AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

1.0 SCOPE 5.0 BACKGROUND

This guideline provides advice on the prevention and management of ambient air pollution associated with mining activities. Occupational health issues are not dealt with; these are controlled by the Mines Regulation Act. While the recommended practices apply to both proposed and existing mining activity, they have particular relevance to new developments. Given the wide range of emissions and environments relevant to mining operations, coverage of all circumstances is not possible in a guideline such as this. This guideline is principally concerned with the control of dust. It does not consider major smelter and other emissions which require detailed scientific assessments. This guideline is ADVISORY ONLY and is not intended to prescribe mandatory standards and practices. This guideline is intended to assist the development of project-specific environmental management practices.

The air quality aspects of mining operations broadly relate to: types and levels of emissions within the mine site, impacts of emissions outside the lease area boundaries, and impacts associated with haulage operations to and from the site.

As required, advice from officers of the Department of Environment and Heritage, local government and air quality consultants should be obtained for air pollution assessments. Under the Environmental Protection Act 1994, Environmental Protection Policies are to be established which will prescribe management practices and standards for the prevention and control of environmental contamination and degradation of air quality.

6.0 2.0 OBJECTIVES

(1) To assist in identifying potential air pollution problems associated with mining activities. (2) To assist in the development and implementation of appropriate air quality management strategies. (3) To present a range of air quality management measures that have been found useful in previous applications. (4) To list sources of further information.

STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS

While mining operations overall are subject to the Mineral Resources Act 1989, components of mine development may be controlled under the Clean Air Act 1963. In particular, this Act provides for control of polluting activities listed as Scheduled Premises which include:

(a)

any premises used for: crushing, grinding or sizing works producing more than 5,000 tonnes of products per year; the treatment or processing of bauxite or alumina; smelting or converting of ores to metal of any kind; coke works; gas works based on coal, oil, natural gas or hydrocarbon derivative; storage of petroleum products in tanks having a capacity alone or in aggregate of 2,000 cubic metres; and

3.0

RELATED GUIDELINES

None specifically.

4.0

INTERPRETATION

For the purposes of this guideline, unless the context indicates otherwise: Agreed refers to a standard, level or criterion which if achieved ensures that no significant adverse environmental impact is likely to occur. Such standards, levels or criteria may be drawn from published sources or proven practices but, in all cases, must be to the satisfaction of the relevant Responsible Authority; Risk refers to the probability that a substance, an activity or an event will produce an adverse health, safety or environmental effect under a given set of circumstances;

(b) any premises on which there is erected: an electric power station burning fossil fuel; any fuel-burning equipment capable of consuming alone or in aggregate more than 500 kilograms of combustible material per hour;
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Air Pollution Control

a furnace used for the melting of metals producing more than 50 tonnes of products per year.

7.1

Dust

While many of these activities and facilities are not commonly or directly associated with mining, one or more of them may be involved as part of the overall project. Before beginning construction or equipment installation on Scheduled Premises, the occupier must obtain approval from the chief executive, Department of Environment and Heritage. The occupier must also apply to the chief executive for a licence within three months of commencing operations. Approval may or may not be granted. If granted, the approval and licence may be conditional on: certain works being carried out; certain equipment being installed; and certain operating procedures being followed.

The most common air quality issues relate to dust which is produced from a number of activities that take place on mine sites including: land clearing and removal of topsoil and overburden; drilling and blasting operations; operation of crushing and screening equipment; loading and unloading of material on-site and subsequent transport off-site; transport by vehicles on access roads and haul roads; and wind action affecting stockpiles, dry tailings dams and exposed areas of the site.

Occupiers must also obtain approval from the chief executive before commencing any alterations or additions to equipment on Scheduled Premises. Occupiers of non-scheduled premises do not require a licence under the Clean Air Act. Occupiers are required to keep or use premises and operate equipment in ways which prevent or minimise air pollution. Occupiers must also give the chief executive one months notice before installing or altering equipment likely to emit air impurities. The Environmental Protection Act 1994 will enable promulgation of an Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 1995 to replace the Clean Air Act. Licenses currently held under the Clean Air Act will remain in force under the new legislation. However, where current industry performance does not comply with the air quality criteria adopted under the Environmental Protection Act, the mining company must prepare an Environmental Management Plan which provides an undertaking to reach compliance standards within an agreed period. The air quality criteria for Queensland will follow national air quality guidelines developed by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (Reference 1). Attachment 1 provides information on air quality standards and gives supplementary information on air quality indicators not currently covered by ANZECC recommendations.

Dust can be a significant nuisance to surrounding land uses, as well as a potential health risk in some circumstances: Dust emission rates vary and depend upon: the local geology; the level of activity on site; the extent of vegetation cover; the size distribution, moisture content and method of storage of bulk material; crust formation on the surface of stored material; rainfall and humidity, ambient temperature and wind conditions; and methods of operation and materials handling.

