ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Asato m sad gamaya, Tamaso m jyotirgamaya Mrtyor mmta gamaya From unreal lead me to real From darkness

lead me to light From death lead me to immortality.

Joy fills my heart as the research work comes to completion. I thank God for His continual presence and guidance. He was with me and guided me throughout the research journey.

Thanks and appreciation to Dr Job Kozhamthadam, SJ the President of JnanaDeepa Vidyapeeth, Pune for his encouragement to write the Master of Philosophy Thesis. Thanks to Dr James Ponnaiah, the dean of the faculty of Philosophy for his good will and support. Special thanks to Dr Isaac Parackal OIC, The M. Ph. Co-ordinator for his patience and generosity. Big thanks to Dr Henry DAlmeida SJ for his compassion, understanding and guidance. I remember in gratitude Fr. Jayaprakash DSouza, Br. Movin and Mr. Alban Travasso for their help and friendship. I take this opportunity to thank the library staff for their generous assistance.

Thanks to my provincial superior Fr. Camilo Simoes SAC for his support and encouragement. The Fathers from the P.G. Block has been constant support. I thank each one of them. Thanks to all the people who supported me through their prayers and good wishes. May our good God lead us from darkness to light.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Aitareya Upaniad Bhadrayaka Upaniad Chndogya Upaniad Mkya Upaniad gveda

A.U B.U C.U M. U R.V

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... i LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................... ii GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 0.1 Significance of the Dissertation ............................................................................................ 2 0.2 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 2 0.3 Preliminary Understanding of Consciousness .................................................................... 3 0.3.1 Consciousness: Its Etymology .......................................................................................... 5 0.3.2 Consciousness: Its Multi-disciplinarity ........................................................................... 7 0.3.3 Consciousness in Philosophy ............................................................................................. 7 0.4 Consciousness in Indian Philosophy .................................................................................... 9 0.4.1 Consciousness in Heterodox Systems ............................................................................. 10 0.4.1.1 Consciousness in Crvka ............................................................................................ 11 0.4.1.2 Consciousness in Buddhism ......................................................................................... 12 0.4.1.3 Consciousness in Jainism.............................................................................................. 14 0.4.2 Consciousness in Orthodox Systems............................................................................... 16 0.4.2.1 Consciousness in Nyya-Vaieika............................................................................... 16 0.4.2.2 Consciousness in Snkhya-Yoga .................................................................................. 17 0.4.2.3 Consciousness in Mms and Vednta ................................................................... 18 0.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 20 Chapter One .............................................................................................................................. 22 1.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22 1.1 Concept of Consciousness in Pre-Upaniadic Literature ................................................ 23 1.1.1 Consciousness in the gveda Sahit............................................................................ 24 1.1.1.1 Principle of ta.............................................................................................................. 25 1.1.1.2 Quest for the Ultimate Reality ..................................................................................... 26 1.1.2 Consciousness in Other Three Sahits ........................................................................ 27 1.1.3 Consciousnesses the Brhmaas ..................................................................................... 28 1.1.4 Consciousness in the rayakas ..................................................................................... 30 1.2 Upaniads: An Appraisal.................................................................................................... 32 1.2.1 Background of the Upaniads ......................................................................................... 33 1.2.2 The Four Upaniads for Research .................................................................................. 34 1.2.2.1 The Bhadrayaka Upaniads ................................................................................... 34 1.2.2.2 The Chndogya Upaniads ........................................................................................... 35 1.2.2.3 The Aitareya Upaniads ............................................................................................... 35 1.2.2.4 The Mukya Upaniads............................................................................................ 36 1.3 Basic Teachings in the Upaniads ...................................................................................... 36 iii

1.3.1 Brahman ........................................................................................................................... 37 1.3.2 tman ................................................................................................................................ 39 1.3.3 Brahman-tman .............................................................................................................. 41 1.4 Upaniadic Vocabulary on Consciousness ........................................................................ 43 1.4.1 Jna, Vijna and Prajna ......................................................................................... 44 1.4.2 Cit ...................................................................................................................................... 45 1.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 46 Chapter Two .............................................................................................................................. 48 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 48 2.1 States of Consciousness ....................................................................................................... 48 2.2 Vaiva Waking Consciousness ........................................................................................ 49 2.2.1 Perceptual Consciousness ................................................................................................ 50 2.2.2 Plurality of Experience .................................................................................................... 51 2.3 Taijasa - Dream Consciousness.......................................................................................... 51 2.3.1 Contents of Dream Consciousness .................................................................................. 52 2.3.2 Illusionary Nature of Dreams ......................................................................................... 53 2.4 Prja Deepsleep Consciousness .................................................................................... 53 2.4.1 Consciousness Beyond Subject-Object Distinctions...................................................... 54 2.4.2 Transitory Experience of Oneness .................................................................................. 55 2.5 Turya - Transcendental Consciousness............................................................................ 56 2.5.1 The Inconceivable Experience ........................................................................................ 57 2.5.2 Oneness with Brahman .................................................................................................... 57 2.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 58 Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................... 60 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 60 3.1 Unitary Perspective of Consciousness ............................................................................... 61 3.1.1 Exposition of Mahvkyas .............................................................................................. 63 3.1.1.1. Prajnam brahma Consciousness is Brahman .................................................. 64 3.1.1.2 Ayam tm brahma This Atman is Brahman....................................................... 65 3.1.1.3 Tat tvam asi Thou art That .................................................................................... 65 3.1.1.4 Aham brahmsmi I am Brahman .......................................................................... 66 3.2 Epistemological Nature of Consciousness ......................................................................... 67 3.2.1 Self-luminosity of Consciousness .................................................................................... 67 3.2.2 Mind and Consciousness.................................................................................................. 69 3.3 Ontological Perspective of Consciousness ......................................................................... 70 3.3.1 Consciousness as the Ultimate Reality ........................................................................... 70 3.3.2 Consciousness as Existence.............................................................................................. 71 3.4 Consciousness as Epistemologized Ontology .................................................................... 73 3.4.1 Uncaused Consciousness.................................................................................................. 74

iv

3.4.2 Pure Consciousness .......................................................................................................... 75 3.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 76 Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................. 77 4.1 Positive contribution of the Upaniads .............................................................................. 79 4.2 Recent Trends in consciousness studies ............................................................................ 80 4.3 Final Comment .................................................................................................................... 81 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 83

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Koham?...Aham Brahamsmi 1 Who am I?... I am Brahman.

The Upaniads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian Philosophy.2 Philosophy is in essence an exploration of human consciousness. tm v are draavya in Sanskrit means see thy Self. Indian Philosophy emphases on di (seeing) and therefore, a seeker of truth is known as a seer. Moreover, Indian Philosophy is called draana meaning vision, seeking the realization of the Truth.3 The Greek Philosophical dictum gnothi seauton means know thyself. Whether it is seeing or knowing both are directed to the fundament question WHO AM I? The present thesis starts with this question asked in the Upaniads koham. It endeavours to find an answer to who am I? according to the Upaniads. Every thought, act, feeling, willing, intention, awareness, all mental and physical activities, contemplation and action, everything is in the realm of our consciousness. The aim of this work is to search for the understanding of consciousness in the Upaniadic philosophy.

The noble and reflective Upaniadic literature unravels the depth of human beings search for the divine based on the revealed the Vedic hymnology of contemplative meditation and intuitive mysticism. It is the journey of the self to realise itself in the Universal Self tman realizing itself as the Brahman. It searches to understand consciousness as the ultimate reality.

1 2

B.U. I.4.10 R. D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy: Being An Introduction to the Thought of the Upanishads (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1968), viii. 3 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2009), 13.

The Upaniads is a vast literature. There is a need to delimit the research to particular Upaniads which deal comprehensively with the theme of the research. Therefore, four Upaniads namely Bhadrayaka, Aitareya, Chndogya and Mkya Upaniads are shortlisted for the study of consciousness in Upaniadic philosophy. It is a generic and not a specific study on consciousness in the four Upaniads and not on particular Upaniad.

0.1 Significance of the Dissertation Consciousness studies today are not limited to metaphysical inquiries and psychological experiments. It has made heightened progress in science and technology. In the recent discussions on artificial intelligence, scientists and computer technicians are exclusively into concentrated investigation on consciousness. It is an exciting topic in the western scholarly circles regardless of the different specializations.

In this research, the researcher delves into the Upaniadic understanding of the consciousness. It investigates whether the ultimate reality is matter or consciousness. The Indian sages out of their contemplation intuitively stated what today scientists tell what they see under sophisticated microscopes and hitech computer controlled experiments. Therefore, the research has significance in understanding better the Upaniadic concept of consciousness to compare and contrast and appreciate the wisdom of old.

0.2 Methodology The purpose of this thesis is to ask the question who am I? through the Upaniadic texts to know the Upaniadic concept of consciousness. The research endeavours to analyse different conceptions of consciousness in both western and Indian philosophies. It progresses to seek the seeds of concept of consciousness in pre-upaniadic literature. The concept of consciousness in Upaniads is considered and systematically analysed. Later the concept is studied under the new light of epistemology and ontology. Since the researcher is a
2

novice in Sanskrit language English translations and transliterations are used to study the Upaniadic text. They are taken from, The Principal Upaniads by S. Radhakrishnan. Transliterated Sanskrit words are used to facilitate the thought and to apprehend the concept in Indian Philosophical perspective. Knowing is being is the goal of the research. It seeks to understand consciousness in two basic perspectives epistemological and ontological which are clearly articulated at the end of the research. Since the work is generic in nature many common terms in Indian philosophy are not defined. The research envisions unfold the concept of consciousness in the Upaniadic as epistemologized ontology or knowing is being. 0.3 Preliminary Understanding of Consciousness Consciousness is the core of human existence and experience. It is a mutlidisciplinary subject and is studied in multiple directions. No field of study can ignore its importance because of its subjective analysis. In science it is under the radar of neurological research, in technology it is experimented and computed for Artificial Intelligence. In psychology it is brain-behaviour module and in arts it is the creative- expression. Its role in philosophy is exhaustive. It is the crux of philosophical discussion over the ages. Consciousness rules philosophical discussions from the subject-object dichotomy in epistemology to logic probing and from scepticism to ontological realities and metaphysical Ultimate truth. In daily experience of the common human life4 consciousness is an obvious reality which s/he is unconsciousness about. The ecstasy of a new born babe and mystery of death makes her/him to marvel at the reality of consciousness. It rather makes him/her conscious of being consciousness. Yet, questioned about the same s/he would reply that consciousness is nothing significant than been

The discussion on common human experience of consciousness is the researchers observations on consciousness in daily living. They are gathered interviewing people randomly.

aware of something - and its true. Consciousness is basically awareness of something.

As you read these lines, are you not conscious of the printed words and the paper. Yes! Indeed. At least now while reading these words your attention or your awareness is focused towards it. Thus, it signifies the obvious act of consciousness as awareness of something. Philosophically, spelled out as awareness of perception or awareness of object. Objects meaning entities as miscellaneous as a person, a place, a melody, a headache, a state of joy and even inclusive of images or mental patterns experienced through sense perception like sound, light, touch, the image of a state of well-being. This is the first-hand common experience of consciousness as awareness of something. Questioning with a little more intensity the same question, what are you conscious of? Here, qualifying the you in the question makes a remarkable shift in the answer in common human experience. Immediately, the awareness is raised to the next level focusing the attention on the self than the object. It is the awareness of I knowing something. This is another common experience of consciousness in our day-to-day living. Philosophically articulated as awareness of the self or subject. The first experience of consciousness is awareness of something (object) and the second is that I (subject) am aware of something. It is my-awareness. Hence the subject dimension is strongly revealed.

To lead the discussion further on common experience of human on consciousness, it is noticed that, consciousness is awareness itself. Here the process of awareness is in focus. The awareness is not of that-ness or the object nor of I-ness it is of is-ness. The first awareness of consciousness is the awareness of the object. The second awareness of consciousness is the awareness of the subject. The third in discussion now is the awareness of consciousness is the awareness itself or the process of awareness. The common
4

human experience points to the epistemological trinity - the known, knower, and the knowledge.5

Moreover, it is acknowledged from common experience that s/he considers that the mind in is responsible for such awareness. The locality of consciousness is the mind. To question him/her where does the mind reside? The brain is the quick answer. The above was the common human experience views from where we begin to explore and discover the truth about consciousness especially in the Upaniadic philosophy. They are not the whole truth but pointers for further research.

Consciousness as we commonly think of it, from its basic to its most complex levels is the unified pattern that brings together the object, the self and consciousness itself. 6 Thus, the Preliminary understanding gives an overview of consciousness progressing from simple to complex: from common human experience to its etymological dissections and from scientific experimentations to metaphysical and speculative certainties. 0.3.1 Consciousness: Its Etymology The concept of consciousness is loaded with meaning. It is multifaceted. Grammatically, the word consciousness is a noun. It is not an abstract noun as generally, in the case in English with suffix ness. Consciousness as a noun does not perform the function of an abstract universal. It is a concrete particular. Here, it means that it does not refer to what is common to all conscious state but to consciousness itself.7 Thus, consciousness is a particular term and not a generic

Santokh Singh, Consciousness as Ultimate Principle (New Delhi: Munssiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1985), 2. 6 Antonio Damasio, The Feelings of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the making of consciousness (London: A Harvest Book, 1999), 11. 7 J.N. Mohanty, Lectures on Consciousness and Interpretation (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009), 43.

term. Moreover, it is an uncountable noun.8 Uncountable nouns are usually substances and concepts that cannot be divided into elements. They cannot be counted and are treated as singular. Grammatical investigation brings out the particular and unitary nature of consciousness. Etymologically of the word consciousness is close to the word conscious. It is derived from the Latin word conscius. It denotes knowing something or being aware of something. The Latin word conscientia which is connected to the Roman Law and the idea of inner voice or moral sense is also related to consciousness. From both these Latin terms conscius and conscientia are derived from the root word conscire. Meticulous division of the root word reveals the basic meaning of the word consciousness: Con meaning with and scire meaning to know. Thus, Consciousness is internal knowledge or conviction especially of owns own inner or mental states. 9

The above etymological examination states that consciousness is the state of having the mental faculties awake and active. It is also the state or fact of being mentally aware of totality of the thoughts, feelings, impressions, etc., of a person or group or such a body of thoughts relating to a particular sphere. The word consciousness is also used for collective awareness of a group or place. 10 Thus the word consciousness is an umbrella term that covers a wide variety of mental phenomena. It is used with a diversity of meanings. It is heterogeneous in its range, being applied to particular mental states to consciousness as the ultimate reality.

