Management Roles 1. Interpersonal Roles a. Figurehead A manger has to perform many symbolic functions as a figurehead of the organization.

. He must be the person who can set an example for the others. b. Leader A manger is responsible for all the activities of his subordinates. He has to motivate the employees to do their best to achieve the desired goal. He has also to select the most effective communication channels. c. Liason A manager has to maintain contact with the higher management as well as his subordinates. In addition to this, he also has to keep a watch on the external environment which includes the competitors, government policies, etc. 2. Informational Roles

a. Monitor A manager always collects information about his organization and the outside b.
c. environment affecting his business. He is the nerve centre of all the internal and external information of the organization. Disseminator A manager is required to spread the information among his employers. He clarifies all the policies and rules for the employees. He also has to meet the informational requirements or needs of other people in the organization. Spokesperson A manager has to speak on behalf of the organization. He represents the organization in front of the outsiders.

3. Decisional Roles a. Entrepreneur A manager has to take many strategic decisions. All decisions such as use of resources and the arrangements are taken by him. He also consults other persons in the organization before taking important decisions. b. Resource allocator A manager makes budgetary allocation for different departments. He looks into the demand of various segments and takes necessary actions. He allocates resources in such a manner, that they are used in the best possible way to achieve all objectives. c. Negotiator A manager must know how to deal with the trade unions on various issues. He must always prepare himself for answers and explanations. d. Disturbance handler There can be certain disturbances in the organization such as demand of higher wages or more bonus and strikes related to it. He must know how to handle such problems and how to settle them.

Bureaucracy: The term bureaucracy has been used widely with unpleasant implication directed at government and business. Bureaucracy is an administrative system designed to accomplish large-scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals. Weber has observed three types of power in organizations: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal or bureaucratic. He has emphasized that bureaucratic type of power is the ideal one. Features of Bureaucracy:

1. Hierarchy: The basic feature of bureaucratic organisation is that there is a hierarchy of positions in the
organisation. Hierarchy is a system of ranking various positions in descending scale from top to bottom of the organisation. In bureaucratic structure, offices also follow the principle of hierarchy, that is, each lower office is subject to control and supervision by a higher office. Thus, no office is left uncontrolled in the organisation. This is the fundamental concept of hierarchy in bureaucratic organisation. This hierarchy serves as lines of communication and delegation of authority. It implies that communication coming down or going up must pass through each position. Similarly, a subordinate will get authority from his immediate superior. However, this hierarchy is not unitary but sub-pyramids of officials within the large organisation corresponding to functional divisions. Thus, there are offices with same amount of authority but with different kinds of functions operating in different areas of competence. For example, in Government organizations, we can observe separate offices looking after particular functions. This happens in business organizations too. Administrative Class: Bureaucratic organizations generally have administrative class responsible for maintaining coordinative activities of the members. Main features of this class are as follows: (a) People are paid and are wholetime employees; (b) They receive salary and other perquisites normally based on their positions; (c) Their tenure in the organisation is determined by the rules and regulations of the organisation; (iv) They do not have any proprietary interest in the organisation; (v) They are selected for the purpose of employment based on their competence. Division of work: Work of the organisation is divided on the basis of specialization to take the advantages of division of labour. Each office in the bureaucratic organisation has specific sphere of competence. This involves (a) a sphere of obligations to perform functions which have been marked off as part of a systematic division of labour; (b)the provision of the present with necessary authority to carry out these functions; and (c) the necessary means of compulsion are clearly defined and their use is subject to definite conditions. Thus, division of labour tries to ensure that each office has a clearly-defined area of competence within the organisation and each official knows the areas in which he operates and the areas in which he must desist from action so that he does not overstep the boundary between his role and those of others. Impersonal Relationships: A notable feature of bureaucracy is that relationships among individuals are governed through the system of official authority and rules. Official positions are free from personal involvement, emotions, and sentiments. Thus, decisions are governed by rational factors rather than personal factors. This impersonality concept is used in dealing with organizational relations as well as relations between the organisation and outsiders. Official Rules: A basic and most emphasized feature of bureaucratic organisation is that administrative process is continuous and governed by official rules. Bureaucratic organisation is the direct opposite of ad hoc, temporary, and unstable relations. A rational approach to organisation calls for a system of maintaining rules to ensure twin requirements of uniformity and coordination of efforts by individual members in the organisation. These rules are more or less stable and more or less exhaustive. When there is no rule on any aspect of organizational operation, the matter is referred upward for decision which subsequently becomes model for future decision on the similar matter. Rules provide the benefits of stability, continuity, and predictability and each official knows precisely the outcome of his behaviour in a particular matter. Official Records: Bureaucratic organisation is characterized by maintenance of proper official records. The decisions and activities of the organisation are formally recorded and preserved for future reference. This is made possible by extensive use of filing system in the organisation. An official record is almost regarded as index of various activities performed by the people in the organisation.