For most mining operations, the major sources of dust are drilling, blasting and in-mine transport of material. For many material-handling facilities the main sources of fugitive dust are stockpiles. Burning of vegetation after land clearing may be a source of both dust/ash and smoke nuisance. Fugitive emissions of dust from conveyors, particularly when transporting material of small particle size (less than 10 microns diameter) can be a significant problem. A particular concern in this regard is fine material free-falling into bins, hoppers, trucks or ships. The emission rates of dust can be greatly influenced by the micro-meteorology of the site. The generation of dust by mining sources and the transport and dispersion of the resultant dust cloud is often heavily influenced by meteorological conditions. The composition of the dust cloud changes as the cloud moves away from the source due to the differential gravitational settling of larger particles, the interception of dust by vegetation and material surfaces, and the presence of precipitation (eg. rain and dew). The particle size distribution of the emitted dust cloud is critical in determining the gravitational settling and deposition of dust to the underlying surface and in determining any effects on health and visibility. Dust particles with diameters below 10 m can penetrate deeply into the human lung. Particles of dust in the size
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7.0 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES AND EFFECTS

The major air pollutants from mining activities include particulate matter of various sizes and types, gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide from combustion activities (eg. diesel vehicles), and less immediately harmful gases such as methane (eg. from underground coal seams). Emissions of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide may also be a problem where spontaneous combustion of coal overburden occurs.

Air Pollution Control

range 0.1 to 2 m cause most of the impairment of visibility. The material soiling potential of dust depends upon the particle size, composition and colour. Fine particles are usually responsible for the soiling of fabrics and vertical surfaces, and are more likely to penetrate indoors. The soiling of horizontal surfaces is generally found to result from the deposition of a wide range of particles, including coarse particle dusts. More detailed consideration of the potential effects of dust is given in Attachments 2 and 3.

policy are total limits from all sources regardless of whether the pollutant is due to one particular operation or the combination of a number of independent activities. Consequently, existing levels of key pollutants (usually dust) should be monitored and taken into account during the design phase. Suggested monitoring methods and types of dust monitoring equipment currently available are described in Attachment 4. In the area surrounding the mine site there may be many sources of particulate matter (eg. domestic and agricultural fires, road transport) that will give rise to dust emissions which will vary depending upon meteorological conditions. Meteorological monitoring should form part of the mine planning and design process and is usually recommended for ongoing environmental auditing purposes throughout the life of the operation. In locations where a wide variety of sources are present, ambient (ie. background) sampling must be carefully conducted and it is advisable to obtain expert advice before proceeding with extensive monitoring.

7.2

Gases

Air pollution may result from stack emissions from power generating plant or from furnaces, smelters or other heating processes. Emissions from trucks and other powered equipment may also be a nuisance issue in some circumstances. Further, spontaneous combustion may produce sulphurous fumes from overburden dumps at coal mines. Depending on the source of fuel, size of the equipment and local topography and meteorology, particulate and gaseous stack emissions from electricity generating equipment may cause concern to surrounding landholders. Electricity generating equipment, even when maintained and operated in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations, requires adequate dilution and dispersion of exhaust gases to prevent pollutants exceeding concentrations that would pose a health risk or create odour nuisance. Dispersion may be adversely affected by buildings and other significant structures when exhaust stacks are located within a distance equal to 10 times the height or width of such structures. The area of influence, which depends on the structures shape, can be predicted mathematically (but only for simple shapes such as cubes or cylinders). Otherwise it can be determined by site-specific wind tunnel studies.

8.2 Establish adequate separation distances

Maintaining adequate separation distances is recommended as the most effective management strategy to minimise nuisance or conflicts with landowners. Providing large separation is also the least expensive measure when additional land is not required to be purchased to achieve required distances. The determination and maintenance of adequate separation distances depend upon the material, characteristics and operations of the mine, and the location of the mine site in relation to development of the surrounding area. Local government town planning schemes can be referenced to establish the presence of existing and likely future development that may be affected by emissions from the mine operations (including haul roads). Open space, commercial and industrial use areas can usefully serve to buffer more sensitive uses. Land designated for future residential purposes should be treated as if it were an established residential area, even though it may currently be undeveloped. In general, proposed open-cut mining areas and crushing and screening plants should be at least 1000 m from residences and other sensitive uses. Greater distances may be required having regard to prevailing winds and topographic features, for large operations where clear line of sight exists to residential areas, or if work outside of normal working hours is planned. Such circumstances could mean developing a mine layout that locates potential air pollution sources well away from lease area boundaries. If it is necessary to locate equipment at or near a boundary, the importance of assessing whether likely air emissions could be a problem for surrounding land uses increases. Other control measures may have to be considered if separation distances are minimal. The design of buffer areas and choice and/or development of transport corridors should also recognise that the effectiveness of controls on dust is very dependent on the physical state of the materials being handled. Dust problems at distances of up to several
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8.0

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Site-specific management strategies for proposed and existing mine sites should be developed: to control the generation of air pollutants on-ste, to the maximum extent possible; to contain pollutants generated within the mine site; to minimise adverse effects of the operation on the amenity of the area; and to limit the individual and cumulative effects of air pollutants on regional air quality.