A.S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, 8th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 319. 9 Lesley Brown, Ed., The New Shorter oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 483. 10 J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner Eds., The Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. 3, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 756-7.

0.3.2 Consciousness: Its Multi-disciplinarity Consciousness is comprehensively studied under the investigative scanner of different disciplines. It is noteworthy to look at the diverse perspectives consciousness presented by them. Religion considers it from the teleological standpoint. Ethically, it is interpreted as conscience, the moral sense of inward judgement of right and wrong. It is also seen from the historically perspective. Historical consciousness is collective experience of the language, culture, music, traditions, economy, political and social structures as integrated historical experiences of human endeavour. Group consciousness is yet another sociological concern related to collective consciousness of a particular group or race.

Psychology, presents it as a process of different mental acts primarily in the conscious, unconscious and subconscious states of mind. Neuroscience studies research consciousness as the network of neurons and as the functions of neurotransmitters in the brain. Cognitive sciences delimit it as function of the brain. They are called functionalist, reductionalist and structuralist theorists who deny the freedom of the will and spontaneity of consciousness. They reduce consciousness to a function and try to define consciousness in neurological structure of stimuliresponse pattern.11 Quantum Physics indications leap from physics to metaphysics in its examinations of consciousness, leading science to philosophical arena. Philosophy itself has a whole galaxy of perspectives on consciousness. This initiates to apprehend a compact overview of the western philosophy perspective of consciousness.

0.3.3 Consciousness in Philosophy Western philosophy from its modern and contemporary era shows four basic perspectives on the concept of consciousness. They are the empiricist, the

11

Sangeetha Menon, The Beyond Experience: Consciousness in Bhagavad Gita (New Delhi: Bluejay Books, 2007), 2-4.

rationalistic, the phenomenological and the existential perspective.12 Empiricists like John Locke and David Hume considered consciousness as a mosaic of sensory data. While rationalists like Rene Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz, Immanuel Kant gave a rationalistic perspective of consciousness as the activity of the mind. Phenomenologist like Edmund Husserl focusing on the intentionality of consciousness stretched it to a new parameter. Intentionality is the capacity of consciousness to represent, or to stand for, things, properties and states of affairs.13 They conceive consciousness as the constituent essence of being. The existentialists like Juan Paul Sartre, state that consciousness as the foundation of existence and the existence of consciousness is revealed from consciousness itself. Phenomenological and existential approach to consciousness is usually clubbed together as identity theories.14 They state that the very intentional nature of consciousness provides it with an individual character and the presence to itself of consciousness.

Analyzing the metaphysics of Western philosophy we find three major trends namely, materialism, dualism and idealism. For materialistic metaphysics only matter, matters. It is the philosophy that all is matter and all is governed by physical law. They consider consciousness as the epiphenomenon and an emergent of matter. For the dualistic metaphysics both matter and consciousness (mind) are primary, separate and independent substances. Human beings are composed of both substances. Mind is a conscious, thinking entity, i.e., it understands, wills, senses, and imagines and body is an object which exists in physical space. For the idealists, consciousness is all and all is consciousness. Consciousness is fundamental and primary entity. Everything, including all matter and every mind, exists within Consciousness.15 There have been moves to
12 13

Louis P. Pojman, Classics of Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 7. Charles Siewert, "Consciousness and Intentionality", in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2008 ed. Edward N. Zalta, Ed. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/consciousnessintentionality/ accessed on 13th February 2011. 14 Sangeetha Menon, The Beyond Experience, 6. 15 Stanley Sobottka, A Course in Consciousness, http://faculty.virginia.edu/consciousness/ accessed on 16th February 2011.

amalgamate the above metaphysical theories. The recent trends tend towards a leaning on scientific confirmations of consciousness.

Western Philosophers today with new vigour, in their philosophical discussions strive to comprehend the mystery of consciousness. Recent philosophical discussions by philosophers like Daniel Dennett and David J. Chalmers are highly corroborated with scientific research. Yet, consciousness remains a puzzle for the philosophers to explain and to be understood. Fritjof Capra remarks ...consciousness is not that can be derived from or explained in terms of something else. It is a primal fact of existence out of which everything else arises.16 Thus, it demands an open-minded, holistic outlook for the study of consciousness.

0.4 Consciousness in Indian Philosophy A remarkable difference between Western Philosophy and Indian Philosophy is in their approach. Philosophy in the west is an intellectual quest for truth. In India it is a spiritual quest seeking practical realization of truth. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states Philosophy in Indian is essentially spiritual.17 He further illustrates that spiritual motive dominates Indian thought. The core interest of Indian philosophy is the tman or self of human being. Therefore, tmnam viddhi or know the self becomes the centre of everything.18 Moreover, the above dictum is corroborated with another similar maxim which describes the direction of Indian Philosophy. It is tm v are draavya meaning see the Self. The word used for Indian Philosophy darana meaning vision is derived from the above adage. It presents a dynamics different from the West. It seeks immediate and intuitive vision of reality not denying the rational and perceptual faculties in the realisation of Truth.19 Indian Philosophy as darana seeks a

16 17

Fritjof Capra, Uncommon Wisdom (London: Century Hutchinsons, Ltd., 1988), 150. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1962), 24. 18 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 28. 19 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2009), 13.

synthetic vision of reality that comprehends several sciences in unison which in the west are branched into several departments or faculties. One of the reasons may be that the source book of Indian philosophy is the Vedas. From there on the journey begins. The Upaniads give new impetus. Later, philosophers either accept or deny the unified path unfolded in them.

Based on the acceptance and the refusal of the Vedas, the systems of Indian philosophy are mainly divided into two groups, namely the Nstika system and the stika system. Those systems who do not accept validity of the Vedas are called Nstikas or the heterodox system of thought. They include the Crvkas or the materialist, the Buddhist and the Jainas, who deny the validity of the Vedas. Those who accept the validity of the Vedas are called stikas or the Orthodox systems. They accept the validity of the Vedas. They are grouped as NyyaVaieika, Skhya-Yoga, Prva Mms and Vednta.20 The metaphysical understanding of consciousness in Indian philosophy highly depends on the above divisions. Each school gives its own interpretation to reality of the self and the world from its perspective. The concept of consciousness is in discussion in the schools, since the self or the tman is the centre of every discussion. The following subtopics substantiate what is stated in general above.

0.4.1 Consciousness in Heterodox Systems Nstikas or the heterodox systems are those systems of Indian Philosophy (Crvkas, Buddhism and Jainism) which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own systems validity on their authority. All three schools are hold three different view on the metaphysical concept of consciousness. The Crvkas have materialist notion of consciousness, the Buddhist consciousness is based on causality and the Jainas consider consciousness as the essential quality of the soul.

20

Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2010), 67-68.

10

0.4.1.1 Consciousness in Crvka Crvka is the materialistic school of Indian philosophy. They hold the primacy of matter. Their view of metaphysics is validated in their epistemology. For them perception is the only source of valid knowledge. They assert that there are four basic elements: earth, water, fire and air. Out of these four elements everything is produced. They discard space or ether because it is inferred and cannot be perceived. Hence, whatever is material and perceived is real and it exists.21 Consciousness, their opinion is an emergent product of matter.

Madhavchrya in Sarva-darana-sagraha contributes on the Indian materialist view. He explains that consciousness is a by product of matter. It is produced in the same way as the red colour is produced from the combination of betel, areca and nut and lime. He explains further that out of four elements consciousness is produced just like inebriating power developed from mixing of certain ingredients like kiwa which is a seed used to produce fermentation in the manufacturing of spirits from sugar.22 Thus, the Crvka affirm that by the total and unique combination of the four elements consciousness arises.

Consciousness manifests itself in the living body. They say that matter secretes mind as liver secretes bile. Therefore, the so called soul is the simply the living body.23 Ananta kumar Bhattacharya explains it further in Crvka darana. Crvka say that self which is consciousness is present in a body. Thus, the self or soul is identified with the body. Anything distinct from the body cannot be called the self. The awareness involving I for the Crvkas is the self.24

21 22

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 279. E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough Trs., Sarva-Darana-Sagraha of Mdhavcrya: Sanskrit Text, English Translation, Notes and Appendix, K.L. Joshi Ed., 3rd ed. (Delhi: Parimal Publications, 1997), 4-5. 23 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 44. 24 Anantakumar Bhattacharyya, Carvaka Darsana in Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya ed. (New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1997), 452-454.

11

Chndogya Upaniad hints of Crvka thought when Prajpati explains to Virocana and Indra that the true self is what is perceived.25

Crvkas consider consciousness to be an epiphenomenon that subsists with the body. It disappears when the body disintegrates. The death of physical body is the death of the Self. Thus, Consciousness is produced only when there is a body. The materialists donot demonstrate the existence of consciousness nor its non-existence. They have been vehemently criticised by other darsanas. Reducing consciousness to a mere emergent material product they live on hedonist ethics. Their liberation lies in enjoying all luxuries of the world and death is Moka, the cessation of consciousness.26

0.4.1.2 Consciousness in Buddhism Buddhism is segmented into various philosophical schools and has enormous volumes of literature. The basic teachings of Buddha are summed up in the four noble truths (his philosophy)27 and the noble eightfold path (his ethics). The second noble truth is the foundation of all teaching of Buddha. It contains the doctrine of dependent origination (prattyasamutpda). Its causal formula is: This being that arises. (asmin sati, ida bhavati) meaning the cause being present, the effect arises. Thus, confirming the every object of thought is necessarily relative and because it is relative it is neither absolutely real nor absolutely unreal. Applying this to same to the individual self is proposes that the individual self is momentary and therefore relative and false.28 The concept of consciousness is Buddhism is intrinsically based on the basic theory of no-self (nairtmyavda or antmavda).

25 26

C. U. VII. 8.1-5 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 45. 27 The four noble truths (rya satya) are: There is suffering (dukha), there is a cause of suffering (dukha-samudaya), there is cessation for suffering (dukha-nirodha) and there is a way leading to suffering (dukha-nirodha-gmin pratipat). Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 71-72. 28 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 74-75.

12

The non-existence of the individual self and the momentary nature of consciousness are unanimously accepted by all school of Buddhism. Both these are based on the principle theory of dependent origination. Buddha speaks of consciousness as an influx conditioned by a causal pattern. Consciousness is the causal condition from which name and form is produced in the Discourse to Ktyyana. He states: On ignorance depends karma; on karma depends consciousness; on consciousness depends name and form; on name and form depends the six organ of sense...29 Moreover, name and form again is the support on which consciousness is based and consciousness and name and form are causes of each other. Thus, he rejected consciousness as a permanent entity. Consciousness or (vijna) as it is articulated in the Buddhist literature is considered as contingent phenomena. Vijna is simply an awareness of the present of an object. One cannot experience consciousness directly as an object. For as soon as one focuses on the consciousness, it ceases to be the subject and it become the object. Therefore, unlike Hinduism it does not abide in a soul or self and is not spirit opposed to matter. Consciousness, says the Buddha, arises depending on certain conditions, and ceases hen the conditions cease to be.30

The Theravda and Vaibhika schools speak of consciousness in the context of five categories or skandhas namely rpa (material), vedan (feelings), saj (perception), Saskras (impression) and vijna (consciousness). These five categories were later divided into twelve dhammas (mental presentation). There are differences of opinions among different schools of Buddhism. All agree on the concept of consciousness that it is a series of successive states or chain of conscious moments and the apparent identity of an individual is an illusion due to the continuity of consciousness.31 Thus, Buddhism holds for streams of

consciousness or momentary consciousness.

29 30

Henry Clark Warren, Buddhism in Translations (New York: Atheneum, 1963), 166. Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), 70. 31 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 401.

13

Yogcr,

the

idealist

school

of

Buddhism

accepts

the

momentary

consciousness. They consider everything as consciousness and that it alone as real. This is not in the sense of permanent essence but as fleeting cognition. They consider the objects and the consciousness are perceived simultaneously. Therefore, an object and its consciousness is one and the same. Thus, the ultimate reality is idea or transitory consciousnesses.32 nyavdins replace the transient nature of consciousness by nya (void). The external and the internal objects are both void, nya. They address reality and consciousness neither in affirmation nor in negation nor both nor neither. The concept of nya means we cannot say anything about the ultimate reality. 33 Thus, the concept of liberation or nirva is cessation of all - the real and the ideal, the external and internal objects. Nirva is the goal of Buddhism. It means blown oneself out of existences by annihilating all desires and passions. Positively it is identified with bliss.34

0.4.1.3 Consciousness in Jainism Consciousness is the substratum of the self for the Jainas. Upayoga or consciousness is the defining character of the soul and called. It is foundation of the faculty of cognition.35 Soul cannot exist without consciousness and consciousness abides only in the self. Thus, it is the basis of its functions of the self. The conscious principle in Jainism is called jva. It is the doer of action and the enjoyer of fruits of action and s characterised by formlessness and consciousness.36 The unconscious principle is called ajva. The conscious principle jva and the unconscious principle ajva play an important role in the understanding of consciousness in Jainism which is invariably linked to the concept of liberation.
32 33

Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 72-73. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 662-663. 34 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 81. 35 John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English (Varanasi: Indica Books, 2009), 391. 36 Anantakumar Bhattacharyya, Carvaka Darsana in Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies, 67.

