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Introduction Structural hollow sections are widely used within the construction industry for both their economics (strength to weight ratio)

and aesthetics. Whilst tubular trusses/frames are carefully designed and member sizes economically selected according to member forces, little thought is usually given to how they connect together and their structural strength as a welded joint. Yet welded joints are an integral part

of the structure, serving to hold the individual members of that frame together. The effectiveness of those joints ultimately determines the success of the structure in terms of capacity (supporting the building frame) and aesthetics. The capacity of structural hollow section

welded joints is determined by member sizes, steel grades and joint geometry(ratios, angles, etc.). As all these factors are decided at the initial design stage, the design engineer has already determined the welded joint capacity. All too often however it is left to the fabricator to check

and design the welded joints. At this stage it can be too late to change section sizes, grades or geometry to achieve the required joint capacity. Without giving due consideration at the design stage, there is little, if anything, that can increase the joint capacity at a later date. Therefore

to obtain a technically secure, economically viable and architecturally pleasing structure, the designer must, from theearliest stages of the design process, be aware of the effect any decision made on the joint capacity, fabrication and erection of the structure and ultimately delivery of

the finished building. The key to successful welded joint design is to look at joint capacity at the initial frame design stage. This article therefore aims to provide an overview of a selection of straightforward checks thatcan be carried out on welded joints to ensure the capacity of all joints is

sufficient, relative to the member forces within the frame. In doing this, designers can avoid time consuming, expensive and visually distracting problems later on. Types of joints There are five main classifications of joint types T, Y, X, N and K joints. N and

K-joints can be subdivided into gap N- or Kjoints and overlapping N- or K-joints, depending on whether the bracings gap or overlap. Whilst there are more complex joint types, all joints can be categorised as one of these types for simplicity. The joint type is dictated by the

geometry of the structure but they must be defined to enable identification and reference to the relevant joint capacity equations. A T-joint is where the brace is 90 to the chord, while less than 90 is termed as a Y-joint. Both are treated in exactly the same way. An N-joint has one vertical

brace (90 to the chord) and one diagonal brace (less than90) while a Kjoint has both bracings less than 90 to the chord. Again, both N-joints and K-joints are treated the same. Figure 1shows typical welded joint designations. Structural hollow sections are available in circular

(CHS), square(SHS), rectangular (RHS) and elliptical (EHS) profiles. The decision of which structural hollow section profile to use is usually made at the initial design stage. It may be influenced more by aesthetics than ease of fabrication, economics or even ease of joint capacity

calculation. When joining square or rectangular hollow sections, the flat faces enable simple straight cuts to the brace member. However, a more complex profile is required if joining circular hollow sections as the brace has to fit around the curved shape of the chord the chord is the

continuous member while the brace sits on, or joins the chord. Profiling the end of bracings requires either paper templates(created using profiling software or CAD) and flame or plasma cut by hand or specialist profile cutting machinery increased complexity resulting in

more expense. Specification of the shape of a hollow section should centre on aesthetics and suitability for the job. For RHS N- or K-joints, a gap joint requires a single cut oneach brace, while a partial overlap joint requires a double cut on

Technical no te

Wel ded

joint s

with struc

tural hollo

w secti

ons
Steve Whiteld (M)* and Christopher

Morris*, of Corus Tubes explain why designerssho uld understand

how their decisions affect joint capacity, fabrication and erection

1 Typical welded joint designations

T ( o r Y ) j o j o i n t G a p N ) j o i n t O p K ( o r N ) i n K v e j o t X ( o r r l a i n t

The Structural Engineer 87 (21) 3 November 2009 15

the overlapping brace adding to the cost. However, a 100%overlap only requires a single cut. For CHS overlap joints, thecomplexity of the profile and double cut may not be quite sosignificant if specialist machinery is used.This has a major implication for cost, as can be seen in

Table 1,with different combinations of profiling for CHS or RHS whichshows the different options in economic order. Design parameters Having identified the type of specified joint(s) in the structure to bechecked, a number of design parameters must next

beconsidered. Failure to ensure the selected sections comply withthe joint parameter limits often results in section sizes requiringchanging at a later stage usually at the fabricators, and after thematerial has already been ordered.Parameters vary depending on the type of joint. All joint

capacityequations are tested with material and geometry complying withthese parameters. Outside parameter limits the equations may notbe valid and other failure modes may apply. Hence the importancefor simple initial checks to keep within the parameter limits
1