In developing appropriate strategies, the following actions should be carried out.

8.1

Determine existing air quality

Mine development should comply with the environmental objectives for air quality, nuisance dust and suspended particulates given in the Department of Environment and Heritages Draft Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 1995. It is noted that the pollutant levels given in this
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Air Pollution Control

hundred metres have been experienced during the most adverse times of the year (usually in spring and summer for Queensland operations) during transport of dusty material.

8.3

Implement emission controls

Where no practical market or use exists, and burning is the only option, controlled air burners (such as pit burners) should be used to increase combustion efficiency and reduce smoke emissions. Material should not be left to smoulder overnight or on weekends. If burning is to take place, it should occur only when winds are blowing away from sensitive areas.

The nature of emission controls will depend very much on the type of pollutants, the nature of the mined material and mining methods, and the distances of these activities from site boundaries. Various control methods are described under Implementation Strategies below. The mining of such materials as asbestos, uranium and certain types of abrasive ores (eg. iron ore) may require additional consideration.

9.2

Removal of topsoil and overburden

Where practicable, topsoil should be stripped while moist, in order to reduce dust generated by scraper and dozer operations. However, if the soil is worked while it is too moist (ie, with a moisture content of more than about 12%) its structure can break down, rendering the soil unsuitable for rehabilitation. To reduce wind erosion, topsoil stripping should be limited to the smallest practicable area in front of the mine face. Once stripping is completed, access to this area should be restricted. Where practical, neighbours could be contacted to determine the most suitable time to work and then the job completed as quickly as possible. As much area as possible should be watered without making conditions too boggy for machinery. Work should be carried out when winds are light and blowing away from the nearest neighbours. In areas where drinking water is collected from roofs, it may be appropriate to assist neighbours with roof cleaning after completion of major earthworks and stabilisation of disturbed areas. Topsoil haul roads should be routinely watered either by fixed or mobile water sprinklers. Material of low silt content is advisable in haulage road construction. If possible, locate haulage roads on the leeward slope of hilly terrain or ridges. Stockpiles of topsoil and overburden that will not be used for some time, especially those that will serve as noise barriers should be given a cover of vegetation. This will minimise wind generated dust emissions, control erosion and stormwater contamination, and may improve the sites visual amenity.

8.4 Provide for interception of pollutants and airflow modification

Consideration should be given to the use of barriers (eg. man-made, natural wind-breaks, local topographic features, etc.) to reduce the emission rates of fugitive dust. The zone of influence and porosity of any barriers should be taken into account in determining the effectiveness of such measures. Stands of vegetation and, in some cases, man-made fences, can be useful for intercepting dust emitted from the site. Advice can be obtained from engineering and environmental consultants on the relevant characteristics of mined materials, the effectiveness of available separation distances, the use of windbreak and interception techniques, and the need for further emission control measures.

9.0

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

The control measures discussed below should be considered to minimise air pollution effects of mining activities.

9.1

Land clearing

Generally, land clearing should be minimised. Where practicable, waste vegetation from land clearing activities should not be burnt. Alternative disposal methods should be considered and the most appropriate method used. Alternative methods include the following: Removal by sawmillers and/or commercial and private fire wood collectors. Chipping or mulching to convert unwanted vegetation into a useful product. With woodchips being exported from Brisbane, and a demand for garden mulch, a substantial market exists for this often wasted resource. Stockpiling of chips and mulch for later use in stabilisation and revegetation of disturbed areas. Removal to a centralised (usually local authority) facility for mulching and chipping waste timber. Material obtained is useful for maintenance of council parks and gardens or can be sold to the public.
Air Pollution Control

9.3

Drilling operations
All drilling rigs should be equipped with adequate dust-collection devices. Most rigs are currently fitted with cyclones, but these are inefficient in collecting fine particles and rigs equipped with bag filters are becoming more popular. Any drilling materials discharged adjacent to the rig should be wetted down. Collected dust should be disposed of in a way that will prevent it from becoming airborne.