14

According to the Jainas, consciousness and matter are to distinct principles. Jvas essentially are of Kevalajna or omniscient knowledge or consciousness. It is the highest kind of consciousness or perfect consciousness which is essence of the soul. It manifests itself in different degrees on different kind of beings. On account of the influence and merging with unconscious matter the effect the consciousness is suppressed. This is considered as bondage. Thus,

consciousness which is of the essence of the soul is hidden due to matter. Bondage is the modification of consciousness consisting of attachment due to karmic particles. When the impediments are removed the soul returns to the all comprehensive knowledge or consciousness. In it there are no unreal distinctions of the empirical world. The distinctions are worldly. Soul is of the nature of consciousness.37

The Jaina thinkers speak of fourteen stage of the self through which it has to pass to experience the purity of consciousness. These stages are called guasthnas. It is a pilgrims path and progress which ultimately leads to the liberation of the soul. The initial two stages, individual consciousness is devoid of any idea of

goodness and truth. The individuals conscious effort makes him get over conflicting conditions in the next two stages. Later in the four stages, the individual cultivates mental control. After psychical force the individual control over his passions in the next four stages. In the thirteenth stage marks the attainment of Kevalajna which is purified in the last stage in right faith,
right knowledge and right conduct. This stage is called ayogi-kevali-gusthna.38 Here, the self attain total liberation transcending all limitations and enjoying pure consciousness. Jainas concept of consciousness finds its completion the attainment of infinite consciousness. It is more a spiritual journey than a metaphysical or an epistemological search.

37 38

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 307-308. Sancheti Asoo Lal and Bhandari Manak Mal, Stages of Progress of the Soul due to Development of its qualities - The Fourteen Gunasthanas in http://www.jainworld.com/jainbooks/firstep-2/gunasthan.htm accessed on 13th February 2011.

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0.4.2 Consciousness in Orthodox Systems Buddhism presenting momentary nature of consciousness challenged the conventional philosophical thought. Positively, it gave a new impetus to review and deepen the mainstream thought.39 In this context, the orthodox schools reorganized their views on consciousness and other subjects. They made arduous efforts to justify by reason what faith implicitly accepts. There were many but six systems were more famous than others. They accept the authority of the Vedas. They are grouped as Nyya-Vaieika, Skhya-Yoga and Prva Mms Vednta. 0.4.2.1 Consciousness in Nyya-Vaieika Amidst the speculative schools of Indian philosophy Nyya-Vaieika represent realism. Through their combined epistemology and ontology they prove the real nature of matter. Nyya is known for its logical realism and Vaieika for its atomisitc pluralism. Nyya explores the mechanism of knowledge and Vaieika advocates certitude over the scepticism of reality. Because of their similar ideology, The two systems had been for long treated as parts of one whole. 40 Gautama explains sixteen topics of logic in his Nyyastra and Kada six categories of his metaphysics in Vaieikastra. Nyya-Vaieika opines that consciousness is product, dependent, transitory and accidental. Kada states that consciousness is produced in the same way as the quality of redness is produced in a jar through its connection with fire. The self exists without the consciousness. Consciousness inheres only in the self because it cannot belong to any material elements or the manas. It is adventitious nature that it inheres in the self just as sound inheres is ka.41 Just as sound is not essential to ka, it is not essential part to the self. Consciousness is not

39 40

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 17-18. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2 (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1962), 31. 41 S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness in Hindu Philosophy, 2nd ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass), 1971, 52.

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svatapraka or self-revealing only it manifest other objects. Thus, consciousness is not given an unique status in the Nyya-Vaieika philosophy.

Consciousness is the quality of the self and not of the body. The self is eternal and all-pervading. The self is the jt(knower) endowed with knowledge and controls the mind, sense organs and its functions. Only when the self is in association with the mind and the body consciousness emerges. Consciousness is not the quality of the mind because mind itself is controlled by the self. Mind is only an inter-mediating instrument of perception between the self and the sense organs. Thus, consciousness is an activity and is momentary and not self luminous.42 0.4.2.2 Consciousness in Snkhya-Yoga Skhya is the dualistic school of Indian philosophy. Tradition regards Kapila to be the founder of the dualistic school. Snkhya-pravacana-stra is attributed to him. Skhya philosophy is founded on two primordial, independent and eternal entities. They are consciousness (purua) and matter (prakti). Purua is pure consciousness and passive. Prakti is unconscious and active.

Purua is distinct from prakti. It is not composed of gunas while prakti is. Purua is only perceiver or witness. It is not a substance and never considered as an object. It is of the nature of consciousness. According to Snkhya, the individual is a composite of purua and prakti. Prakti consists of three constituents and called gunas.
43

The three gunas support, intermingle and

intimately connect with one another. Creation takes place when purua and prakti interact upsetting the equilibrium of the gunas.

42

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 146-149. The three constituent gunas are: sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva functions as manifestation, rajas functions as activity and tamas functions as restraint. Gunas are not perceived but inferred from their effects. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 262-263.
43

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Explaining the psychic-principles in an individual, Snkhya states that is the first buddhi or intellect is the first evolute. It mediates between purua and prakti and it functions as ahankra (self-sense) or the individuating principle.44 Ahankra due to because of its self-sense identifies itself as the consciousness. It is not pure consciousness. Only purua is pure consciousness. Thus, ignorance of the dual realities is considered as bondage. Liberation consists in discriminating knowledge of prakti as inert and purua as conscious.45 Thus, Snkhya hold purua nature does not change as pure consciousness. Patajali in his Yogastra systematised Yoga as a philosophy on the metaphysical foundation of Skhya. Unlike Kapila, Patajali believes in God who initiates the contact between purua (pure consciousness) and prakti (matter). Patajali describes consciousness as the witness of all the mental modifications. He introduces the concept of citta. Citta is buddhi which includes Ahankra and manas. It is unconscious and appears to be conscious being closest to purua. It assumes the form of the object. This form is called vtti or modification.46 Yoga is the cessation of the modification of citta47 through meditation and concentration. The goal of Yoga is that pure consciousness or purua is crystal clear as consciousness alone without citta and its vtti modification. Patajali give aangayoga as a means to attain that pure consciousness. 0.4.2.3 Consciousness in Mms and Vednta Mms means revered thought and it gives a philosophical justification for vedic ritualism. Mms and Vednta are clubbed together as both base themselves in the veda: Mms in the Mantra and Brhmaa (prva or earlier) and Vednta in rayakas and Upaniads (uttara or latter). Mms considers Veda as eternal and authorless. Mms-stra of Jaimini is the biggest and
44 45

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 267-268. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 281-282. 46 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 170. 47 In Sanskrit: yogaschittavttinirodha.

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earliest work. Shabarasvmin wrote a commentary on it which is explained by Prabhkara and Kumrila Bhaa who differ on many philosophical issues.48 Prabhkara considers consciousness as not the essence of self but as an accidental quality. Consciousness is only a mode which appears and disappears. Kumrila considers consciousness as nature of the self. It is of pure consciousness. Kumrila explains that consciousness can reveal neither itself nor the subject therefore it is not self-luminous. Prabhkara says knowledge is selfluminous. Both agree that all consciousness is necessarily self-consciousness.49 Mms in general believe that the self is the doer and enjoyer of action and consciousness resides in it. Consciousness cannot reside in the body or the senses. Moreover, the self is the transcendental knower and is the ultimate subject identical with eternal and primal consciousness. Vednta means the end of the Vedas. The end of the Veda is also ascribed as Upaniads. Upaniads is Vednta in so far they constitute the highest purpose of the Veda. Vednta is the system of thought which has its source and inspiration in the Upaniads. The first account of this thought is traditionally, is attributed to Bdaryaas Stra also called as Vedntastra and Brahmastra.50 Bdaryaa affirms monism. He accepts Brahman as eternal and the world as impermanent. The chief commentators of Brahmastra are ankara, Bhskara, Rmnuja, Madhva, Vallabha and Vijnabhiku. Brahmastra is written in esoteric and comprehensive manner it leaves to the interpretator just like the Upaniads to draw its meaning. Thus, Vednta is marked by different theological schools with different traditions because of the ambiguous character of the Stra. No one has written extensively and exclusively on the Brahmastra than ankarchrya. akara a par excellence creative thinker gave new direction and purpose for philosophy and theology in India.
48 49

He propounded the philosophy of non-

Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 211-212. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 412. 50 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 431.

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dualism or Advaita Vednta. According to his school the Ultimate Reality is Brahman or Atman which is Pure Consciousness. It a consciousness devoid of all attributes and categories.51 Self-luminosity is the defining character of consciousness. It is not intentional. It has no object. It is pure consciousness. Consciousness is not egological meaning, it is not the centre of the ego. Rather ego is the apparent object of consciousness. It is non temporal and eternal. Above all, consciousness and being are identical. For the Advaitins, Being is consciousness. In other words to be is to be consciousness.52

There are theories of consciousness other systems of Indian Philosophy. The different schools of Vednta accept the concept of consciousness in varied ways. Rmnuja in Viidvaita (identity-in-difference) rejects pure consciousness.53 Consciousness is he attribute of the self. Sri Aurobindo speaks of consciousness as a fundamental thing or force in existence which is creative. Kshmir aivism of Abhinavagupta state that consciousness is the one reality and matter is identical with it. Indian philosophers like K.C. Bhattacharyya, J N Mohanty, Bina Gupta and Sangeetha Menon have expounded exclusively on the notion of consciousness.

0.5 Conclusion Analysing several Western and Indian traditions, on the nature of consciousness we can reduce the whole discussion to two basic features: Intentionality and selfluminosity. One may generalise that western philosophy is pre-occupied with intentionality and Indian Philosophy with self-luminosity.54 Self-luminosity implies that by its very existence it is aware of itself. In other words, the subject because consciousness is self-luminous is aware of having consciousness. Intentionality refers or points to consciousness of being conscious of an object. They are many philosophical debates on the mentioned features of consciousness
51 52

William M. Indich, Consciousness in Advaita Vednta (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980), 12. Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 101-102. 53 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, 682. 54 Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 6.

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in both the traditions. The significance of the discussion is to appreciate the variety of thought and build a foundation to analyse the Upaniadic concept of consciousness. The Upaniadic understanding of consciousness is the goal of the research. The above analyses guide to the next level from overview of consciousness to detailed analysis of Upaniadic consciousness.

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Chapter One DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Pram ada, pram idam, prat pram udacyate prasya pram dya pram evvaiyate That is full, this is full. From fullness fullness proceeds. If we take away the fullness of fullness, even fullness then remains.55

1.0 Introduction The concept of consciousness is as old as the origin of human being. Human being in on a continuous search to understand his/her own consciousness. The Vedic sages epitomize consciousness in different ways at different periods. They began unfolding the truth of consciousness in the hymns and the myths. Later, they gave an expression to that consciousness through the prayers and rituals signifying a reality beyond them. Sacrifice did not satisfy the mind. The true seekers forced their mind to unravel that consciousness or reality beyond rituals in the recesses of the mind in the solitude of the forests. Reflecting earnestly on that- Reality beyond mind and experience progressed into intense philosophical deliberation. Disciplined deliberate thought culminated in an experience of that Reality beyond and in it is understanding of the concept of consciousness is found in the Upaniads.

The study of consciousness in the pre-Upaniadic literature extends beyond the two basic features of consciousness self-luminosity and intentionality. This chapter aims to enquire into the nature of consciousness as the Ultimate Reality. The Upaniadic seers consider consciousness as the Ultimate Reality beyond the world of experience and categories of mind.56 The constant search in the preUpaniadic literature is to find out the traces and development of this thought. The dialectic used is objective and subjective by Vedic seers. Both are complementary.57 The former endeavours to discover the essence of the outside55 56

B.U. V.1.1 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy, (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1968), 181. 57 S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 13.

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world and latter to discover the essence of ones inner-self. Thus, the subject matter of the pre-upaniadic search is the nature for consciousness though the problem is tackled from various perspectives. Understanding the pre-upaniadic thought sets the background to analyze the Upaniads and its philosophical notion of consciousness in better light.

1.1 Concept of Consciousness in Pre-Upaniadic Literature Vedas are the earliest written documents of human mind that we posses.58 The origin of Indian thought is traced in the Vedas. The foundational concepts on consciousness are found in the Vedas. Veda means knowledge.59 Vedas are Indias ancient legacy. They are the fount of philosophical lustre. This vast corpus of literature is divided into four parts: Sahits, Brhmaas, rayakas and Upaniads.60 They seem to be divided as per the progression of growth in human consciousness from hymns to rituals and from reflections to philosophy. The division in four show a clear transition from poetry to prose and from reflection to mysticism. The literature which preludes the Upaniads is considered as pre-upaniadic literature: Sahits, Brhmaas, rayakas. Through them we find the first traces and development of the concept of consciousness. Mantras are hymns addressed to gods and goddesses. The collection of Mantras is Sahits. The earliest treatment of the concept of consciousness in Indian Philosophy is to be found in this hymnology. 61 gveda Sahit is the oldest and the most important. The other three Sahits are: Smaveda Sahit, Yajurveda Sahit and Atharvaveda Sahit contain collective literature of systematic Vedic liturgy. The Sahit literature gives a prelude to the fundamental truth of existence namely consciousness.