.The following parameters should be considered: Eccentricity, gap and overlap : (Applicable to N- and Kjoints). Zeroeccentricity (centrelines of bracings intersecting on the chordcentreline) is assumed in the initial design usually a wire frame.Ideally, zero

eccentricity is what designers want as introducingeccentricity generates additional moments. Therefore, whenchecking the joints, zero eccentricity is our starting point and thegeometry will determine if the joint is a gap or overlap joint.However, design is a

compromise, and when gap or overlapparameters are considered, it may be necessary to create somejoint eccentricity in order to bring the gap or overlap withinparameters. Gap and overlap parameters have precedence overeccentricity limits.Providing the

eccentricity is within the parameter limits (0.25below and 0.55 above the centre line), moments due to jointeccentricity need not be considered in the joint design. Exceedingthe eccentricity limits requires the additional moments to be takeninto consideration in the joint

design. In both cases, the chordmember should be checked for any additional moments due toeccentricity.Typically in parallel chord trusses, bracing forces are at amaximum at the ends and minimum at the centre of the truss,while chord forces are the reverse.

Additional moments due toeccentricity are therefore likely to be greater at the end of the truss,which coincides with minimum chord forces. Hence there is usuallysufficient chord capacity to cope with additional moments andconcerns with introducing eccentricity

are usually unfounded, butneeds to be checked nonetheless. However, this is not true of triangular or bow shaped trusses as they follow the same shape asthe bending moment diagram so the chord forces tend to beconsistent along the truss.After establishing the

eccentricity and gap or overlap of a joint, there are then a number of additional parameter effects that need to be considered. These parameters affect the joint capacity and are all related to the member sizes, grades and geometry, so the importance of carefully

selecting the appropriate tube sections atthe initial design stage can clearly be seen. T-, Y-, X- and K-joints with a gap Fig 3 shows how the ratios of various parameters affect the jointcapacity. K-joints with an overlap

Whilst overlap joints have an associated cost premium as a resultof the overlap they also have the added benefit of increasedcapacity. In frames with N shaped bracings the geometry usuallydetermines the requirement for an overlap joint. In terms of designparameters, effects

are the same as with gap joints for chord widthto thickness ratio, bracing angle and chord factored to yield stressratio. However, four additional parameters are also considered foroverlap joints (Fig 4).All of these design parameters necessitate that checks aremade with reference to

specific welded joint design codes

1

toensure each one is within the joint design parameters. Joint failure modes Having considered the aforementioned parameters to ensuremaximum joint capacity, the joint can then be checked by

lookingat the various different joint failure modes.There are six possible recognised joint failure modes. Whenwithin the joint parameters, the critical failure modes are known foreach type and load of joint, so the non-critical modes are not listedto reduce the amount

of calculation work. However, if the joint isoutside the parameters, the non-critical failure modes couldbecome critical and would therefore need to be considered. Fig 5gives a brief description of the failure modes:BS EN 1993-1-8
1

sections 7.4 and 7.5 provides guidance onwhich should be considered for each type of joint. It is important tonote that, similar to other joint design guides, only known criticalfailure modes are shown when within the joint parameters listed inthe standard. If any of the

parameters are exceeded then all failuremodes must be considered.

Table 1 Economics of welded joints
With zero eccentricity joint geo metry forms a gap Increasing ga p generates positive eccentricity Reducing gap generates negative eccentricity

2 Effect of changing gap or overlap on eccentricity Increase infabrication costsRHS chord gap jointsRHS chord 100% overlap jointsCHS chord

 gap jointsRHS chord partial overlap jointsCHS chord 100% overlap jointsCHS chord partial overlap joints

16 The Structural Engineer 87 (21) 3 November 2009

Further reading

For further information on welded joints design please refer to the following:British Standards Institution: BS EN 1993-1-8:2005: Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-8: Design of Joints British Standards Institution: UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-8: Design of joints CIDECT: Design Guide, Circular Hollow Section (CHS)