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9.4

Blasting operations
Blasting should be restricted during periods of high winds or when prevailing winds will carry dust towards sensitive areas. Blast sizes should be restricted. Selected stemming should be used. The normal practice at most mines is to use drillings as these are conveniently available, do not cost anything and pack in well. However, drillings are environmentally suitable only if they are moist or if only the very coarse factions are used. Otherwise, imported stemming materials such as nut gravel should be used. Non-covering of detonating cord can minimise dust generation and should be considered. The blasted area should be wetted down such that dispersion of dry and fine material from drilling left on the surface is suppressed.

that the very fine dust produced is effectively contained. Collected dust should be disposed of in a way that will prevent it from becoming airborne. The drop height for crusher dust and other fine material from the end of conveyor belts to the stockpiles should be minimised by using flexible or telescopic spouts. Dead boxes on the ends of the spouts will reduce the exit velocity and further reduce dust generation. Negative pressure enclosures may be appropriate in some instances to contain fine dust.

9.7

Haul roads and access roads

The use of hard, unfriable materials should be considered as a principal method of reducing the generation of dust from haul roads. The only practicable controls on unpaved roads are chemical treatment and/or routine, regular watering of the road surfaces. Paved roads should be swept or watered to remove spillages. It may be appropriate to use dust suppression chemical sprays instead of water in some circumstances. These chemicals are usually hygroscopic (ie. they attract water vapour from the air) and may be applied in spray or powder form. Under certain conditions, properly applied and maintained chemical treatment can be cost-effective in controlling dust emissions. Results of studies to date indicate that chemical treatment of haul roads can reduce dust emissions by at least 50 per cent if properly used. They are particularly useful in humid locations to suppress road dust, but may also be useful to bind the surface of loads and in some process areas. However, they can be expensive, can sometimes affect the electrical or mechanical systems of haulage vehicles, can make the roads slippery under high-moisture conditions and can cause water pollution unless adequately controlled. Haul roads and unsealed sections of access roads should be kept damp during operating hours to reduce dust generation by vehicles. Fixed water sprays or water trucks are suitable for this purpose. Water tanker filling stations should be located to reduce unproductive truck movements and to maximise effective watering. Overhead flood-fill tanks or high pressure pumps are recommended at tanker filling stations to minimise filling time. Speed bumps and warning signs should be used to enforce speed limits. Vehicle speed has a major impact on the amount of road dust generated. Contamination of surface waters or groundwater should be avoided when proprietary products are used for dust suppression. Waste oil should not be used for dust suppression. Oil is toxic to many organisms and should be kept out of the environment. Loads on road trucks should be covered with tarpaulins or sprayed with water prior to leaving
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9.5

Overburden and material loading

There is no technological control available for the tipping of overburden from haulage trucks or draglines. The site should be managed to avoid tipping in exposed areas during moderate to high winds and to minimise the distance of fall of the overburden materials. Overburden dumping height from trucks should be limited to a maximum of 20 metres where possible to reduce dust generation. Overburden dumping from draglines should be controlled so as to minimise the height that the material will free-fall before being deposited in the spoil pile. Bund walls can sometimes be used to reduce dust (and noise), especially if they are built at the edge of the overburden stockpile and material is tipped close behind them. Material from open-pit mines is generally loaded onto trucks in the bottom of the pit and the dust usually settles nearby. Routine watering of the working area should be undertaken regularly to reduce dust arising from machinery movements.

9.6

Crushing and screening equipment

Water sprays or dry collection systems should be installed at major dust sources. Sources generally needing control are crushers, conveyor belt transfer points, screens and product discharge points. Water application rates should be carefully regulated to minimise dust emissions but prevent clogging of screens due to over watering. The correct rate will depend on the type of equipment being used and the nature of the ore being processed. Dry collection systems should be discharged to the atmosphere through fabric filters to ensure
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the site to prevent dust from blowing off trucks while on public roads. Tyres and under-bodies of trucks should be washed before driving onto sealed roads to reduce the amount of mud deposited onto such roads. Mud creates a dust nuisance on sealed roads when it dries and is ground to a fine powder by subsequent vehicle movements. Over-watering of unsealed sections of access roads should be avoided as this increases the amount of mud dragged out on tyres and underbodies. Larger (eg. 40,000 L) water carts should be used as they are more effective than smaller units providing an equivalent capacity. Large (eg. 150 tonne) dump trucks cause less dust than smaller units because they travel more slowly. Similarly, steep and short hauls result in lower dust emissions because of the reduced vehicle speeds required. Interburden and mudstone should not be used for making haul roads, because they pulverise and cause large quantities of dark-coloured dust. Spillages should be removed regularly from workshop, roads and standing areas by sweeping and watering.

Traffic activity and physical disturbance of stockpiles should be carefully monitored and minimised.