58 59

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 63. Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2008), 532. 60 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 14. 61 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 64.

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Brhmaa are detailed prose on the systematic sacrificial Vedic rituals. They form the second part of the Vedas. The most important literature is in the Aitareya Brhmaa, the Taittirya Brhmaa and the atapatha Brhmaa. They emphasize on sacrifice, observance of caste and the supremacy of the priest. The significance of the Brhmaa literature personifies the sacrifices.62 The concept of consciousness can be traced in them. Sahits and Brhmaas are grouped as Karma-ka or the text dealing with sacrificial action. rayakas means writings from the forest. This literature gives a transition from ritualism to philosophical speculations. They are named rayakas, because they were related to the life of the forest dwellers. It is a literature and period between Brhmaa and the Upaniads, therefore, there is lot of overlapping. Aitareya rayaka and Taittirya rayaka present the concept of consciousness in the mental faculty of intelligence, feelings and resolution. Upaniads are intense philosophical and spiritual writings. They are regarded as the cream of Vedic philosophy. rayakas and Upaniads are grouped as Janka or the texts dealing with philosophy.63 The pre-upaniadic literature is analysed in detail to understand the nature of consciousness. 1.1.1 Consciousness in the gveda Sahit The concept of consciousness in the gveda Sahit is over a thousand years earlier to the Upaniads. R.D. Ranade observes that, ...gveda is a great hymnology to the personified forces of nature, and thus represents the earliest phase in the evolution of religious consciousness,...64 It is a colossal collection of 1,017 hymns divided into ten maala or circles. The first maala contains hymns to Agni, Indra and others. The tenth maala contains speculative hymns with abstract theorizing. 65 The difference from first maala with simple lyrical
62 63

Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 124. Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 14. 64 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 2. 65 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 67.

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hymns to speculative in the last maala indicates the maturing of the mind. Therefore, it is indispensible to study the concept of consciousness in the gveda Sahit.

The concept of consciousness is presented in its cosmogony. Various hymns portray in a subtle manner the search for the Ultimate reality. In the hymn gveda X.88, the seer inquires for the hyl or matter out of which the heavens and the earth were built and upon what the Creator stood when he held the worlds. In the hymns X.5 and X.27 question about the conceptions of Being and Not-being. In the famous hymn of creation X.129.6, the seer asks, Who verily knows and who can here declare it, whence it was born and whence comes this creation?66 Thus, it seeks for to know the ultimate reality. 67 From poetry it launches itself to philosophy. This makes it present a unitary principle of order or a law which governs nature. It is glorified as ta. It gives a prelude to the understanding of consciousness in the gveda. 1.1.1.1 Principle of ta ta is understood as the ordering principle of the world. Literally, ta means the course of things.68 In our search for the consciousness it unwraps the mind to understand the gveda thought. ta, almost in all occasions is used in singular. It is perceived by the poets as a unique and unnameable entity as something which must be qualified rather than identified and described.69 It is understood as cosmic immanent for which regulates all the specific functioning of the animate and inanimate nature.70 Even functioning of the human brain is attributed to ta.71 One of the basic functions of the brain is to know or to be conscious is ascribed to it. Thus, ta is the unitary principle of the inner and outer world.
66

R.V.I.129.6., Rig Veda, tr. by Ralph T.H. Griffith, (1896), at http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm R.V.I.129.6. Accessed on 15th February 2011. 67 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 2. 68 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol 1, 78. 69 A. Sandness, On t and Brhman: Visions of Existence in the g-Veda, Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol LXXXVIII, 2007, 66. 70 R.V.X.121.1 71 S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 16.

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ta is seen as eternal principle that underlies all existence.72 It is also the principle of sustenance life and cosmos and continuity depends upon ta.73 It is considered higher than gods. The prayer to the gods is for keeping the path of ta.74 Even Agni rests in ta75, Varua is ta-minded and Sma manifests it in the form of creative speech.76 Interestingly, it remains as a principle and is not give anthropomorphic and status of god. The great importance given to ta in the Vedas is manifested as eternal.77 ta is put in par with the concept of Brahman in the Upaniads.78 Finally, the clear cut evidence of ta as truth-consciousness is in the hymn to Agni, R.V. I.145.5 tacid dhi satya.79 Thus, the unifying principle is certainly a definitive which points to consciousness. If we accept ta is the principle of universal dynamics then ta as consciousness is the principle alluding to the Ultimate Reality.80

1.1.1.2 Quest for the Ultimate Reality Besides the concept of ta there are many other elaborative allusions and indicatives in the gveda presenting the evolution of the concept of consciousness as the Ultimate Reality81. The search for the Beyond is evident from the first maala to the last. The earliest inquiry is seen in the seer questions, who has seen that the boneless bear then bony when being born first? Where may be the breath, the blood, the soul of the earth? 82 The enquiry persists as the poet wonders by what power he moves? Who has seen (him) That?83 These are metaphysical and epistemological questions the seers ask seeking for
72 73

R.V.IX.110.46. A. Sandness, On t and Brhman, 66-67. 74 R.V.X.133.6. 75 R.V.III.1.11. 76 R.V.IX.75.2. 77 R.V.IV.23.8. 78 A. Sandness, On t and Brhman, 77. 79 R.V. I.145.5. (Agni the Wise, for he knows Law, the Truthful). 80 Satya Prakash Singh, Vedic Vision of Consciousness and Reality, Vol. 12, Part 3, History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, (New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations, 2004), 35. 81 Ultimate Reality refers to the Absolute or the fundamental Reality out of which all other reality is made of. In Upaniads it means Brahman. M. U I.2 (sarva hy etad brahma, ayam tma brahma All this is verily, Brahman. This self is Brahman.) 82 R.V.I.164.4 83 R.V.IV.3.5

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the Beyond reality. They make a clear distinction between what is manifest and unmanifest. The questioning magnifies in the speculative hymns. They question who is that Being? To who, shall we offer sacrifice?84 It deepens in the hymn of creation where the Beyond or the Ultimate Reality is declared as Being and non-being at the same time and the cognisant activity of the creator himself questioned.85 The above enquiries indicate a true and profound search.

Another endeavour to seeking the Ultimate Reality is to found in the relations between the material world and the psychosomatic person is explained in the Vedic term vk referring to speech. In explaining it states that speech or vk is the primordial substratum from which existence originates and subsists. It states that from vk flows the Veda and on her vk stands the entire universe.86 Thus, vk claims to be beyond the creator. It directs to the understanding of consciousness as the Ultimate reality. Consequently, the search leads the seer to sees reality as one: eka sad vipr bahudh vadanti87 Stating that the truth is one and the wise articulate in many ways. The g Vedic conception of consciousness is found in the concept of ta and in the constant quest that there is a Reality Beyond.

1.1.2 Consciousness in Other Three Sahits Yajurveda Sahit, Smaveda Sahit and Atharvaveda Sahits are considered largely as liturgical collection. They are considered to be the manuals for smooth performance of the rituals. Each is Sahit are ascribed to the different priest involved in the sacrifice. Yaju means prose passage. The Yajurveda Sahit is attributed to Adhvaryu, who performs the sacrifice. The performance of sacrifice is in the strictest ritualistic code which also involves giving offering to gods. Sma means melody or song. Sma Veda Sahit is
84 85

R.V.X.121.1 R.V.X.129.1, also R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 2. 86 R.V.I.164.32, Satya Prakash Singh, Vedic Vision of Consciousness and Reality, 41. 87 R.V.1.164.46, H. S. Ananthanarayana and W. P. Lehman (compiled), Rig Veda in Sanskrit, at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv01164.htm, accessed on 13th February 2011. All gveda transliterations are taken from this source.

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said to be composed for the Udgt who sings the hymns in sweet musical tones to entertain and please gods. The Atharvaveda is composed for Brahm who supervizes the sacrifice. gveda is for the Hot who addresses the hymns to invoke their presence.88 Collectively they are hymns they contain the mind and the thought which sought to seek the reality beyond them. The Yajurveda and Sma Veda basically deal with the formulae of the performance of sacrifice more than philosophy. The concept of consciousness is to be found in the reason of performing the sacrifice. Atharvaveda Sahit gives an idea of primitive thought filled with the world of ghosts, sorcerers, witches, diseases and longevity of life. It presents the idea of demonology prevalent among the superstitions tribes of India. The Atharvaveda is veritably a storehouse of the black art of the ancients.89 Therefore, is less predominant than the other three Sahits. Among the four Sahits, gveda takes the prime place. There are similarities with gveda hymns and the other three Sahits, but they point out limited allusion to the concept of consciousness. From the Sahits we move to search the concept of consciousness in the second part of the Vedas the Brhmaas.

1.1.3 Consciousnesses the Brhmaas Brhmaas is the age of ceremonialism and ritualism with the chief topic as sacrifice. Brhmaa literature is a mixture of myths, exegeses, doctrine, philological and philosophical conjectures to demonstrate the efficacy of the Mantras. The literature of the Brhmaas gives a new dimension to yaja (sacrifice) as powerful.90 They are a ritual textbook to guide priests through the complicated details of sacrificial rite. Due to the differences of interpretation in detail led to formation of several schools of the Brhmaa. Thus, this period is marked with formal religious fervour and doctrinal evolution. The poetic fire of the mantras was lost in the performance of the sacrifice and became superfluous
88 89

Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 14. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 78. 90 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 4.

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utterance. Cultic priesthood became a profession and Vedas a divine revelation preserved by the Brhmins.
91

Yet we find serious metaphysical discussion.

atapatha Brhmaa presents several cues on the concept of consciousness. The atapatha Brhmaa presents the concept of consciousness in different place. It presents the superiority of pra in the analysis of sleep. It states pra that which keeps the continuum of the person and therefore it is superior to all.92 It speaks of the concept of Brahman as the creative principle of the world.93 Stating so it gives a negative description of the first principle of which there is nothing earlier of after. It says This Brahman has nothing before it and nothing after it;94 and little further it states that it is the One Principle which is given various names by the poets.95 Here we find similarity with the concept of Brahman in the Upaniads the Ultimate Reality or the supreme consciousness. atapatha Brhmaa elaborates reflection on the subject or the self. It speaks about meditating upon the true Brahman and it is in meditating upon him that one is possessed of true understanding and this understanding makes one to pass from this world to the next.96 The idea presented is a prologue to the idea of tman and Brahman in the Upaniads. It clearly shows that the Upaniadic view has it traces and beginnings in the earlier literature. Another important note making notion in the development of the concept of consciousness is this verse, which implies that the sages conceived relation between the individual mind and the cosmic mind. atapatha Brhmaa states that one becomes what one meditates on.97 Here, the insight of the Vedic mind is brought forth to light which Upaniads discuss about knowing and being. The Brhmaas concepts

91 92

S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 124-130. atapatha Brhmaa X.5.2.15. 93 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 124, atapatha Brhmaa XI.2.3.1 and X.6.3. 94 atapatha Brhmaa X.3.5.11., also Julius Eggeling tr., atapatha Brahmana Part IV, Sacred Book of the East Vol. 43 (1897) at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe43/sbe4360.htm, accessed on 13th February 2011. atapatha Brhmaa X.3.5.11. 95 atapatha Brhmaa X.4.1.9. 96 atapatha Brhmaa X.6.3.1-2. 97 atapatha Brhmaa X.5.2.20.

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- Brahman, self, knowing and being are in seminal form to be understood in its fullness in the concept of consciousness in the Upaniads. 1.1.4 Consciousness in the rayakas rayakas are the further development of the Brhmaas. Araya means forest and rayakas mean forest treatises. It is the literature of those who withdrew from the ritualistic world to the forests. They engaged themselves in in meditation and contemplation on the nature of things. Their intellectual quest led to philosophical speculation on nature and gradually there was supersession of the ritualism. rayakas establish that meditation and self-knowledge as the highest goal of life.98 They paved way to crystallise the Vedic thought in the Upaniads and reviving the philosophical speculation of the Vedas. The concept of consciousness comes to light of self-realization. Aitareya rayaka contributes largely on the concept of consciousness which is magnified in the Aitareya Upaniad. Initially Aitareya rayaka presents the concept of ukth. It means from which thing arise and depart. Ukth is considered as the essence of the universe.99 Later it is replaced by the concept of tman. A great emphasis throughout is given to pra. It means the vital air that constitutes the life-breath of a living body and also the life-breath of all mantras, all Vedas and all Vedic declarations.100 Thus, pra considered as the central principle. In speaking of creation the rayaka speaks of a god over looking matter stirring into motion. He is responsible for the change in the world. Aitareya rayaka calls this god prajna (intelligence) or the eternally active self-conscious reason.101 There is a shift from pra, the vital air to prajna the self-conscious reason. The rayakas move a step ahead of the Brhmaas to call the Ultimate Reality as the self conscious reason. This leads us to the Upaniadic concept consciousness. The fullness of the concept of consciousness
98 99

Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1, 14. Aitareya rayaka II.1.2 100 Aitareya rayaka II.2.2 101 Aitareya rayaka I.3.3.6

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in the Aitareya rayaka is in the explanation of consciousness at different levels and only in human being consciousness is seen because he is most endowed with knowledge.102 This, understanding of consciousness is the closest to the notion of consciousness in the Upaniads. The Sahits, Brhmaas and the rayakas present a fundamental and inclusive principle expressed different in various names. They comprehend the Ultimate Reality which transcends all divisions describing it as one. The gveda calls it ekam sat.103 This idea of oneness is articulated in the concept of consciousness in the Upaniads. The multiplicity of the world is based on the one or Pure Consciousness. The pre-upaniadic literature is a witness to it. The colossal literature before the Upaniads is very vital in the philosophical analysis of consciousness. Pre-upaniadic concept of the Ultimate Reality is largely oriented towards objectivity. Upaniadic concept of consciousness

orients towards subjectivity. The pre-upaniadic concept tells that there is an Ultimate Reality or it is that. The questions of the Vedic speculative hymns are answered in the Upaniads.