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Business process reengineering (BPR) is, in computer science and management,

an approach aiming at improvements by means of elevating efficiency and effectiveness of the business process that exist within and across organizations. The key to BPR is for organizations to look at their business processes from a "clean slate" perspective and determine how they can best construct these processes to improve how they conduct business.

Business process reengineering is also known as BPR, Business Process Redesign, Business Transformation, or Business Process Change Management.

Overview Business process reengineering (BPR) began as a private sector technique to help organizations fundamentally rethink how they do their work in order to dramatically improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors. A key stimulus for reengineering has been the continuing development and deployment of sophisticated information systems and networks. Leading organizations are becoming bolder in using this technology to support innovative business processes, rather than refining current ways of doing work.

Reengineering guidance and relationship of Mission and Work Processes to Information Technology. Business process reengineering is one approach for redesigning the way work is done to better support the organization's mission and reduce costs. Reengineering starts with a high-level assessment of the organization's mission, strategic goals, and customer needs. Basic questions are asked, such as "Does our mission need to be redefined? Are our strategic goals aligned with our mission? Who are our customers?" An organization may find that it is operating on questionable assumptions, particularly in terms of the wants and needs of its customers. Only after the organization rethinks what it should be doing, does it go on to decide how best to do it. Within the framework of this basic assessment of mission and goals, reengineering focuses on the organization's business processes--the steps and procedures that govern how resources are used to create products and services that meet the needs of particular customers or markets. As a structured ordering of work steps across time and place, a business process can be decomposed into specific activities, measured, modeled, and improved. It can also be completely redesigned or eliminated altogether. Reengineering identifies, analyzes, and redesigns an organization's core business processes with the aim of achieving dramatic improvements in critical performance measures, such as cost, quality, service, and speed. Reengineering recognizes that an organization's business processes are usually fragmented into subprocesses and tasks that are carried out by several specialized functional areas within the organization. Often, no one is responsible for the overall performance of the entire process. Reengineering maintains that optimizing the performance of subprocesses can result in some benefits, but cannot yield dramatic improvements if the process itself is fundamentally inefficient and outmoded. For that reason, reengineering focuses on redesigning the process as a whole in order to achieve the greatest possible benefits to the organization and their customers. This drive for realizing dramatic improvements by fundamentally rethinking how the organization's work should be done distinguishes reengineering from process improvement efforts that focus on functional or incremental improvement.

BENCHMARKING
is the process of comparing the cost, cycle time, productivity, or quality of a specific process or method to another that is widely considered to be an industry standard or best practice. Essentially, benchmarking provides a snapshot of the performance of your business and helps you understand where you are in relation to a particular standard[1]. The result is often a business case for making changes in order to make improvements. The term benchmarking was first used by cobblers to measure ones feet for shoes. They would place the foot on a "bench" and mark to make the pattern for the shoes. Benchmarking is most used to measure performance using a specific indicator (cost per unit of measure, productivity per unit of measure, cycle time of x per unit of measure or defects per unit of measure) resulting in a metric of performance that is then compared to others.