9.9

Conveying and transfer equipment

Conveyors may require full or partial enclosures (eg. the top and the side which faces the prevailing winds). A collection system at the return ends of the conveyor should ensure that spillages are collected and properly disposed of. Spillages under conveyors should be dealt with before the material dries out. Transfer stations and silos may require enclosing, and the use of fabric filters for any air venting. In addition wet suppression should be considered. Under-pile conveyors for out-loading should be used as necessary to reduce dust emissions.

9.10

Dry collection equipment

9.8

Product stockpiles

Dust from dry collection equipment serving rock drills and crushing and milling equipment is very fine and can easily become windborne and cause nuisance to neighbours. Control measures should be considered to prevent environmental problems from dust re-use or disposal; Dust should be stored in sealed containers until it is used or disposed of. Unusable dust should be disposed of on-site by burial in thin layers in trenches in overburden stockpiles or backfilled areas. Trenches should be watered before dumping is commenced and the dust deposited carefully from as low a height as possible. On completion of dumping the site should be dampened down and covered promptly.

All product stockpile areas should be fitted with a water spray system capable of covering the entire stockpile area. Consideration should be given to controlling the nature of the stockpile surface, modifying the wind action and partially collecting any fugitive dust. Stockpiles of dusty materials should be kept damp by using water sprays. However, runoff from excess water spray may create water management problems, particularly if the stockpile contains heavy metal components or acidic material. Stockpiles should be oriented so that they offer the minimum cross-sectional area to prevailing winds, especially if these blow towards neighbours. Proprietary surface binding agents should be considered for use to reduce wind generated dust emissions from long-term product storage stockpiles. Selection and use of such products should take into account potential for contamination of surface waters or groundwater. Telescopic chutes should be used for loading to minimise the fall distance. Bucket retainers produce less dust during loading out activities and should be preferred. For dusty materials, covers (eg. tarpaulins, gravel) or crusting and agglomeration agents (eg. water, polymers, petroleum, latex, tar) should be used if practical.

9.11 Power stations and stand-by generators

Exhaust stacks should be at least 4 metres higher than the roof at the point of discharge, or, if there is no roof, 4 metres above ground level. Where practical, exhaust stacks should be provided which are at least 4 metres higher than any significant structure within an area equal to 10 times the structure height or width (whichever is the lesser) around the stack. If this would result in unreasonably high stacks because of nearby significant structures on adjoining land, exhaust stacks at least 4 metres higher than any significant structure on the same site as the generator could be provided and a catalytic exhaust gas purifier installed. Final discharges should be directed vertically upwards with a velocity of at least 8 m/s (and preferably a factor of 1.5 higher than the usual maximum windspeed at that height). Rain

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protectors which give a vertically upwards discharge are available. Exhaust stacks from multiple generators should be grouped close together to maximise thermal rise. If catalytic exhaust gas purifiers are used, they should be installed as close as practicable to the engine. Catalytic purifiers work better at high temperatures and unnecessary cooling of exhaust gases should be avoided. Where practicable, exhaust gases should be diluted with engine cooling fan exhaust or some other ventilation exhaust which would normally operate when the generator is operating. Engines and pollution control equipment should be maintained and operated in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. Test running should be carried out between 10.00 am and 3.00 pm. Atmospheric conditions are the most favourable for dispersion from short stacks at this time of the day. 4.

Energy Research Development and Administration Council Project No.921. Dean M, Holmes, N & Mitchell P. (1990). Air Pollution from Surface Coal Mining: Community Perception, Measurement and Modelling. Proceedings of 11th International Clean Air Conference, Auckland, pp 215-222. Hannan, JC. (1989). Dust Control at Open Cut Coal Mines. Air Pollutants from Energy Industries, (ANU; ed Jakeman, AJ), pp 106-113. Hunt, JCR. (1989). Designing to Prevent Wind Loss from Stockpiles. Warren Springs Laboratory Report No. LR687 (PA). Hunt, JCR and Barrett. (1988). Wind Loss from Stockpiles and Transport of Dust. Warren Springs Laboratory Report No. LR688 (PA). Institution of Engineers. (1986). Workshop on Fugitive Dust Control of Coal Industry Works Proceedings, Sydney. Jutze G, Axtell K, & Amick R. (1976). Evaluation of Fugitive Dust Emissions from Mining, PEDCo Environmental Inc., prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH, Contract No.68-02-1321, Task No.36. EPA600/9-76-001.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

9.12

Routine maintenance
One person should have responsibility for emissions control measures. Dust suppression equipment should be inspected regularly and defects repaired promptly. Spares should be kept on site for critical items of control equipment, such as water pumps for dust suppression sprays and filter bags for dust collection equipment. Dust fallout and suspended solids concentrations should be monitored around the site to determine the effectiveness of control measures (Attachments 1 and 4). All staff should be made aware of the likelihood of dust generation throughout the plant. This could include training on procedures throughout the plant.