The above analysis of the Vedic thought state that it seeks earnestly for the Beyond or the Ultimate Reality. Its endeavours are remarkable. It is unanimously agrees that there is an Ultimate reality but its real nature is not definitely ascertained. It leaves unexplained the exact nature of One Reality it presents in varied manner. The mere existence of that Ultimate reality does not satisfy the Upaniadic seers. They further ask the question what of that of existence.104 Upaniadic sages engage themselves in finding out what is the nature of the Ultimate Reality. The Upaniads take up the enquiry and develop in a rational and systematic manner that has been universally accepted. Their contribution is the presentation of a highly developed speculative philosophy. Thus, from Vedas to the Upaniads is a journey from prayer to philosophy, from hymnology to
102 103

Aitareya rayaka I.3.1-5. R.V.I.164.46 104 S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 22.

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reflection, from henotheistic polytheism to monotheistic mysticism.105 This takes to have a holistic appraisal of the Upaniads.

1.2 Upaniads: An Appraisal Just as Brhmaas give way to rayakas, rayakas imperceptibly guide to the Upaniads. There is a major shift of interests and direction from the karmakda to the jnakda literature. The objective quest of the Vedas expressed in sacrifice is distilled in subjective meditation of self-realization in the Upaniads.106 Consequently, because of this sublimating process of thought, Upaniads are ranked as the acme of philosophical speculations in India. Since this research is based on the Upaniadic thought on consciousness a survey of the Upaniads is beneficial. Upaniads contain the essence of the Vedic teaching.107 The authors of the Upaniads transform the legacy of the pre-upaniadic philosophy they handle. The themes of the Vedic sages are reviewed, renewed and reproduced by the Upaniads seers in a novel and congruent manner maintaining continuity and in their innovation. Upaniads are reference point for later philosophies and religions in India. The depth of thought is so rich that later philosophers largely try to accommodate their thought on the doctrine of the Upaniads. The beauty of Upaniads lies the variety of philosophy thought and contributions from various authors with different world view yet having a unity of purpose. This gives it an encyclopaedic character. It could be rightly called as an encyclopaedia of the self-realization for it aims at tm va are draavya.108 In this basic concept of seeing the self is the dynamics of consciousness the as the ultimate reality is brought to light.

105 106

R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 2. Jose Thachil, The Upaniads: A Socio-Religious Appraisal, (New Delhi: Intercultural Publications,1993), 11. 107 S. Radhakrishnan, The Philosophy of the Upaniads, (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1924), 14. 108 B.U. IV.5.6, It means the self is to be seen. Quotations from the Upaniads are taken from S. Radhakrishnan, Ed. and Tr. The Principal Upaniads (London: George Allen & Unwin Limited, 1953).

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The discussion of consciousness in the Upaniads arise in teaching the disciple on the real nature of the self or tman. tman is translated as self. In the western philosophical traditions self connotes to the subject with the referent I. tman is not referred I but self. I refers to the empirical self which is not equal with the concept of tman. Upaniads refer to tman or the self seeing or realizing its self as consciousness which is one and same with Pure Consciousness. To comprehend the above concept in totality the background and basic teaching and terms of the Upaniads are to be analysed.

1.2.1 Background of the Upaniads Upaniads as the cream of the Veda are called vednta meaning the end of veda because they are dated after the pre-upaniadic literature. They are considered as esoteric teachings. In Upaniadic era the secret character of instructions was a rule to pass on the doctrinal knowledge only to whom the teacher finds worthy. At the time of the deepest part of dispensing knowledge the teacher and the pupil go apart and talk of the new doctrine as the source of human destiny. 109 The etymological meaning of Upaniads necessarily accords with the essential nature of secrecy. Max Mller states that the word Upaniad is derived from the root sad, meaning to sit down. It is preceded by the two prepositions ni meaning down, and upa meaning near. It expresses the idea of the pupil sitting down near their teacher to listen to his instruction.110 The root sad also means to destroy and to loosen.111 It means the disciple sits near his teacher devotedly to receive instruction about the highest reality to loosen all doubts and destroy all ignorance. Thus, it is understood as mystical instruction or true knowledge regarding the Supreme Being.

109

B.U.III.2.13.(Yjavalkya takes his pupil aside and whispered to him the truth), also in Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and the Upanishads, Vol. 2.,(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976), 488. 110 Max Mller, Tr., The Upanishads, Part I, Dover Edition, Sacred Books of the East, at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe01/sbe01015.htm#fn_40. Accessed on 15th February 2011. 111 Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit English Dictionary, 580.

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The Upaniads are not based upon theological reasoning but on experience of spiritual quest in life. They embody the meditations of seers of old. They present to the world the one fundamental principle elucidated in two different ways; the realization of Atman as Brahman and the second in sync with the first, the Ultimate reality is not different from Brahman. In other words, the inner self and the great cosmic power are one and the same. The Upaniads do not contain spiritual experience of one great individual but a of great age of enlightenment with collective manifestation of the divine. Therefore, traditionally they are considered as Revealed Text.112

The Upaniads are more than 200 Upaniads. Traditionally only 108 are enlisted and out of them ten are considered as principle Upaniads.113 The Upaniadic literature is placed between 1200B.C and 600B.C based on the different tests to place the Upaniads chronologically. The language, style, grammar, and even inter-quotations were examined to settle with the chronological order of the Upaniads. 114 The ten principal Upaniads are Bhadrayaka, Chndogya, a, Kena, itareya, Taittirya, Kaha, Mudaka, Prana, and Mukya. This research focuses on four Upaniads namely Bihadrayaka, Chndogya, itareya and Mukya Upaniads as they elaborate comprehensively on the concept of consciousness.

1.2.2 The Four Upaniads for Research 1.2.2.1 The Bhadrayaka Upaniads A full analysis of the Upaniads is not possible therefore focusing on four Upaniads seems practical. A brief review provides fortifies the understanding of the concept of consciousness. The Bhadrayaka Upaniads is an important work of the Upaniads. It has its origin in the atapatha Brhmaa and

112 113

R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 6-7. Muktika Upaniad I.30-39 (a study of 108 Upaniads). Also in S. Radhakrishnan, The Principle Upaniads, 21 114 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 9-11.

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Yajurveda115. It has six chapters out of which second, third and fourth are of concentred with philosophical content. The Second chapter begins with the progressive definition of the Brahman between Grgya and Ajtaatru and moves to introduce Yjavalkya the greatest idealist philosopher of the Upaniads in a conversation with Maitreyi on the Absolute self here he gives the great saying tm va are draavya.116 He is the prominent figure in Chapter three and four discussing in the court of the king Janaka. The sayings of Yjavalkya contain serious content on consciousness as the Ultimate reality. The Upaniad contains the great prayer asato m sad gamaya...amta gamaya117 and the mahavakya aham brahmsmti.118 Fifth and the sixth chapter has miscellaneous topics ranging from ethics to eschatology. 1.2.2.2 The Chndogya Upaniads The Chndogya Upaniad belongs to the Samaveda. It is the longest Upaniad and has eight chapters. The dominant theme is meditations. The sixth to the eighth chapters are of philosophical importance. rueya is the outstanding personality of Chndogya Upaniad.119 He teaches vetaketu to establish an absolute equation between the individual spirit and the universal spirit without difference between the two in the words, tat tvam asi.120 That art thou. The eighth chapter contains important content on states of consciousness as Indra persists in its search for the true self guided by prajpati.

1.2.2.3 The Aitareya Upaniads Aitareya Upaniad is part of Aitareya rayaka and belongs to gveda. The Upaniad contains three chapters. The first is the description of creation by the primordial tman. In chapter three the fundamental doctrine of idealistic

115 116

S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 147. B.U. II.4.5 117 B.U. I.3.28 118 B.U. I.4.10 119 R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 14-15. 120 C.U. VI.8.7

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philosophy of psychical existence as consciousness is revealed.121 Here, The absolute is called pure consciousness prajnam brahma122 1.2.2.4 The Mukya Upaniads The Mukya Upaniad is the last and the shortest among the classical Upaniads. It belongs to the Atharva Veda. It contains only twelve verses. It presents the different states of consciousness. It proves that in the ultimate state one becomes the Ultimate Reality as consciousness.123 The Absolute mystic consciousness is captured in the great aphorism ayam tma brahma124 Thus, these four Upaniads articulate in different ways that the Ultimate Reality is consciousness.

The Upaniads as dynamic as they are use multiple methodologies in explaining different subjects from diverse perspectives. Every Upaniad starts and ends with an invocation of peace. Metaphors and analogies are extensively used to explain difficult concepts. They present parables and allegories which bring out the hidden meaning. Enquiries and dialogues are a common feature. Questioning is considered as a prerequisite for a good dialogue and inquiry. 125 Many concepts become clear as the metaphors, parables and analogies unfold their meaning. The concept of consciousness in many places is webbed in metaphors and analogies. Therefore, Upaniadic teachings are called a mysterious hidden in its method of presentation.

1.3 Basic Teachings in the Upaniads Upaniadic writings are the expressions of the innermost experiences of several is over span of centuries. They have no set theory of philosophy or a dogmatic schema. Their goal is the achievement of human destiny and they present truth of

121 122

S. Radhakrishnan, The Principle Upaniads, 513. A.U. III.1.3 123 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 693. 124 M.U. 1.2 125 Ram K. Piparaiya, Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas (New Delhi: New Age Books, 2003), 18-19.

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life. Hence, it is not easy to decide what Upaniads teach.126 Nevertheless, there is an underlying thought that there is only one reality and that reality is Pure Consciousness. The teaching in the Upaniads is characterised by questions or enquiries. The central question is - what is Real or the Ultimate Reality? The answer to this question begins in metaphysics and culminates in mysticism in the Upaniads.127 The seers of the Upaniads aim to reach the Ultimate Reality which is Infinite Existence (sat), Infinite Consciousness (cit) and Infinite Bliss (nanda). Thus, two basic concepts emerge - objective analysis result in the concept of Brahman and subjective analysis in tman and from these arise a synthesis of the tman-Brahman. The aim of the research is to seek the concept of consciousness in the Upaniads. Therefore, the explanation accordingly focuses on consciousness.

1.3.1 Brahman Brahman is the word used by the Upaniads to indicate Ultimate Reality. It is derived from the root word bh - to grow and to increase or burst forth.128 The derivations suggest gushing forth or continual growth. In the gveda it is used as an utterance of sacred knowledge or prayer, Viva-karman (creator), Prajpati and as Purua.129 The term Brahman had timely progressive implications. It was equated with prayer and with the power of prayer. Later in the Brhmaas it is denoted as the ritual and regarded omnipotent. Brahman is considered as the guiding principle of the universe.130 From here onwards the concept of Brahman is concentrated as the Real as God. If one does not know Brahman, one cannot speak about it. If one knows Brahman, it is because the Real knows itself in the person. Thus, all spiritual progress was to have the knowledge of Brahman.131

126 127

S. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy of the Upaniads, 15. R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey, 45. 128 Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit English Dictionary, 393. 129 R.V.X.81.7, X.71, X.121. 130 atapatha Brhmaa X.3.5.11. 131 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 53.

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The Upaniads attempt to understand the Real on the analysis of the facts of nature and facts of inner life. In the Chndogya Upaniad the seer asks, what is tajjaln?132 Tajjaln is that from which all things spring, and live and have their being. The answer is Brahman. Thus, Brahman is considered as the Ultimate Reality from which everything springs. In the Bhadrayaka Upaniad Blki Grgya in his interview with Ajtaatru puts forth a progressive definition of Brahman. It concludes calling Brahman as satyasya satyam or the truth of the truth.133 Aitareya Upaniad uses the old conception of pra (breath) but identifies Brahman with prajna or consciousness.134

The Nature of Brahman is not only reality or existence and consciousness. It is also bliss. Taittirya Upaniad presents this concept in the five stages (annamaya, pramaya, manomaya, vijnamaya and nandamaya) in Brahmnanda Vall or the chapter on the bliss of Brahman.135 The triad character of the Brahman as being (sat) consciousness (cit) and (nanda) is not found in the early Upaniads.136 Yjavalkyas attribute of Brahman as consciousness are to be carefully noted. Just as salt when mixed with water cannot be brought back so also this great being (referring to Brahman) infinite, limitless, consists of nothing but consciousness.137 Using the example of salt once again he states that just like the salt altogether is a mass of taste within and without; the supreme self (meaning Brahman) is total consciousness.138 Yjavalkya comparing man to a tree explains that Brahmans essential nature is consciousness and its final goal is bliss.139 Thus, he presents Brahman as pure consciousness.

