = 0 i G 0
iG n2 0
0 0 2 n
[i,1,0], [-i,1,0]
6. 52
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6.53
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Jones Vectors
Expressing polarization of a wave E(z, t) = ei(kzt) Ex Ey in terms of two orthogonal states with complex amplitude (i.e. amplitude and phase) of each component expressed in vector form
1 0 . . 1 1 2 1 . . cos sin . . 1 i 2 1 . 1 1 2 i .
No te t fro he e x m the pres con ven tex sions t tio f n u bo o k o r R se d due CP for to an d de the LCP d d nin g p iffere iffer ha sor nt s
6.54
0 1
. .
Jones Matrices
An optical element that transforms one polarization state into another can be treated as a 2x2 matrix acting on a jones vector
The Jones Matrices for a series of optical elements can be multiplied together to nd how the optical system transforms the polarization of an input beam
Ex,out Ey,out
M11 M21
M12 M22
Ex,in Ey,in
6. 55
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Retarders
Devices which delay one polarization component with respect to the other For a birefringent material of thickness d
2 = (kny d knx d) = nd
No the te th tex e sig t bo n ok of use due fo d f to t r is or h de e dif oppo nin fer site g p ent t ha con hat o sor ven f s tio n
6. 56
Thus the Jones matrix can be written (up to a common phase factor)
Mretarder =
1 0
ei
Ex Ey
E(z, t) = ei(kzt)
1 0
0 i
And when a wave with linear polarization at 45 passes through the retarder it gets converted to left (right) circular polarization
1 2 1 2i
1 i i 1
1 = 2 1 = 2
1 0 1 0
0 i 0 i
1 1
1 1
6. 57
Pseudo-Isolator Example
Use Jones Calculus to determine the polarization state of light that goes through a horizontal polarizer and then through a quarter wave plate with its fast axis at 45 from horizontal. What happens to light that goes through this system and then gets retro-reected?
6. 58
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Example
Ex,out Ey,out Ex,out Ey,out Ex,out Ey,out Ex,out Ey,out Ex,out Ey,out
Ex,out Ey,out
Ex,out Ey,out
cos(45 ) sin(45 ) 1 0 cos(45 ) sin(45 ) Ex,in = sin(45o ) cos(45o ) 0 i sin(45o ) cos(45o ) 0 o o 1 cos(45 ) sin(45 ) 1 0 Ex,in = sin(45o ) cos(45o ) 0 i Ex,in 2 o o 1 cos(45 ) sin(45 ) Ex,in = sin(45o ) cos(45o ) iEx,in 2 1 1+i = Ex,in 1 + i 2 i/4 1 e Ex,in = i3/4 2 e i/4 e 1 = Ex,in i.e. left circular polarized light i 2
o o o o
1 0 0 i
1 0 0 0
Ex,in Ey,in
6. 59
Example
Left circular polarization becomes right circular polarization on reection, and after returning through optical system
1 0 0 0
Ex,out Ey,out
1 = 2
1 0
or
0 0
0 i
1 0 0 i
2
0 0
1 i
Ex,i
Ex,out Ey,out
giving Eout=0
cos(45 ) sin(45o )
sin(45 ) cos(45o )
o
1 0
cos(45 ) sin(45o )
sin(45 ) cos(45o )
o
1 0
Ex,in Ey,in
6. 60
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Compensator
Variable waveplate with Jones matrix
1 0
0 ei
Babinet compensator
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Berek compensator
6. 61
Jones Matrices
For an input eld amplitude described by E(z, t) = ei(kzt)
Ex Ey
Horizontal Polarizer
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 2
QWP (fast axis horizontal) QWP at HWP (fast axis horizontal) HWP at Coordinate system rotation by
Thursday, September 2, 2010
sin 1 2 sin 2 1 0
sin 2 cos2 0 i
(i1) 2 2
1 0 0 1
6.62
6. 63
Thursday, September 2, 2010
0.5
0.25
Pout/Pin
0
0.75
0.25!
0.5!
0.75!
6. 64
Liquid Crystals
A state of matter containing with oblong molecules having some crystallike properties and some liquid like properties. When the molecular orientation is ordered the liquid is birefringent like a crystal. Electric elds can cause adiabatic changes to the orientation direction allowing light polarization to be controlled by the applied electric eld.
6. 65
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Liquid Crystals
3 types of liquid crystal Nematic - ordered orientation, random positions smectic - ordered orientation, and ordered position in 1 dimension Cholestric - like Nematic but with a helical rotation of the alignmnet direction
6. 66
Thursday, September 2, 2010
1 0 1 0 1 0 T = R() R()R((N 1)) R((N 1)) . . . R() R() 0 eiz 0 eiz 0 eiz
M =N
N 1 0 T = R() iz R() 0 e
6. 68
Thursday, September 2, 2010
for << the number of layers N can be chosen such that R(z)I while still retaining the effect of birefringence so that
1 0 T = R(d) 0 eid
thus the twisted nematic liquid crystal adds a phase delay of d to the slow axis and rotates the polarization by d.
6. 69
Thursday, September 2, 2010
Summary
Material polarization is not necessarily parallel to electric eld in anisotropic materials permittivity of material () is a tensor relating E to D Direction of wave vector and energy ow can be different Normal shells and index ellipsoid are geometrical constructions to visualize the propagation parameters of a wave Jones calculus can be used to keep track of polarization through an optic or a series of optics
6.70
Thursday, September 2, 2010
References
Saleh and Teich Ch 5.2B, 6.1B, 6.3-6.4 Yariv & Yeh Optical Waves in Crystals chapter 4 Hecht Optics section 8.4 Fowles Modern Optics section 6.7
6.71
Thursday, September 2, 2010