10. Murfitt PG & Seymour D. (1989). The Effect of Additives of Dustiness. Warren Springs Laboratory Report No. LR697 (PA). 11. State Pollution Control Commission. (1983). Air Pollution from Coal Mining and Related Developments. 12. University of Newcastle. (1982). Dust Suppression - Problems and Solutions. Proceedings of Symposium of Newcastle Chemical Engineering Group in August 1982. 13. University of Newcastle. (1984). Dust Suppression - 1984. Proceedings of Symposium in March 1984. 14. US Department of Energy. (1984). Technical Guide for Estimating Fugitive Dust Impacts from Coal-Handling Operations. Report prepared by Dames & Moore.

10.0

REFERENCES

There are several useful reviews of dust generation and control techniques including those listed below. The SPCC publication at Reference 11 provides a good overview. 1. NHMRC. (1985). National Guidelines for control of air pollutants from new stationary sources. Recommended methods for monitoring air pollutants in the environment. Australian Environment Council, National Health and Medical Research Council - AGPS, Canberra. Cowherd C, Muleski GE, & Kinsey JS. (1988). Control of Open Dust Sources, EPA-450/3-88008, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Dames & Moore. (1988). Air Pollution from Surface Coal Mining: Volume 2 Emission Factors and Model Refinement. Report to National
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2.

3.

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ATTACHMENT 1 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

A draft Environmental Protection Policy - Air for Queensland utilises the guideline for totally suspended particulates (TSP) promulgated by the National Health and Medical Research Council. This stipulates a maximum annual mean concentration of 90 m/m3 and applies to particle sizes in the range up to 50 m. This is the only particulate ambient standard at present and is based upon health-related goals recommended by the NH&MRC and endorsed by ANZECC. In Queensland there are no guidelines for hourly concentrations of particulates but daily averaged concentrations of TSP are required to be below 250 g/m3 and monthly deposition below 130 mg/m2/day. This latter deposition guideline may be revised downwards to 110 m/m2/day in the near future. Many authorities are now legislating only on the concentration of respirable dust (ie. sized below 10 m) with typical values for 24 hour standards being 150 m/m3 although stricter values down to 50 g/m3 exist. Dependent upon the dust size and standards used, these guidelines would suggest 24 hour TSP levels of between 90 - 270 m/m3. Air quality guideline standards related to land-use are also likely to become more widespread. It is also probable that there will be greater uniformity between the various Australian State environmental guidelines. Specified levels for different averaging periods at a given frequency of occurrence are currently preferred by air quality managers as absolute limits make less sense, from a practical and scientific viewpoint. Examples of particulate guidelines based upon land use and currently in use in Western Australia and New South Wales are given in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. The Kwinana guidelines are now enacted in legislation while the NSW criteria result from various studies carried out for NERDDC (Dean, et al, 1990 - Reference 4).

TABLE 1.1 RECENT PARTICULATE GUIDELINES BASED UPON LAND-USE AS REQUIRED BY EPAWA, KWINANA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Quality 24 hr TSP 24 hr TSP 24 hr TSP 15 min TSP Zone Industrial Buffer Residential Anywhere Standard1 150 90 90 Limit2 260 260 150 1000 Unit g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3

1 2

Standard is used for planning purposes and should not be exceeded for more than 0.1% of occasions. Limit values, if exceeded, usually result in a review of plant operations.

TABLE 1.2 SPCC (NSW) CRITERIA FOR DUST FALLOUT

Existing Dust Level Maximum Acceptable Increase (g/m /month) g/m2/month mg/m2/day Residential/ suburban 2 3 4 >4 65 98 130 >130 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 Other
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For any other averaging periods required to assess nuisance rather than health effects Table 1.3 lists the available dust guidelines for a number of different countries and Australian states.

TABLE 1.3 GUIDELINES FOR AMBIENT DUST CONCENTRATIONS

Authority/ Country Averaging Period Total Suspended Particulates (g/m3) Japan, Colombia Italy USEPA EPAWA USSR Sweden Italy EPAWA NH & MRC, Australia USEPA 24 hour 24 hour 24 hour 24 hour 20 mins 20-30 mins 20-30 mins 15 mins Annual Annual 100 300 200/150 90-150 500 100 750 1000 90 60 Secondary Standard Most Rigorous Most Tolerant Absolute Limit Most Tolerant Primary/Secondary Land Use Dependent Comment

Authority/ Country NSW QLD American States

Averaging Period Annual Monthly Monthly

Fallout Standard (mg/m2/day) 130 130 100-330 Wide Variety Comment

The values in this table are based upon Bretschneider and Kurfurst, Air Pollution Control Technology (1987) Elsevier, Amsterdam, modified to include Australian guidelines.