132 133

CU. III.14.1. B.U. II.1.20. 134 A.U. III.1.3 (prajnam brahma) - Brahman is consciousness. 135 T.U. II.1-9. 136 Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, 519. 137 B.U. II.4.12 (vijna-ghana eva) 138 B.U.IV.5.13 (prajna-ghana eva) 139 B.U. III.9.28.7 (vijnam nandam brahma)

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The Brahman is very often described as neti neti or bundle of negations in the Upaniads. Yjavalkya maintaining his position of Brahman as pure consciousness also states that the Brahman is absolutely ultimate that human knowledge of the absolute is non-existent. The most drastic expression is neti neti not so, not so.140 Not being able to define from the empirical point of view the Upaniad seer uses negation. It is a similar task as to describe light to a blind person. In such a case to avoid negation is impossible. The possible description would be light has neither sound nor taste nor form nor weight nor resistance nor be known through analysis yet be seen. Brahman is therefore, the Ultimate Reality as cause of all reality, pure consciousness as the inner-most essence of everything and beyond empirical comprehension. 1.3.2 tman One is absolutely certain of ones own existence. There is neither doubt nor denial of ones existence. The individual self is always immediately felt and known. tman refers to the subjective self in the Upaniads. The objective self is the Brahman. tman is of the same essence of the Ultimate Reality Brahman. The word tman is derived from an means to breathe or life. It is also called as breath of life. Gradually, it came to be called as self, soul, or the individual soul.141 It is inner principle of human life which transcends pra (breath), manas (mind) and praja (intellect). The word tman in the gveda refers to an unborn portion or the antara purua (eternal self) which has no body and no organs of sense.142 This points out to the eternal character of tman. Therefore, it is not to be identified with body or mind and their organs. As mentioned earlier Indian Philosophy gives the top most priority to the concept of tman as its goal is to realise its true nature. The nature of tman is consciousness the same as Brahman.

140 141

B.U. IV.2.4., 5.15, III.9.26 Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 78. 142 R.V.X.16.4.

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As Brahman is the foundational reality of the universe, tman is the foundational reality of the underlying the conscious powers of the individual self. Therefore, it is the tman who gives depth to human life. It makes human life go beyond the perceptible world controlled by the jva (individual ego).143 The tman is superior reality than the jva. In the Chndogya Upaniad Prajpati unfolds the nature of the tman to Indra and Virocana. He mentions four progressive definitions as four stages of the self: the bodily self, the empirical self, the transcendental self and the absolute self. Here, the tman is progressively identified with the body consciousness, the dream consciousness, and the deep sleep consciousness till it identifies itself with the absolute consciousness unaffected by empirical existence.144 The progressive dynamics of identifying of the self with different stages leads one from ignorance to knowledge of self realisation. In the first stage the self identifies with the body, the second with vital breath and in the third with the intellect. All these stages are not permanent. Only in the fourth stage the self is understood as a subject and not as an object.145 In this stage the tman sees itself as not different from the absolute self. Thus, tman realises consciousness as its true nature. tman is conceived as an active subject of perception than a passive spectator. tman in its actual state is self-dependent and free.146 It is not an object. It is free from all kinds of false identification. It is independent.147 The self realizes That I am in the light of pure consciousness and understands its immortal nature. As the subject it is the inner ruler. The self who knows that it is That 148 becomes That. Here tman is understood as the subject and the Brahman as the object of its consciousness. He who knows that verily, knows all.149 Thus, the tman becomes consciousness. The tman has no longer the object of consciousness
143

Paul Deussen, A.S. Geden, Tr. , The Philosophy of Upanishads, (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1966), 450. 144 C.U. VIII.7., M.U I.1-12 and also S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol 1, 151. 145 S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 26. 146 B.U. III.4.1 147 B.U. IV.3.11 148 C.U. VI.8.7., That means Brahman or the Ultimate Reality. 149 C.U. 2.21.4.

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but one with the Subject which is consciousness. It is not an individual but an absolute or the Universal subject. Hence, transcendence of the concept of tman from gross to subtle and from subtle to the subtlest consciousness is noticed. The tman limited by psychological and intellectual organs questions Koham.150 The tman as pure subject states aham brahmsmi.151 The tman is the conscious knowing subject. tman has the light which shines above all, above everything.152 This refers to tman as self-shinning consciousness or light unto itself.153 Thus, the real nature of tman is always a subject and never the object. tman becomes the self-shining consciousness. tman and its states of consciousness is an important topic which completes the subjective notion of consciousness as the Ultimate Reality. This is systematically dealt in the next chapter. The above analysis on the nature of tman leads to the monistic view of the Upaniads - the synthesis of the Brahman-tman concept. It is the oldest idealistic concept which evolved from the philosophy of the gveda in the Upaniads.

1.3.3 Brahman-tman tman is the principle of individual consciousness and Brahman the principle of cosmic consciousness. The former is the microcosm and the later macrocosm. Upaniads teach us that these distinctions disappear as the tman, the inner principle comprehends the Brahman, the universal principle. The tmanBrahman doctrine as logical development of the idea has its origin in the g Veda,154 long previous history in the Brhmaa155 and completion in the Upaniads.156 This thought is the most original to the original thinkers of the Upaniads. They found it when they recognised the tman, the most individual
150 151

A.U. III.1 (who am I?) B.U.I.4.10 (I am Brahman) 152 C.U. III.13.7 153 B.U.IV.3.1 (tmaivsya jyotir) 154 R.V.I.164.46., eka sad vipr bahudh vadanti . 155 atapatha Brhmaa X.6.3 156 Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, 494.

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being, as the Brahman, the inmost being of universal nature. 157 The great aphorisms or mahvkyas express it.158 This identification of tman and Brahman is very significant. On this concept of Oneness of Brahman as tman is hinged spiritual treasures and philosophical systems.

The reflection on oneness of subject and object embraces the existence of one central reality. The different conceptions of the Brahman correspond to different ideas of tman. The four states of the tman the bodily self or (viva), the vital self (taijasa), the intellectual self (prja) and Absolute self (turya) corresponds to Brahman as the cosmos (virt), the soul of the world (Hirayagarba) the selfconsciousness (vara) and nanda (Brahman) respectively.159 Thus, from the view point of consciousness, the oneness suggests that tman and Brahman are both essentially pure consciousness. It is due to the different state that we experience multiplicity. The principle of Brahman as tman is neither metaphysical abstraction nor indeterminate identity nor void. It is the fullness of being. The Upaniads dont offer abstract monism. Brahman-tman is infinite in so far as it is the ground of all finiteness. Ultimate Reality is not thought or force it is essence and existence. Aitareya Upaniads categorical calls it Consciousness. Brahman is consciousness.160 Then tman also is consciousness. If Brahman and tman are consciousness then the Ultimate Reality is consciousness. Thus, consciousness becomes the foundational reality.

The chief endeavour of Vedic philosophy right from the period of philosophical hymns has been the search for the foundational reality. The enquiry has been what is the one essence of the diverse universe? The second is what is the source

157 158

Paul Deussen, A.S. Geden, Tr. , The Philosophy of Upanishads, 40. C.U. VI.8.7 - Thou art that, A.U. III.1.3 - Consciousness is Brahman, M.U I.2 - This Self is Brahman and B.U. I.4.10 I am Brahman. 159 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, Vol. 1, 172. 160 A.U. III.1.3.

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from which organs of life proceed? The macrocosmic principle comprehends the substratum as Brahman and microcosmic principle as the inner self recognised as tman. The fundamental thought of the entire Upaniadic philosophy is expressed in the nonduality of tman and Brahman. The teaching of the Upaniad teach idealistic monism which means all is one; is one without a second. Moreover, from the Vedic to Upaniadic times is a journey from prayer to philosophy and philosophy to mysticism. Only a mystic can intuit the essence of everything as one and none other than consciousness.161 These words summarise the above Upaniadic thought, pram ada, pram idam, prt pram udacyate, prasya pram dya pram evvaiyate. That is full, this is full. From fullness, fullness proceeds. If we take away the fullness of fullness, even fullness then remains.162

1.4 Upaniadic Vocabulary on Consciousness Every concept understood in its context presents its meaning in fullness. Etymological study helps in this endeavour. Upaniadic literature uses different words and metaphors presenting the concept of consciousness. The Upaniads specify the nature of tman as consciousness in different metaphors. For example: tman as seer in dra or vijt,163 tman as self-shining or self-light in tmajyoti,164 tman as inner controller in antarym165 and tman as selfluminous in svayajyoti.166 There are several terms like jna, vijna, and prajna which are used intermittently in referring and connoting to different cognitive faculties specially consciousness. The word cit is also used in similar reference. A short analysis of different concept would unravel the concept of consciousness from the terms used in the Upaniads. The study is delimited to only four terms. They are jna, vijna and prajna and cit.

161 162

Govindagopal Mukhopadhyaya, Studies in the Upaniads, Culcutta: Sanskrit college, 1960), 190. B.U. V.1.1 163 B.U.III.4.2. 164 B.U.IV.3.6. 165 B.U. IV.3.6 166 B.U.III.7.23. also Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 17.

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1.4.1 Jna, Vijna and Prajna The term jna basically means knowledge, wisdom and comprehension. It is taken from the root verb j to know.167 The root word j also means to be aware of. The word jna has other meanings like consciousness, cognizance, intelligence and understanding. It also refers to sacred knowledge, knowledge derived from mediation and knowledge of higher truths and of philosophy and religion. The word Jnata means consciously.168 Thus, jna is a complex word in Sanskrit having multiple meanings. Upaniads also use it with the word with its dynamics. The Upaniadic literature is classified under the term jnakada. From the perspective of consciousness in the Upaniads it is used not exclusively to mean consciousness but seeking knowledge and wisdom. Jna is to be considered as a generic term for cognition, knowing and knowledge. The words Vijna and Prajna have their root in the word jna. The prefix vi when added to nouns increases the intensity of that word. Here, vi added to jna deepens the intensity of jna.169 Hence, Vijna means wisdom, cognition, intellect, consciousness and stream of consciousness.170 It is widely used in the Upaniads as means intelligence, understanding and knowing but it does not give allusions to mean consciousness as the Ultimate Reality. 171 The Buddhist school Vijnavda uses this term exclusively to mean consciousness as the only reality.172 Prajna means wisdom, intuitive wisdom or gnosis.173 The prefix pra when added to noun would mean excessive or having power. Prajna is also used widely in different context in the Upaniads indifferent senses. Praj is

167 168

John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy, 185. Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 223. 169 Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 505. 170 John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary, 405. 171 A.U.III.1.2, C.U.VIII.7.3, B.U.IV.3.31. 172 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey, 108. 173 John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary, 279

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considered as the state of deep-sleep.174 In Aitareya Upaniad prajna-brahma is used to describe the nature of Brahman as Absolute consciousness. Thus, consciousness as the Ultimate Reality is best portrayed in the term prajna. Jna is a specific sense belongs to the theory of knowledge in Indian philosophy (pramastra). Consciousness invariably is considered as a substratum of everything in the Upaniads. Moreover, the consciousness is not limited to have specific branch of philosophy.175 Therefore, the next word to be considered is cit.

1.4.2 Cit The Sanskrit word cit is loaded with meaning. The first traces of the word cit are seen in the g Veda.176 It is used as ctate, cite, ciketat and citanty.177 There are many references to cit in the Upaniads.178 Chndogya Upaniad in the discourse between Sanatkumra and Nrada cit is presented as cittman. 179 The discussion ends emphasising the primacy of the self. Cit basically means to perceive, to see, notice, observe, to know, to understand, to be aware or conscious of or to regain consciousness and to appear and shine. It also means thought, intellect, intelligence, intellect and understanding. Furthermore, It is used to mean the soul or the self (tman) which is the animating principle of life and even Brahman. When it is often used with tman it refers to pure intelligence, the supreme spirit (Brahman) and more importantly consciousness as the nature of tman.180 Cit also means spirit, consciousness and Reality.181 Reality is used with a capital R meaning the Ultimate Reality. Ultimate Reality has been the focus of thought throughout this chapter. Thus, from the above meanings above the word cit shows a comprehensive character. The Sanskrit
174 175

M.U. I.5., Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 5. 176 R.V.I.129.7, VII.95.2, IX.101 and X.143.4. 177 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymological and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, (Delhi: Munishiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1994), 394. 178 C.U. VII.5.1-3, also S. Gajanan Shambhu Sadhale, Upaniad-Vkya-Mah-Koa, Vol.1 (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1947), 357-378. 179 C.U. VII.5.2. 180 Vaman Shivram Apte, The Students Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 207-208. 181 Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 5.

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term cit is generally accepted as consciousness as the Ultimate Reality (tmanBrahman) in Indian philosophy.182 The later Upaniads use the term cit often then the classical Upaniads. Paingala Upaniad clear presents the term cit in the context of explaining the Mahvkayas.183 The term cit as consciousness is more often seen in the writings of the Vedntins in speaking of the nature of Brahman and tman. akara often uses the term jna for consciousness.184 Rmnuja uses the word cit exclusively.185 Upaniads are known for the diversity of directions yet moving towards a central theme. The same is true in the expression of the concept of consciousness. The multiple terms expressing consciousness bring the beauty of the concept and its various dimensions. To choose one term and delimit the notion of consciousness to that term is not the goal of the research. The etymological review is to bring the magnanimity of the concept of consciousness. This research seeks to understand the fullness of the concept of the consciousness in the Upaniads as the viewed by the Upaniadic seers themselves.

1.5 Conclusion The concept of consciousness has developed from the pre-upaniadic to the Upaniadic times. From the seminal ideas of gveda to the complexity of cognitive speculation in the Upaniads prove progress and growth in philosophy and spirituality. Upaniads witness the growth and crystallization of the concept of consciousness. It exhibits it metaphysical and epistemological perspectives in the theories it presents on consciousness. The gveda thought developed and influenced the Upaniadic Seers. Similarly later philosophers are influenced by Upaniadic teaching. Upaniads become the foundation for their speculations.

182 183

John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy, 136. Paingala Upaniad III.3. 184 S. Radhakrishnan, The Brahma Stra: The Philosophy of Spiritual Life (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1960), 31. 185 S. Radhakrishnan, The Brahma Stra: The Philosophy of Spiritual Life, 55.

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The ultimacy of the subjective self and the supremacy of the objective self blending in one reality reality as consciousness is the original contribution of the seers. It is thought provoking and a light to enlightenment. The Upaniadic contribution of the states of consciousness is remarkable. The distinctions made and the conclusions drawn lead to carefully study of the states of consciousness in the next chapter.