Procedure There is no single benchmarking process that has been universally adopted. The wide appeal and acceptance of benchmarking has led to various benchmarking methodologies emerging. The most prominent methodology is the 12 stage methodology by Robert Camp (who wrote the first book on benchmarking in 1989)[2]. The 12 stage methodology consisted of 1. Select subject ahead 2. Define the process 3. Identify potential partners 4. Identify data sources 5. Collect data and select partners 6. Determine the gap 7. Establish process differences 8. Target future performance 9. Communicate 10. Adjust goal 11. Implement 12. Review/recalibrate. The following is an example of a typical shorter version of the methodology:

1. Identify your problem areas - Because benchmarking can be applied to any

business process or function, a range of research techniques may be required. They include: informal conversations with customers, employees, or suppliers; exploratory research techniques such as focus groups; or in-depth marketing research, quantitative research, surveys, questionnaires, re-engineering analysis, process mapping, quality control variance reports, or financial ratio analysis. Before embarking on comparison with other organizations it is essential that you know your own organization's function, processes; base lining performance provides a point against which improvement effort can be measured. Identify other industries that have similar processes - For instance if one were interested in improving hand offs in addiction treatment he/she would try to identify other fields that also have hand off challenges. These could include air traffic control, cell phone switching between towers, transfer of patients from surgery to recovery rooms. Identify organizations that are leaders in these areas - Look for the very best in any industry and in any country. Consult customers, suppliers, financial analysts, trade associations, and magazines to determine which companies are worthy of study. Survey companies for measures and practices - Companies target specific business processes using detailed surveys of measures and practices used to identify business process alternatives and leading companies. Surveys are typically masked to protect confidential data by neutral associations and consultants. Visit the "best practice" companies to identify leading edge practices Companies typically agree to mutually exchange information beneficial to all parties in a benchmarking group and share the results within the group.

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6. Implement new and improved business practices - Take the leading edge
practices and develop implementation plans which include identification of specific opportunities, funding the project and selling the ideas to the organization for the purpose of gaining demonstrated value from the process.

Formalization in Organizations
Formalization is the extent to which rules and procedures are followed in an organization. This element varies greatly across organizations. For example, in some organizations arrival and departure times to and from work are specified to the minute, with time clocks used to control deviant behavior. In other organizations it is understood that employees will spend sufficient time on the job to get the work done. In some organizations rules and procedures cover most activities, while in others people are allowed to exercise their own judgment. In assessing the degree of formalization, one needs to use care. In some organizations many rules are codified in huge manuals, but no one pays attention to them. In others little is written down, but rules are informally understood and followed. Thus the most useful definition of formalization is that it represents the use of rules in an organization. The degree to which rules are followednot the degree to which they are codifiedis the key factor Organizations use formalization to increase their rationality. In one sense formalization is an attempt to make behavior more predictable by standardizing it. Standard procedures for production workers or quality control checklists that must be used and submitted before a product can be shipped are examples of this kind of formalization. Formalization may also be an attempt to make explicit and visible the structure of relationships among organizational participants. It can establish status differences among organizational members in a way that is objective and external to the participants themselves. Formalization makes the process of succession routine and regular so that people can be replaced when necessary with minimal disturbance to an organization's functioning. The orderly selection of cardinals and popes in the Roman Catholic Church and the succession plan for the U.S. presidency are good examples of this function of formalization. Alongside formal structures are aspects of organizations that are not formally planned but that more or less spontaneously evolve from the needs of the people. Thus, formal structures are the norms and behaviors that exist regardless of individuals; informal structures are interactions based on the personal characteristics or resources of the individuals involved. Informal structures are not without form; those forms are not determined simply by the organization but grow out of the relationships of the participants. Informal life is structured and orderly; it simply reflects the hearts and minds of an organization's members. Formalization in One area of an organization brings about pressures for less formalization in other areas. For example, one set of researchers studying employment security agencies found that strict conformity with civil service standards fostered decentralization, which permitted greater flexibility. Perhaps there has to be some give and take if organizations are to function well. Formalization is influenced by technology, size, and organizational traditions. One can categorize technologies as routine and non routine. Organizations or work units in which work is routine are more likely to be highly formalized than those in which technologies are less routine. Obviously, size influences formalization. Large organizations have greater needs to formalize their activities than do small organizations. The mom and pop corner store that grows into a chain will experience a greater need for formalization, as rules will need to be

