FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULIC FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULIC

MACHINES
Lecture 3: Fluid Dynamics
Er. Deepak Kumar Mallick,
School of Civil Engineering.
Types of Flow Types of Flow
d h d l l One-, two- and three dimensional Flow.
Three dimensional flow stipulates that the flow properties vary in all the Three dimensional flow stipulates that the flow properties vary in all the
three directions.
When the velocity change in any of the direction is negligible then it can be
assumed as two dimensional flow.
When the velocity change in two directions are negligible then it can be
assumed as one dimensional flow.
Contd Contd..
d d l Steady & unsteady Flow.
For steady flow the values of all fluid properties (velocity, temperature,
density, etc.) at any fixed point are independent of time, but are function of y, ) y f p p f , f f
flow passage.
P
0
c
=
P represents any one of the flow parameters
0
t
=
c
P, represents any one of the flow parameters.
t, is the time.
Contd Contd
f d f fl Uniform and non-uniform flow.
If the flow parameters such as pressure, velocity, density, viscosity and
temperature remain constant throughout the flow field at any given time. p g f f y g
P
0
S
c
=
c
P, represents any one of the flow parameters.
Contd Contd..
d b l fl Laminar and turbulent flow.
Laminar flow is also called viscous flow or streamline flow Smooth flow of Laminar flow is also called viscous flow or streamline flow. Smooth flow of
one lamina of fluid over another. This is generally seen in viscous fluid
flows in smooth pipe with low velocity.
In turbulent flow the fluid particles move in erratic or unpredictable path.
This type of flow is seen in rivers, canals and atmosphere. yp f f , p
Contd Contd..
bl d bl fl Compressible and Incompressible flow
Flow is incompressible if the density of the fluid changes due to pressure Flow is incompressible if the density of the fluid changes due to pressure
and temperature is negligible.
In compressible fluid the density change is appreciable. The gases are
readily compressible fluid. They expand infinitely in the absence of pressure
and contract easily under pressure. y p
Different Types of Heads (Energies) of
a Liquid in Motion
Potential Head / Potential Energy: This is due to configuration or position
above some suitable datum line. It is denoted by z.
Velocity Head / Kinetic Energy: This is due to the velocity of the flowing liquid
d i d V
2
/2 h V i th l it f th fl d i and is measured as V
2
/2g, where V is the velocity of the flow and g is
acceleration due to gravity.
Pressure Head / Pressure Energy: This is due to the pressure of liquid and is
measured as P/g, where P is the Pressure of the flow and g is weight
density density.
Contd Contd..
l d / l l h d f l d l h Total Head / Total Energy: Total head of liquid particle in motion is the
sum of its potential head, kinetic head and pressure head.
Total Head, H = m of liquid
2
V P
z
2 g g
+ +
2 g g
Equation of Continuity Equation of Continuity
h d ff The mass across a pipe at different section is constant.
i e
1
A
1
V
1
=
2
A
2
V
2
(Compressible Fluid) i.e.
1
A
1
V
1
=
2
A
2
V
2
(Compressible Fluid)
i.e. A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
(Incompressible Fluid)
Eulers Equation of Motion Euler s Equation of Motion
ASSUMPTIONS:
Steady flow of an ideal fluid.
Small element of cross-sectional area of dA Small element of cross sectional area of dA
and length ds.
P= Pressure on the elements 1
st
face.
P+dP= Pressure on the elements other face.
V= Velocity of the fluid element.
Contd Contd..
f h d f fl 1. Net pressure force in the direction of flow is
= P.dA - (P+dP).dA = -dP.dA
2 Componenet of the weight of the fluid element in the direction of flow is 2. Componenet of the weight of the fluid element in the direction of flow is
= -.g.dA.ds.cos = -.g.dA.ds.(dz/ds) = -.g.dA.dz
3. Mass of the fluid element is
=.dA.ds
4. The acceleration of the fluid element is
dV/d (dV/d ) (d /d ) V(dV/d ) a = dV/dt = (dV/ds)x(ds/dt) = V.(dV/ds)
5. According to Newtons second law
Force = mass x acceleration Force mass x acceleration
-dP.dA - .g.dA.dz = .dA.ds x V.(dV/ds) [dividing both sides by .dA]
dP
[Eulers Equation for motion]
dP
V.dV g.dz 0 + + =