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Chapter Two ANALYSIS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Sarva hy etad brahma, ayam tm brahma, soyam tm catu-pt All this is, verily, Brahman. This self is Brahman. This same self has four quarters.186

2.0 Introduction The Upaniadic is expound consciousness as the ultimate reality. The one reality underlying all other realties is concealed in the unitive concept of Brahman-tman. This one reality is considered as two sides of the same reality: Brahman as the objective consciousness and tman as the subjective consciousness. The analysis of consciousness is unfolds the truth that,

consciousness is the only reality. The different states of consciousness are experienced by the self till it realizes its true self as one and the same as Brahman (Aham Brahamsmi). This chapter analyses four different states of consciousness explained in the Upaniads unfolding the true nature of consciousness. The individual self jva or jivtman is a knower, doer and agent. It is the tman embodied within the body experiences the different states of consciousness because of its psycho-physical organs. These states of consciousness present the dynamics of the tman. A systematic investigation of the states of consciousness deepens the Upaniadic understanding of consciousness.

2.1 States of Consciousness No single Upaniad provides a systematic and comprehensive account of the nature of tman. There is a need to piece them together to get a complete comprehensive understanding. Thus, primarily the text from only four Upaniads, namely Bhadrayaka Upaniad, Chndogya Upaniad, Mkya Upaniad and Aitareya Upaniad. They present the different states of consciousness of the tman. The Mkya Upaniad exclusively gives a

186

M.U. I.1.2

48

systematic and formal presentation and

serves as a guide to the four states of

consciousness.187 The others Upaniads speak of only three states, Mkya includes a fourth.188 The four states of consciousness in the Upaniads are: 1. Vaiva (Waking Consciousness) 2. Taijasa (Dreaming Consciousness) 3. Prja (Deep sleep Consciousness) 4. Turya (Transcendental Consciousness) 2.2 Vaiva Waking Consciousness Vaiva is the first state of consciousness.189 It considered as the gross self characterised with outward perception. The vaiva or the waking state of consciousness is identified with the five organs of the senses (hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell), the five organs of action (speech, handling, locomotion, generation and excretion), the five vital breaths the mind (manas), and the intellect, (buddhi), the self-sense (ahankara) and the thought (citta).190 It is the external self (body) of the body. Mkya Upaniad labels it Vaivnara because it leads all in diverse ways to the enjoyment of various objects. It is the waking state in the normal condition of human being who accepts the perceptible world as it is without any reflection.191 It is considered as the outermost part of the self.

The waking state is the normal experience, experienced here and now. It is the empirical consciousness of thoughts, words and action. The empirical consciousness of the individual self of the external objects of the objective world is the significant characteristic of this state of consciousness. There is a duality of subject and object. The individual self perceiving through the indriyas and manas is pleased with plurality of perceptions, feelings, emotions, thoughts, desires,

187 188

M.U. I. 1.2. S. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy of Upanishads, 35. 189 M.U. I.1.3. 190 C.U.V.18.2., also Paul Deussen, Philosophy of Upaniads, 300. 191 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads,695.

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decisions, doubts, faiths, disbeliefs, steadiness, unsteadiness, sense of shame, knowledge, fright, etc.192 It is the commonness of experience.193 The first

observation on waking consciousness is that the firstly, individual self is conscious of its acts with subject-object duality. The second is the content of consciousness is perceptive knowledge. Vaiva consciousness is the limited consciousness of jva or the individual self. The waking stage is the first state of consciousness discussed in the Upaniads.

2.2.1 Perceptual Consciousness Bhadrayaka Upaniad describes the process of perception. It states that the manas controls the indriyas. It is superior to the indriyas. . . . One sees only with the mind and hears only with the mind.194 The manas receives the sensations from the indriyas and assimilates them. The jva enjoys the material world. The jva thinks that manas is the center for consciousness having dual function of perception and awareness of that perception.195 Thus, perceptual consciousness is characteristic to waking consciousness. Perception is of the objective world outside is experienced. This is to be noted in contrast to the next two states of consciousness dream and deep sleep.

Upaniads portray subject- object duality speaking of perception. They agrees that perceptive knowledge is susceptible. The sensitivity of the indriyas is limited. They primarily depend on the manas for the apprehension of the impression they collect. The hearing, the seeing, the touching, the smelling and the tasting are controlled by manas.196 Thus, the individual self the waking state engaged by indriyas and manas enjoys the variety of experiences.

192

Baldev g Sharma, The Concept of tman in the Principal Upaniad: In the Perspective of the Sahitas, the Brhmaas, the Arayakas and Indian Philosophical Systems (New Delhi: Dinesh Publications, 1972) 238. 193 Satya Prakash Singh, Vedic Vision of Consciousness, 274. 194 B.U, I.5.3. 195 Baldev g Sharma, The Concept of tman in the Principal Upaniad, 239-240. 196 Paul Deussen, Philosophy of Upanishads, 301.

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2.2.2 Plurality of Experience The description of the bodily self given by Prajpati to Indra and Virocana take precedence in this context. Prajpati asks them to see themselves in a pan of water. They see their self in the water and think that what they perceive is their self.197 The plurality of experience limits them to perceptive knowledge. Virocana identifies the self with the external self (body). Indra does not. Indra thinks and understands that the body is not the self because the body experiences pain and suffering and considers the principle of the bodily self is inadequate.198 Thus, plurality experience is another significant characteristic of Upaniads. Contrary to it unity is the basic characteristic of the ultimate reality. Plurality of experience is present throughout the change, the common factors in the stage waking, dream, sleep, death, rebirth and final deliverance.199 Waking state of consciousness is therefore, empirical consciousness.

2.3 Taijasa - Dream Consciousness Taijasa is the consciousness of the internal or mental states. Just like vaiva is subject of the waking state cognises material objects taijasa experiences mental states dependent on the predispositions of the waking consciousness.200 It is also called as dream consciousness. It is related with sleep consciousness and referred as dream-sleep consciousness. The Bhadrayaka Upaniad vividly illustrates dream consciousness. There (in that state of dream), there are no chariot, no yoked teams of horses, no streets but it creates for itself chariot teams of horses, and streets; in that place, there are no fountains, ponds and rivers because it is the creator.201 To understand this text we have to analyze in what context the author speaks of dream consciousness. Bhadrayaka Upaniad states that dream state is an intermediate between waking consciousness and Deepsleep consciousness.202 Deepsleep is a higher state of consciousness than the dream
197 198

C.U. VIII.8.1-5. C.U. VIII.9.8. 199 B.U. IV.4.5. 200 Baldev g Sharma, The Concept of tman in the Principal Upaniad, 239-240. 201 B.U. IV. 3.10. 202 B.U. IV. 3.9. (sandhyam intermdiate)

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state. Therefore, the dream consciousness plays a dual role. It is activates in sleep and in sleep the dream consciousness is experienced.203 When one goes to sleep he carries sensory data in his manas and builds up ones own world in sleep because of the mental states. Here there is no active

participation with the senses. The sensory data of the waking states becomes functional in dream consciousness. This state is not bound by space and time. It modifies according to the manas.204 Upaniads unlike the Western psychology are not clear on distinction between sleep and dream sleep. The words Svapna is translate both as sleep and dream and used as synonyms. 205

The dreams provide two basic observations. The first observation is that the manas creates its own world out of the impression gathered in the waking consciousness. The second understanding is dream stage presupposes sleep and in dream manas still works without influenced by indriyas. Thus, manas creates and fashions a world of its own experiences which are called dreams.206

2.3.1 Contents of Dream Consciousness Upaniadic concept of dreams explain that dreams are reproduction of the waking experience. The outside world in dream is experienced by the dreamer not being aware that it is a dream an creation of the manas. It is not tangible experience of the waking stage. Yet for the dreamer, dream is real and not a mental experience. Dream portrays the creative side of the self.207 The contents of dreams are not restricted to some experienced. It goes beyond perception. In dream blind man sees and lame man walks.208 Thus, in the dream state, we have variety of experiences known and unknown to us.
203 204

Ibid. C.U.IV.3.7-14, also, Satya Prakash Singh, Vedic Vision of Consciousness, 274. 205 Vaman Shivram Apte, The students Sanskrit English Dictionary, 631. 206 M.U I.1.4 207 Ramakrishna Puligandla, That Thou Art: The Wisdom of the Upaniads, (New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd, 2009) 41. 208 C.U.VIII.10.3. B.U. IV.3.7.

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2.3.2 Illusionary Nature of Dreams Dreams are said to be illusory because once the dream is over, one comes back to the waking state. One realizes that the dream was only the creation of the manas imaginary in nature. The dialogue between Prajpati to Indra is a classical example to explain the illusory nature of dreams. Virocana is happy with waking consciousness but Indra is not. Indra returns to Prajpati in search of knowledge of the true self. Prajpati asks to find Brahman in dreams. Indra goes only to return understanding the illusory nature of dreams. Indra reflects that the self in dream is not a true self.209 Indra recognizes it as the empirical self and subject to changing experience of every movement. The Upaniadic understanding of dreams testifies duality as subject and object, without the subject being aware of the dream while dreaming. Dream is considered as an intermediate state therefore it is an is a introduction to the state of the deep sleep. 2.4 Prja Deepsleep Consciousness Prja is also called dreamless sleep consciousness. It is the third stage of consciousness. The waking state has outward-moving consciousness and the dream state has inward-moving consciousness. The third stage is characterised by consciousness enjoys peace and has no perception of external nor internal.210 The transitory character of sleep is not the ultimate state. The Bhadrayaka Upaniad211 gives different analogies to explain deep-sleep. In the analogy of the Falcon or Eagle after hang flown in the skies gets tired and comes and rests on a tree. Similarly, the self moves to that state in which, while asleep experiences no desire anymore and sees no dream images.212 In the deep sleep state the outward moving consciousness of the waking stage and the inward moving consciousness of the dream state is not experienced. There is neither

209 210

C.U. VIII.10.1-4. M.U. I.1.5 211 B.U. IV.3.19-30. 212 B.U. IV.3.19.

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perception nor dream. The other analogies also portray non desire and more importantly distinctionlessness.

Deepsleep is essential form of the self that transcends all desires and distinctions. It is free from fear and all pain. It is not a combination of the previous stages. It is completely a different kind of consciousness without subject or object.213 This state is considered as essential form of the self in which it is one without desire and free from fear.214 But it is not an unconscious state. A significant characteristic of the deepsleep consciousness is the vanishing of the subject object distinction. The senses and the mind are not active. There are neither desires nor dreams.215 Thus, there is a cessation of the empirical consciousness with its distinctions of subjects and objects. At the same time with the apparent absence of duality leads to the consciousness of Prja. Prja refers to Brahman.216 The absence of duality prepares ground for the self to experience bliss and union with the infinite. The self does not recognise its pure essence yet.

2.4.1 Consciousness Beyond Subject-Object Distinctions In Prja the manas as well as the indriyas are inactive and consequently there is the cessation of perceptual consciousness. There are no dreams either. This forms the basis for the jva to transcend to a higher level of consciousness. Self is liberated from the empirical world.217 Radhakrishnan describes the state of deepsleep as at night all discriminations are shed out due to darkness and all becomes mass of darkness similarly all precepts become a mass of darkness in the deepsleep.218 In other words, all objects of consciousness become a mass of consciousness and the self experiences bliss.219 There is no perception. The bliss experience transcends the subject-object duality of knowing. It points to the same
213

T.K. John, Deep Sleep Experience: A Probe into its Philosophical Import, in Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. LVII, 1976, 118 (117-127). 214 B.U. IV.3.21. 215 Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 23. 216 C.U. VIII.2.1. 217 M.U.I.1.5. 218 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principle Upaniads, 697. 219 B.U. IV.3.21.

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experience where there is cessation of perception and therefore regarded as a state of ignorance. Ignorance is stated as the unmanifested objectivity. The focal point of deep sleep is in the non-duality and the experience of bliss give a short view of the transcendental period.

2.4.2 Transitory Experience of Oneness In contrast with waking state and dream state, in deep sleep state manas is inactive. The self is not influenced by manas or by buddhi. There is no experience of pain or suffering. Prja prepares ground for the experience of pure consciousness or Brhaman in this context the self enjoys traces of that consciousness.220 The experience of bliss by the self is the transitory experience of the Ultimate. It is called transitory because when deep sleep terminates the self returns to the dream state and then to the waking stage. The self experiences the bliss only for a brief period of deep sleep. This transitory character of sleep shows that it is not the ultimate state of consciousness.221 It is only a prelude to the ultimate consciousness. The dialogue between Prajpati and Indra is a classical example of deep-sleep consciousness. Prajpati opines to Indra that the self in deep-sleep sees no dream and is the true self within.222 Indra thinks and later rejects the self which has no contents. He approaches Prajpati and expresses that the self does not know itself nor does it know anything that exists. Indra does not accept such a self as the true self. The search of Indra contains the Upaniadic search for the Ultimate Reality Brahman. The experience of deep sleep is an introduction or a passage to the Eternal.

220 221

B.U.IV.3.22. M.U.I.1.5. 222 C.U. VIII.11.1.