Joints UnderPredominantly Static LoadingCIDECT: Design Guide, Rectangular Hollows Section (RHS) Joints UnderPredominantly Static LoadingCorus, Tubes: Design of SHS Welded Joints
*Steve Whiteld is Technical Marketing Manager, Corus TubesChristopher Morris is Senior Engineer, Corus Tubes

3 Effect of parameters on joint capacity for T-,Y-, X-, Kor N-joints with a gap4 Effect of parameter changes on joint

capacityfor K- or N-joints with an overlap5 Joint failure modes

Use of IT software In line with the current standard

1

, and in order to help designersand architects consider joints at the initial design stage, computersoftware has been developed to check the joint parameters

andcalculate the joint capacity of the various possible failure modesmentioned in this paper. Capable of carrying out assessments forwelded tubular joints, the software is based on the requirementsset out by all existing design guides, meaning that in checking

theviability of joints at an early stage, there is confidence they will have sufficient capacity and problems at a later stage are avoided.Corus Tubes has developed its own spreadsheets for tubularjoint design and CSC has software capable of assessing anddesigning

welded hollow section joints. Summary By not giving due consideration to joints at the design stage anynumber of problems can arise that will impact on projectschedules, causing additional work for both the engineer andfabricator, leading to

delays that can be both time consuming andexpensive.There are design compromises to be made with any joint interms of framing economics and meeting joint capacityrequirements. However using the joint design guides to examinewelded joints

from the early concept design stage will ensuredelivery of the most effective joint and avoid having to addressproblems later on in the project.Key to the delivery of a successful welded joint is making certainthat it is designed in line within existing design parameters so

thejoint can be checked using standard equations, whilst at the sametime meeting its aesthetic objective. Contacts Corus Tubes: For information on free installation of our welded jointsoftware, or a CPD presentation on welded joints in hollowsections

contact Corus Tubes (tel: 01536 404 561; web:www.corustubes.com ).CSC (UK) Ltd: For more information on welded joint software forhollow sections contact CSC (tel: 0113 239 3000; web:www.cscworld.com).
Reference 1 British Standard BS EN 1993 -1-8:2005:

Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-8: Design of Joints is the most recent guide available andshould be referred to for further information on subjects referenced in thisarticle. Joint parameterChange required to increase joint capacity Chord width tothickness ratioReduce the ratio by using a smaller,thicker chord to increase the jointcapacityBracing widthto

chord widthratioIncrease the ratio by using a wider braceand narrower chord width to increasethe joint capacityBracing angleReducing the brace angle increases jointcapacityBracing tochord strengthbrace yield x thicknesschord yield x thicknessReducing the ratio increases jointcapacity. This can be by using a thickerchord with higher yieldGap betweenbracingsA smaller gap increases joint capacity

Failure modeDescriptio n Chord facePlastic failure of the chord face(plastication). The deformation ofthe chord face is also limited to anacceptable amountChord side wallYielding, crushing or instability(crippling or buckling) of the chordside wall or chord webChord shearShearing of the chord betweenbracings of a K-joint or an X-jointChord punchingshearCrack initiation in the chord leadingto the brace

member punchingthrough the chord memberBraceReduced brace effective width(caused by non-uniform stressdistribution across the brace)resulting in insufcient brace cross-sectional area leading to overload,creating cracking in the welds orbrace memberChord or bracelocal bucklingFailure of a brace or chord memberat the joint location due to non-uniform stress distribution

Joint parameterChange required to increase joint capacity Overlappedbracing width tothickness ratioOverlapped brace widthOverlapped brace thicknessReduce the ratio by usinga small, thick overlappedbraceOverlappedbrac ing tochord strengthratioOverlapped brace yield x thicknesschord yield x thicknessReduce the ratio by usinga high yield, thick chordcompared to theoverlapped

bracingOverlappingbracing tooverlappedbracingstrength ratioOverlapping brace yield x thicknessOverlapped brace yield x thicknessReduce the ratio by usinga thicker overlapped bracewith higher yield comparedto the overlapping braceOverlapIncreasing the overlapincreases load transferbrace to brace with lessthrough the chord resultingin increased joint capacity
3 45

Welded joints with structural hollow section

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