Contd Contd..
dP
Integrating both sides we get
dP
V.dV g.dz 0 + + =

1
dP VdV g.dz constant + + =
} } }
Integrating both sides we get,
g

} } }
2
P V
gz constant => + + =
2
P V
z constant > + +
P H d (P i i h ) Ki i H d (Ki i
gz constant
2
> + +

z constant
g 2g
=> + + =

Pressure Head (Pressure energy per unit weight) + Kinetic Head (Kinetic
energy per unit weight) + Potential Head (Potential energy per unit
weight) = Total or Hydrodynamic Head
[Bernoullis Equation]
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
P V P V
z z
g 2g g 2g
=> + + = + +
g 2g g 2g
Contd Contd..
Bernoullis Equation Bernoulli s Equation
ASSUMPTIONS:
The fluid is ideal, viscosity is zero.
The flow is steady and continuous The flow is steady and continuous.
The flow is irrotational.
The fluid must be incompressible, even though the pressure varies the
density must remain constant.
Flow must be one-dimensional, along a streamline.
The velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean velocity The velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean velocity.
The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity forces and the pressure
forces.
Contd Contd..
P
1
=Pressure at LL.
V
1
=Velocity of liquid at LL.
z
1
=Height of LL above datum z
1
=Height of LL above datum.
A
1
=Area of Pipe at LL.
P2,V2,z2,A2 = Corresponding
values at MM.
W=Weight of the liquid between
LL and LL
As the flow is continuous,
W = gA
1
dl
1
= gA
2
dl
2
Contd Contd..
Work done by pressure atr LL in moving the liquid to LL = Force x distance
1 1 2 2
W
A dl A dl
g
=> = =

Work done by pressure atr LL in moving the liquid to L L = Force x distance

= P
1
A
1
dl
1
Work done by pressure at MM in moving the liquid to MM = -P
2
A
2
dl
2
Total Work done by the pressure = P
1
A
1
dl
1
- P
2
A
2
dl
2
A dl (P P ) = A
1
dl
1
(P
1
-P
2
)
1
2
W
(P P )
g
=

Loss of Potential Energy = W (z

1
-z
2
)
g
| |
Gain in Kinetic Energy =
2 2
2 2
2 1
2 1
V V W
W (V V )
2g 2g 2g
| |
=
|
\ .
Contd Contd..
f l l k d b h Loss of Potential Energy+ Total Work done by the pressure = Gain in Kinetic Energy
W (z
1
-z
2
) + =
2
W
(P P )
2 2
2 1
W
(V V )
W (z
1
z
2
) + =
1
2
(P P )
g
2 1
(V V )
2g
2 2
1 2 2 1
P P V V
(Z Z )
| | | |
> +
| | 1 2
(Z Z )
g g 2g 2g
=> + =
| |

\ . \ .
[Bernoullis Equation]
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
P V P V
Z Z
g 2g g 2g
=> + + = + +

Bernoullis Equation for Real Fluid Flow Bernoulli s Equation for Real Fluid Flow
ll d d h h h fl d Bernoullis equation was derived with an assumption that the fluid is non-
viscous, frictionless.
Real fluid flows offer resistance to flow there was always some losses in y
the fluid flow, hence the losses has to be taken into consideration.
h h lli i f l fl id fl i i Thus the Bernoullis equation for real fluid flow is given as
2 2
P V P V
1 1 2 2
1 2 L
P V P V
Z Z h
g 2g g 2g
=> + + = + + +

h
L
= Loss of energy between point 1 and 2.
Applications of Bernoullis Theorem Applications of Bernoulli s Theorem
Venturimeter
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow /
discharge of a fluid flowing through a pipe. g g g p p
Types of Venturimeter
i) Horizontal Venturimeter
ii) Vertical Venturimeter
iii) Inclined Venturimeter iii) Inclined Venturimeter
Parts of Venturimeter
i) A short Converging Part
ii) Throat
iii) Diverging Part
Horizontal Venturimeter Horizontal Venturimeter
d l ( ) Let, d
1
= Diameter at inlet or at section (1)
P
1
= Pressure at section (1)
v
1
= Velocity of fluid at section (1) v
1
= Velocity of fluid at section (1)
a
1
= Area at section (1) = d
1
2
/4
d
2
, P
2
, v
2
, a
2
corresponding values at section (2).
Applying Bernoullis Equation,
2 2
1 1 2 2
P v P v
As the pipe is horizontal z
1
= z
2
1 1 2 2
1 2
P v P v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +