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ATTACHMENT 2 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DUST ON HEALTH, MATERIALS AND AMENITIES

In this attachment the possible impact of dust from mining activities on local residences, if suitable management strategies are not implemented, is reviewed.

(1)

Effects of Dust

At any given site the dust levels are likely to vary rapidly on time scales from a few minutes (when visual observations will often confirm the presence of a dust cloud and give rise to complaints) to a few hours (over which time ambient conditions may be relatively steady) to a month (over which time the general wind patterns may have changed 5 to 10 times). Public complaints concerning dust can be related to each time scale range as follows: Minutes: Impairment of visibility and potential short term impairment of some body functions in sensitive members of population. Deterioration of aesthetics. Hours: Soiling of surfaces; annoyance and discomfort to many individuals. Days: Noticeable dust deposition on horizontal surfaces. Irritation and changes in health of susceptible people. Months: Soiling, changes of character of the area and noticeable health effects. The degree of complaints received will depend not only upon the ambient concentrations and dust deposition but also upon socio-economic factors. A recent NERDDC study around coal mines (Dean et al. 1990) recommended from a sociological, monitoring and modelling approach the following ranking in decreasing order of importance of factors causing complaints: Background air quality and its rate of change. Length of tenure of residents and reasons for moving into the area. Environmental character of the area. Sociological nature of the region, particularly the degree of community stability. Rate of environmental change and the degree of publicity accompanying dust producing developments.

(2)

Health Related Effects

The health effects of dust are generally related to the concentration of suspended particles in the air, as distinct from dust fallout. These effects are complicated by the varying ability of the respiratory tract to filter out particles of different sizes. The health effects of inhaled dust are related to the types of particles inhaled, the particles sizes, the ability of the respiratory tract to capture and eliminate the particles and the reactivity of the particles with lung tissue. Only particles of 10 m or less in diameter can reach the lower sensitive and responsive parts of the lung. Coarser particles adhere to the mucus secretions present in the nose, mouth, pharynx and major bronchi. These larger particles are removed by the natural upward movement of this mucus and are either swallowed or expectorated. Particles which do reach the smaller bronchi, bronchioles or alveoli may be removed by special collecting cells or by absorption if they are soluble, or they may be permanently lodged in the lung. Exposure for many years to particles which lodge in the lung can produce a dust disease of the lung known as pneumoconiosis (eg. silicosis, anthracosis, asbestosis). At sufficiently high concentrations some dust particles cause severe reactions in allergic people and may exacerbate or initiate an asthmatic response. Other particles can affect people already suffering from chronic bronchitis. The very young and the debilitated elderly segments of the population are at greater risk than normally healthy adults. Guidelines based upon epidemiological and laboratory data have been suggested by many authorities. Such standards are designed to protect the health of the sensitive sectors of the public. Other, less stringent, standards have been set to protect healthy workers in the workplace

(3)

Material Related Effects

The effects of dusts produced by mining activities on building materials are often limited to the visible soiling caused by the accumulation of particles on surfaces. Particles can damage structural materials principally by promoting and accelerating the corrosion of metals, the degradation of paints and the deterioration of building materials such as concrete and limestone. While particulate matter can materially assist in the initiation of corrosion on some exposed metal surfaces, after prolonged exposures the influence of particles is less important than other factors, such as the sulphur dioxide level, the corrosion products formed on the metal surface and rainfall. Damage to paints by particulate pollutants is often suspected, but other factors such as improper surface preparation and exposure to sunlight are more important. While the appearance of painted materials can be adversely affected by particulate deposits, these deposits may actually help to extend the useful lifetime of the coating by shielding the paint from the action of bright sunlight (in particular the ultra-violet component). The effects of particulate matter on fabrics are generally confined to the nuisance caused by soiling. The particles do not usually cause any degradation of the fibres themselves, but abrasive action may reduce the life of the fabrics.

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ATTACHMENT 3 EXAMPLES OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EMISSION RATES FOR THE MINING OF COAL AND SIMILAR MATERIALS
Previous studies in the United States and the Hunter Valley have shown that the dust emissions from typical controlled open-pit mining operations are dominated by the generation of overburden dust from haul roads (Table 3.1).

TABLE 3.1 DUST EMISSIONS FROM TYPICAL CONTROLLED STRIP-MINING OPERATIONS (Reference 11)
% of Total Dust Emission 35 7 12 4 1 5 7 18 6 5 TOTAL 100

Sources Haul roads Overburden Coal Loading Overburden Coal Drilling (Overburden and Coal) Blasting (Overburden and Coal) Truck dumping Topsoil removal Exposed areas Haul road repairs

These studies have also shown that the median mass diameter of dust from a variety of activities from such operations is in the range of 17-30 m (Table 3.2).