createdand probably codifiedto accommodate the increased relationships and interactions involved. Tradition also influences formalization. If an early top executive believed that rules and procedures should he followed to the letter, this set of beliefs was codified into the organization's procedures manuals. The organization would then remain more formalized over time than existing conditions might have predicted. What happens to members of rigidly formalized organizations or work groups? In these organizations strict rules limited the functioning of all individuals in the organization. Workers came to follow rules for the sake of the rules themselves since that determined how they were rewarded. More and more rules were created, with the result that the organizations became very unresponsive to customers and their environments. People failed to strive for autonomy and sought to decrease the amount of uncodified activity they performed. The consequences were declining competitiveness, lost worker productivity, higher operating costs, higher prices, and degradation of labor. These negative consequences of rigid formalization have long been recognized. A number of studies show that professionalization is incompatible with formalization. The greater the degree of formalization in organizations, the higher the alienation of members who are professionals. But formalization and professionalization are meant to do the same thing. Formalization is the internal process through which an organization sets rules, standards, and procedures to ensure that things get done correctly. Professionalization is an external means for accomplishing the same result: business schools teach future managers behaviors that will be expected of them in their work organizations. From an organization's viewpoint, both processes are effective. If it acquires a professional work force, the organization itself simply is not paying the costs of inculcating standardized practices. Nevertheless, there could be tension between the standards learned by the professionals and the demands of the organization

The Product Life Cycle (PLC)

The Product Life Cycle (PLC) is based upon the biological life cycle. For example, a seed is planted (introduction); it begins to sprout (growth); it shoots out leaves and puts down roots as it becomes an adult (maturity); after a long period as an adult the plant begins to shrink and die out (decline). In theory it's the same for a product. After a period of development it is introduced or launched into the market; it gains more and more customers as it grows; eventually the market stabilises and the product becomes mature; then after a period of time the product is overtaken by development and the introduction of superior competitors, it goes into decline and is eventually withdrawn. The Product Life Cycle (PLC) is based upon the biological life cycle. For example, a seed is planted (introduction); it begins to sprout (growth); it shoots out leaves and puts down roots as it becomes an adult (maturity); after a long period as an adult the plant begins to shrink and die out (decline). In theory it's the same for a product. After a period of development it is introduced or launched into the market; it gains more and more customers as it grows; eventually the market stabilises and the product becomes mature; then after a period of time the product is overtaken by development and the introduction of superior competitors, it goes into decline and is eventually withdrawn. However, most products fail in the introduction phase. Others have very cyclical maturity phases where declines see the product promoted to regain customers. Introduction. The need for immediate profit is not a pressure. The product is promoted to create awareness. If the product has no or few competitors, a skimming price strategy is employed. Limited numbers of product are available in few channels of distribution. Growth. Competitors are attracted into the market with very similar offerings. Products become more profitable and companies form alliances, joint ventures and take each other over. Advertising spend is high and focuses upon building brand. Market share tends to stabilise. Maturity. Those products that survive the earlier stages tend to spend longest in this phase. Sales grow at a decreasing rate and then stabilise. Producers attempt to differentiate products and brands are key to this. Price wars and intense competition occur. At this point the market reaches saturation. Producers begin to leave the market due to poor margins. Promotion becomes more widespread and use a greater variety of media. Decline. At this point there is a downturn in the market. For example more innovative products are introduced or consumer tastes have changed. There is intense price-cutting and many

more products are withdrawn from the market. Profits can be improved by reducing marketing spend and cost cutting.

Role of Personnel Manager

Personnel manager is the head of personnel department. He performs both managerial and operative functions of management. His role can be summarized as :

1. Personnel

manager provides assistance to top management- The top management are the people who decide and frame the primary policies of the concern. All kinds of policies related to personnel or workforce can be framed out effectively by the personnel manager. staff advisor and assists the line managers in dealing with various personnel matters. grievances of employees and guides them. He tries to solve them in best of his capacity. and workers.

2. He advices the line manager as a staff specialist- Personnel manager acts like a

3. As a counsellor,- As a counsellor, personnel manager attends problems and

4. Personnel manager acts as a mediator- He is a linking pin between management 5. He acts as a spokesman- Since he is in direct contact with the employees, he is

required to act as representative of organization in committees appointed by government. He represents company in training programmes.

Functions of Personnel Management Follwoing are the four functions of Personnel Management:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Manpower Planning Recruitment Selection Training and Development