As the pipe is horizontal, z
1
z
2
2 2
1 1 2 2
P v P v
2 2
+ = +
2 2
1 2 2 1
P P v v
g 2g 2g

=> =
g 2g g 2g
g 2g 2g
Contd Contd...
ff f h d d d l h
1 2
P P
= Difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and equal to h.
1 2
g
2 2
2 1
v v
Applying equation of continuity at section 1 and 2, we have
2 1
v v
h
2g 2g
=> =
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
=> v
1
= A
2
v
2
/A
1
HHence,
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
1
2 2 1 2
A v
A
v v A A
h h
| |
|
| |

\ .
=> = => =
|
2
1
2
2
1 1
h h
2g 2g 2g A
A A
v 2gh v 2gh
=> = => =
|
\ .
| |
> >
|
2
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
v 2gh v 2gh
A A
A A
=> = => =
|

\ .
Contd Contd
1 1 2
A A A
i h Q A A 2 h Q 2 h
1 1 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
Discharge, Q A v A 2gh Q 2gh
A A A A
A A
= = => =

1 2
2 2
1 2
A A
Q C h, where, C = Constant of Venturimeter 2g
A A
=> = =

t
The above equation gives the theoretical discharge value but the actual discharge (Q )
act
the
1 2
q g g g (Q
is less than the theoretical discharge (Q ) is by,
A A
)
1 2
act d
2 2
1 2
where C = Co effic
A A
Actual Discharge, Q C x 2gh
A A
=

ient of Venturimeter / Co efficient of discharge The value is between where, C = Co-effic

d
A t l Di h
ient of Venturimeter / Co-efficient of discharge. The value is between
0.96 to 0.98. Due to variation of C venturimeters are not suitable for very low velocities.
Q
d
Actual Discharge
Theoretical Dischar
C =
act
the
ge
Q
Q
=
Contd Contd
Value of h given by differential U-tube manometer.
CASE-I:
Let, the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the
liquid flowing through the pipe liquid flowing through the pipe.
Let, S
h
= Sp. gravity of the heavier liquid
S
0
= Sp. gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe
h
S
Then h x 1
(
=
(
0
p g y q g g p p
x = Difference of heavier liquid column in U-tube
0
Then, h x 1
S
=
(

CASE-II:
Let, the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the
liquid flowing through the pipe liquid flowing through the pipe.
Let, S
l
= Sp. gravity of the lighter liquid
S
0
= Sp. gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe
l
S
Then, h x 1
S
(
=
(
x = Difference of lighterr liquid column in U-tube 0
S
(

Vertical & Inclined Venturimeters Vertical & Inclined Venturimeters
l d l d l d f d h Vertical and inclined venturimeters are employed for measuring discharge
on pipelines which are not horizontal. The same formula for discharge is
used for these cases as well.
CASE-III:
Inclined venturimeter with differential U-tube manometer. Let the
differential manometer contains heavier liquid then h is given by differential manometer contains heavier liquid then h is given by
1 2 h
1 2
P P S
h z z x 1
g g S
(
| | | |
= + + =
( | |

\ . \ .

CASE-IV:
0
g g S
\ . \ .

For Inclined venturimeter with differential U-tube manometer contains
lighter liquid then h is given by
P P S
(
| | | |
1 2 l
1 2
0
P P S
h z z x 1
g g S
(
| | | |
= + + =
( | |

\ . \ .

Orifice Meter / Orifice Plate Orifice Meter / Orifice Plate
Orifice meter or orifice plate is a device (cheaper than venturimeter)
employed for measuring the discharge of fluid through a pipe. It also
works on the same principle of a venturimeter.
The flat circular plate is concentric with the pipe The flat circular plate is concentric with the pipe.
The diameter of the orifice varies between 0.4 to 0.8 times the diameter
of the pipe, but the value is choosen as 0.5.
The differential manometer is at
a distance of 1.5 to 2 times the
pipe diameter upstream from p p p
the orifice plate.
A
1
= Area of the pipe at section
(1) (1)
V
1
=Velocity at section (1)
P
1
=Pressure at section (1)
1
A
2
,V
2
,P
2
are the corresponding
values at section (2)
Contd Contd
Applying Bernoullis equation at section (1) & (2), we get pp y g e ou s equa o a sec o ( ) ( ), e ge
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
P v P v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +
g g g g
2 2
1 2 2 1
1 2
P P v v
z z
g g 2g 2g
| | | |
+ + =
| |

\ . \ .
g g 2g 2g
\ . \ .
2 2
2 1
v v
h =
1 2
1 2
P P
h z z differential head
(
| | | |
= + + =
( | |
\ . \ .

h
2g 2g
1 2
g g
( | |

\ . \ .