TABLE 3.2 DUST PARTICLE SIZES FROM COAL MINING OPERATIONS(Reference 11)
Range of Median Sources Mass Diameters (m) Haul roads Shovel/truck loading Coal blasting Truck dumping Exposed areas Overburden shovel Storage piles Topsoil removal 11-47 8-50 na 11-40 13-22 na 14-36 28-29 Mean Median Mass Diameter (m) 24 25 22.5 22 17 29 23 28 Percentage Less than 3 m (by weight) < 0.2% <2% < 0.1% < 1% < 0.5% < 0.01% < 0.5% < 0.2%

The size distribution for dust emitted at coal handling facilities in the Hunter Valley and in Queensland is such that 70% is below 50 m. For this size fraction, the settling due to gravitation is negligible and the deposition velocities (Table 3.3) are sufficiently small that the dust can carry several hundred metres under suitable atmospheric conditions.

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TABLE 3.3 TYPICAL SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND DEPOSITION VELOCITIES FOR COAL AND OVERBURDEN DUST
Size Fraction (m) 0-20 20-50 Above 50 Percentage by Weight 32% 41% 27% Deposition Velocity (m/s) 0.04 0.15 0.3

The above information is for coal-mining activities for certain coals. For other types of coal and other materials, the figures may require substantial modification.

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ATTACHMENT 4 USE OF MONITORING EQUIPMENT TO ASSESS A POTENTIAL DUST PROBLEM

The spatial and temporal coverage of monitoring should be based upon well-defined objectives and tempered by the expense of the long-term operation of extensive monitoring networks. Air quality assessments of a region based upon a sparse network of monitors are difficult to perform, even for a specialist; community misconceptions are therefore very likely unless an open approach and active feedback of information are pursued. An acceptance by local communities that the monitoring is unbiased, reliable and useful is critical to the identification of any problem areas. With stated objectives, the monitoring programme should be capable of confirming public perception of dust nuisance if and when it occurs. Public acceptance of infrequent sampling is unlikely. Monitoring results communicated on a regular basis with an independent interpretation would form the basis for community acceptance. The siting of any monitors should be guided by USEPA practice and Australian experience (AS 2922). The monitors should be in representative areas with little vegetation within a specified distance and with minimal likelihood of external influences or requiring subsequent relocation. The frequency of sampling is tied to the objectives of the monitoring programme and the method of interpretation, and should take into account the fluctuations in dust levels caused by meteorological and site conditions and interferences from other sources. The type of instrumentation should reflect the type of dust of interest and the objectives of the monitoring. Common dust monitoring equipment is listed in Table 4.1 below, with the comments based upon various scientific and operational studies. For monitoring specific sources, the dust monitor should be placed downwind of the source for the dominant local winds. This requires a good appreciation of the frequency of windspeed and direction in the region of the mine. Wind data need to be obtained for at least one full year (but preferably five years) to encompass a full range of conditions that might result in high dust generation. In addition to wind measurements some application may require monitoring of rainfall, evaporation and solar radiation. Dust retention in open cut mines at night time may require additional information on atmospheric stability. Advice should then be sought from meteorological specialists.

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TABLE 4.1 COMMON DUST MONITORING EQUIPMENT

Type Particle Size Sampled (m) Dust deposition gauges (AS 2724.1) Directional dust deposition gauges (AS 2724.5) High-volume sampler (AS 2724.3) PM10 sampler Aerosol sampler Nephelometer (AS 2724.4) Sensitive microbalance No limit 10 upward Low Low Rugged but insensitive. Poor performance in high winds. Vertical openings pointing in four directions. Cost Comments

0.1-50 >10 0.1-10 0.1-10 1-100

Moderate Moderate Moderate High High

Can be inaccurate if flow speed is not matched to ambient conditions. High-volume sampler with size-selective inlet. Light-scattering principle (infra-red) continuous monitor. Light-scattering (visible) continuous monitor. Continuous real-time results with sample collection for later chemical and physical analysis.

Sources:

AS 2724.1 AS 2724.3 AS 2724.4 AS 2724.5 AS 2922 AS 2923

Ambient air - particulate matter. Part 1 - determination of deposited matter expressed as insoluble solids, ash, combustible matter, soluble solids and total solids. Ambient air - particulate matter. Part 3 - determination of total suspended particulates (TSP) - high volume sampler gravimetric method. Ambient air - particulate matter. Part 4 - determination of light scattering - integrating nephelometer method. Ambient air - particulate matter. Part 5 - determination of impinged matter expressed as directional dirtiness, background dirtiness and/or area dirtiness (directional dust gauge method). Ambient air - guide for the siting of sampling units. Ambient air - guide for measurement of horizontal wind for air quality applications.

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