2 2
2 1
v v
h
2g 2g
=> = +
2
2
1
2 1
v
v 2g h 2gh v
2g
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
g g
g
\ .
Contd Contd
( ) d h f Section (2) is at vena contract and A
2
is the area at vena contracta. If A
0
is
the area of the orifice then,
| |
2
A
C Wh C C ffi i t f t ti
A
2
=A
0
C
c
| |
2
c c
0
C Where C = Co-efficient of contraction
A
=
Using equation of continuity, we get
A
1
V
1
=A
2
V
2
=>V
2
=A
2
V
2
/A
1
=> V
2
=A
0
C
c
V
2
/A
1
Substituting the value of V
1
, we get
2
2 2 2
A C V A 2gh
(
| |
2 2
0 c 2 0
2 2 c 2
2
2
1 1
2
0
c
A C V A 2gh
V 2gh V 1 C 2gh V
A A
A
1 C
A
(
| |
( = + => = => =
|
(
( \ .
| |
(
|
(
\ . 1
A
|
(
\ .

Contd Contd
h d h The discharge, Q=A
2
V
2
=A
0
C
c
V
2
2
0
A
1
(
| |
(
|
2 0 c
2
2
0
2gh
V A C
A
1 C
=> =
(
| |
(
|
1
d c
2
2
0
1
A
C C
A
(
|
(
\ .

=> =
(
| |
(
C C ffi i f di h
c
1
1 C
A
(
|
(
\ .

2
0
c
1
A
1 C
A
| |
(
|
(
\ .

C
d
= Co-efficient of discharge
2
2
0
A
1 C
(
| |
(
|
0
c
1
c d
2
1 C
A
C C
A
(
|
(
\ .

=> =
(
| |
0
1
A
1
A
(
| |
(
|
(
\ .

Contd Contd
2
2
0
c
1
d 0 0 1
A
1 C
A
2gh C .A 2gh A .A 2gh
(
| |
(
|
(
\ .

d 0 0 1
0 d d
2 2 2
2 2
1 0
0
2
0 0
c
1
1 1
2gh C .A 2gh A .A 2gh
Q A .C Q Q C
A A
A
A A
1
1 1 C
A
A A

= => = => =
( (
( (
| |

| | | |
(
( ( |
| |
(
\ .
( (
\ . \ .


C (C ffi i f di h ) f ifi i h ll h h f
\ . \ .


C
d
(Co-efficient of discharge) of an orifice is much smaller than that of a
venturimeter.
Difference Between Venturimeter and
Orifice meter
h b d f h fl f ll 1. The venturimeter can be used for measuring the flow rates of all
incompressible flows (gases with low pressure variation, as well as liquid),
where as the orifice meters are generally used for measuring the flow rates
of liquids.
2. Venturimeter is installed in pipelines only, the flow continues through the
pipeline In the orifice meter the entire potential energy of the fluid is pipeline. In the orifice meter the entire potential energy of the fluid is
converted to kinetic energy, and the jet discharges freely into the open
atmosphere.
3 I i h fl l i i d b hi h 3. In venturimeter, the flow velocity is measured by nothing the pressure
difference between he inlet and the throat of the venturimeter, where as
in the orifice meter the discharge velocity is measured by using pitot tube
or by trajectory method.
Pitot Tube Pitot Tube
Pitot Tube is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement. It
works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at point becomes zero, the
pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure.
Applying Bernoulli's equation pp y g e ou s equa o
bwteen stagnation point (S) and
point (P).
P Pressure at P (Static Pressure) P
0
= Pressure at P (Static Pressure)
V= Velocity at P (Free flow velocity)
P
s
= Stagnantion pressure at S
s
Stag a t o p essu e at S
h = Dynamic pressure
= Difference between stagnation
h d (h ) d pressure head (h
s
) and static
pressure head (h
0
).
2 2
( )
2 2
0 s
0 s s 0
P P V V
h h V 2g h h V 2g h
g 2g g 2g
=> + = => + = => = => = A

Problems Problems