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2.5 Turya - Transcendental Consciousness Turya is the fourth state of consciousness. The word turya derived from the word caturtha meaning the Fourth.223 Therefore, it is referred as the Fourth. The description of the turya state of consciousness is found in the Mkya Upaniad. The Upaniadic text gives a descriptive representation of the Turya state:
(Turya is) not that which cognizes the internal (objects), not that which cognises the external (objects), not what cognizes both of them, not a mass of cognition, not cognitive, not non-cognitive. (It is) unseen, incapable of being spoken of, ungraspable, without any distinctive marks, unthinkable, unnameable, the essence of the knowledge of the one self, that into which the world is resolved, the peaceful, the benign, the nondual, such, they think, is the fourth quarter. He is the self; He is to be known. 224

These words of the Upaniads reveal the ultimate state of consciousness. It is also called the Transcendental Consciousness. It is beyond the empirical consciousness and superior to the prja or the taijasa consciousness. The characteristics given testify of a mystical state. It is the state where the jva realizes its real nature, that it is the tman and becomes one with the Brahman. Attainment of this state of consciousness is the supreme goal of the Upaniadic teaching. It is different from the other three states of consciousness examined. The prja consciousness prepares the way for turya. Mkya Upaniad affirms that prja eternally look for the Fourth.225 The fourth state is the highest order. The other three states are related to the finite mind, turya transcend them all.226 Two observations can be made. The firstly, it refers to unknowability and the secondly to the self is one with the Supreme.

223 224

M.U.I.1.7 M.U.I.1.7., S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 698. 225 M.U. 12. 226 Swami Prabhavananda, The spiritual Heritage of India (Mylapore: Sri Radhakrishna Math, 1981), 54.

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2.5.1 The Inconceivable Experience The Mkya Upaniad explains turya experience is beyond our grasp of internal mental faculties. The above quoted definition stress that our senses and our manas are not able to comprehend the consciousness experienced. It is a reality beyond the distinction of subject and object.227 Turya is transcendental knowledge, which cannot be perceived, or cognized. Manas of the waking consciousness is not able to grasp the real nature of the self. The dream state is illusionary in character and cannot witness to the turya consciousness. Prja consciousness is the transitory experience of the divine, the dual identity is lost and one experiences the bliss for a momentary period. Under such conditions the self cannot experience the Ultimate. Turya is a state of pure intuitive consciousness and is the ground of all states of consciousness.

In turya consciousness the self is of the inconceivable character. There is no subject-object relationship. Brahman cannot be treated as an object of knowledge. Pure consciousness is the Reality. 228 The subject-object duality no longer persists. Brahman is pure being and is beyond word and thought. In Him there is exists no distinction of knower, known and knowledge and in him exists all things.229

2.5.2 Oneness with Brahman Turya is the state of pure consciousness and is regarded as the permanent union with Brahman. The pure intuitional consciousness illumines the jva s mind not only to withdraw from objects but become one with Brahman. He who knows it thus enters the self with his self.230 The duality between the Brahman and the self disappears and one realizes the essence of the self as pure consciousness. The tman and Brahman become one reality without a second.231 The self

227 228

S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 698. B.U. IV.3.32 229 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upaniads, 310. 230 M.U.I.1.12., also Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upaniads, 701. 231 M.U. I.1. 7.

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through the non-dual realization transcends the conditions of time space and causality. The tman no longer identifies with its body. It has known the true and transcendental knowledge. It intuitively knows that the deepest essence of its self is none other than Brahman.232 A classical example to explain this oneness is the example of the pot. The Brahman is like the world space, the jva like the space in the pot. Once the pot is broken the space within the pot merges one with the world space. In other words consciousness limited by body mergers with the infinite consciousness. Pure consciousness is neither physical nor psychological. Thus one becomes transparent like water one without a second.233 This is the highest goal, the liberation of oneself from the limited existence. Once the true knowledge of Brahman is attained one is free from all embodiment. This experience of the consciousness is a continuum and is a circular reality without beginning and end. Consciousness is Brahman. This is the goal of the Upaniadic thought. The dialogue between Prajpati and Indra reaches the climax when Prajpati tells Indra that the true self is consciousness itself. Brahman is the transcendental reality and the Self becomes one with that reality.234 The self is not different from Brahman.

2.6 Conclusion The four stages of consciousness show progressive development of the concept of consciousness. Among the four turya consciousness attains a separate

identity as pure consciousness. In relation to turya the other three states of consciousness become secondary in nature. Vaiva, taijasa and prja are characterised by modification, mental projection and non-contentless

consciousness respectively. Owing to the duality of subject-object relationships in the waking and dreaming and the objectless subject relationship in the taijasa leads the Upaniadic seers to call these as illusionary in character in relation to the turya or pure consciousness. It is characterised by unity and continuity. The

232 233

William M. Indich, Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, 105. B.U.IV.3.32. 234 C.U. VIII. 13.1.

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Trayah Svapnah or the three-dream- states concept explained in the Aitareya Upaniad elucidate their illusory nature.235 Thus, are Vaiva, taijasa and prja considered illusory because they donot lead to pure consciousness. The fundamental experience of the Upaniadic consciousness is the root of everything that Is.

235

A.U. I.3.12.

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Chapter Three ONENESS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Ektm-pratyaya-sram The essence of the knowledge of the one self.236

3.0 Introduction Upaniadic search is unique. Amidst the plurality of experience and the multiplicity around the is sought for unity. It was the endeavour since gveda era to know that from which everything arises; what Is beyond everything? The Upaniads sought for that oneness of reality or the truth in the experience of differences and plurality. The plurality of the world outside and plurality of thought made them seek that unitive principle which would lead them to Ultimate Reality. It would lead them to tat which brings immortality. Therefore, their prayer was, asato m sadgamaya, tamaso m jyotirgamya, mtyor mmta gamaya.237 They sought not through reason but through meditation, contemplation which lead them to intuition of the oneness of consciousness. Philosophy is characterised by plurality of perspectives. Its

complexity vivifies thought and takes it to a new level. Upaniadic philosophy affirms that consciousness is the Ultimate Reality. In other words, consciousness is the only reality. The Upaniads witness to this one and same reality in the Mahvkyas. They point to the one Ultimate reality from different angles. They signify complete unity of reality. Oneness on the other hand can be seen as a unity of diversity of perspective. Since the Upaniads agree on the oneness of

consciousness the task at hand is to equitably analyse the divergent philosophical perspectives of the oneness of consciousness. The Vedas testify that reality is one but the wise call it many.238 Consciousness is one but has many dimensions. This chapter analyses the two different perspectives of the nature of consciousness.
236 237

M.U. I.1.7 B.U.I.3.28. From the unreal lead me to the real, from darkness lead me to light, from death lead me to immortality. 238 R.V. I.164.46 (Ekam sat vipra bahudh vadanti)

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Upaniadic consciousness is conceived and propounded as independent and eternal reality without any distinctions. The problem of philosophy is not in accepting the unity but in knowing how this oneness is dynamic in nature. Philosophers pay their attention to the text of the Upaniads to understand their approach and draw conclusions. The common tendency in most of the narratives is that they begin reflecting on diversity and end in unity of understanding that reality is one. The approach they take defines the perspective of recognizing the oneness. There are different perspectives. Upaniads address the problem of Ultimate Reality in ontological and epistemological perspectives. The two

perspectives are based on the four great aphorisms of the Upaniads. An analysis of the same would give a holistic understanding of the Ultimate Reality as consciousness.

3.1 Unitary Perspective of Consciousness The philosophical reflections from gveda to the Upaniads on consciousness as the Ultimate Reality analyzed in chapter one helps in the philosophical analysis of the nature of Consciousness. They are recognitions of the in-depth study and reflection of the seers of old. The most fundamental conclusion reached is Reality is one. 239 It is both transcendental and immanent yet one, absolute, all pervading and eternal.240 Absolute consciousness is the total identification of the tman with the Brahman.241 The identification leads to unification of the tman and Brahman as pure consciousness.242 This unification is transcendental. It is just like the water of a river unites in the ocean and becomes one with it. In this process there is no difference between the two types of water. They become one. The unification determines the Oneness of Consciousness of tman and Brahman, there is no difference of essence and existence. The essence and existence is consciousness itself. It is transcendental and beyond human

239

B.U. I.4.10, also Klaus G. Witz, The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniads: An Introduction (Delhi: Motilal Banaridass Publishers Private Limited, 1998) 73. 240 A.U. III.1.3 241 C.U. VI.8.7 242 M.U. I.2. also S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 32.

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language. Explanations in positive end and negations are sought to describe this Oneness as it is not this, not this.243

The Ultimate Reality is Absolute Consciousness. There is no duality of subject and object.244 Though it appears tman as subject and Brahman as object there is only one subject tman-Brahman. There is only subject consciousness. There is no contradiction, no contrast and no division of subject and object. Phenomenal experiences of mundane existence are governed by the duality of subject and object. Absolute Consciousness is beyond logically universals. It is uncharacterizable, unnameable and inexpressible. Therefore, is called as oneness of consciousness without attributes, characteristics, mediation and differences. The daily life is characterized by mediated consciousness but nature of oneness of consciousness is constant and unchanging. It is just being and not becoming. This is the fundamental concept which determines the unitary perspective of consciousness.245

Oneness of consciousness is the unitary principle. The term objective consciousness is used to for Brahman and subjective consciousness for tman. The objective consciousness and the subjective consciousness are one and the same and their identification and unifications is termed as oneness of consciousness. The psychophysical states of experiences lead to three different states of consciousness analysed in the previous chapter. Only when one transcends all the external and internal plurality of experience one understands the oneness of consciousness. This oneness of consciousness is absolute consciousness explained in the fourth state as turya. It is the unitary principle of consciousness. This unitary principle of consciousness is explained in the four

243 244

B.U. IV.2.4., III.9.26., IV.4.22. B.U. II.4.6, III.7.23, III.811. 245 Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, 520.

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Mahvkyas of the Upaniads.246 Analyzing them systematically leads to the understanding of the oneness of consciousness as the ultimate reality. 3.1.1 Exposition of Mahvkyas The Upaniads establish the oneness of consciousness on the idea of transcendence and immanence. The central theme is discussed, evaluated, questioned and answered, repeatedly in the Upaniads. It is that or Being as the ultimate existence in-it-self.247 They present the realization of the subjective consciousness tman (the immanent principle) within as one and the same with the objective consciousness Brahman (transcendental principle). In the realization of tman as Brahman is the zenith of the Upaniadic thought. In this process the oneness of reality is acknowledged as nothing different but consciousness.248 Each of the Mahvkyas expresses this oneness of experience from different perspectives. The beauty is in the path they follow to reach the oneness of Consciousness.249 Mahvkyas (Sanskrit plural Mahvkayani) are great sayings of the Upaniads. There are many Mahvkyani but only four from four Vedas are often mentioned.250 The subject matter is the same in all the four aphorisms: the unity of tman and Brahman. The below mentioned are the four Mahvkyas from the four Upaniads of the four Vedas: 1. Prajnam brahma Consciousness is Brahman from Aitareya Upaniad III.1.3 of the gveda.251 2. Ayam tm brahma This Atman is Brahman from Mukya Upaniad I.1.2 of the Atharvaveda.252
246

M.U. I.1.7, also Swami Muni Narayana Prasad, Chndogya Upaniad: with the Original Text in Sanskrit and Roman Transliteration, (New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd., 2006), 433. 247 S. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy of the Upaniads, 26-27. 248 A.U. III.1.3. Govindagopal Mukhodhyaya, Studies in Upaniads, 248-249. 249 R. De Smet and J.Neuner Eds., Religious Hinduism: A Presentation and Appraisal, 2nd ed. (Allahabad: St. Paul Publications, 1964), 44. 250 Paul Deussen, Philosophy of the Upaniads, 39. 251 A.U. III.1.3 252 M.U. I.1.2

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3.

Tat tvam asi

Thou art

That

from

Chndogya

Upaniad VI.8.7 of the Samaveda.253 4. Aham brahmsmi I am Brahman from Bhadrayaka Upaniad I.4.10 of the Yajurveda.254 The Mahvkyas express the quintessence of the Upaniadic teaching. They are the treasures of the esoteric tradition of the Upaniads. Like mathematical formulae they are concise.255 Analyses of the Mahvkyas present the foundational experience of the Upaniads. They are conclusions of the long search for that oneness of consciousness. 3.1.1.1. Prajnam brahma Consciousness is Brahman Aitareya Upaniad in III. 1.3 uses neither parables nor metaphors to describe the Oneness of consciousness. It plainly states that all is impelled, rooted and supported by consciousness because Brahman is consciousness. The concept of oneness of being begins to develop in Aitareya Upaniad III.1.1. It begins by with an inquiry, who is tman? It enumerates different physical, psychical and mental function and considers all these are only names of consciousness. 256 It even examines whether Brahm, Indra, Prajpati, all the gods, all primal elements, all living creatures, and whatever living and distinguishing different elements as tman. After a thorough examination it concludes that everything is guided, established and supported by consciousness. Therefore it asserts consciousness is Brahman. itareya Upaniad III.1.3 shows epistemological perspective. It examines known but does not find anything matching with tman. It finds them incomplete and though they appear as consciousness but they are not. Consciousness is the substratum of all reality. It is Brahman. Therefore, it expresses consciousness is Brahman. The central point of the research is in

253 254

C.U. VI.8.7 B.U. I.4.10 255 Klaus G. Witz, The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniads: An Introduction, 124-125. 256 A.U.III.3.2, also Jagat Prakash Atreya, Mind and Its function in Indian thought, 127.

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understanding the oneness of consciousness in Upaniadic Philosophy. It witnesses to the fact that consciousness is the ultimate reality.257 3.1.1.2 Ayam tm brahma This Atman is Brahman Mukya Upaniad in I.1.2 evaluates different states of consciousness a person undergoes. It states that there are four states of consciousness. These four states of consciousness are examined in the previous chapter. This chapter elaborates the fourth or turya. Turya state symbolises the oneness of Brahman and tman. This self is Brahman in Mukya Upaniad is a progressive understanding of the self. It examines different states of consciousness the waking, the dream and deepsleep consciousness finds them as temporary state of consciousness. It accepts the fourth as the ultimate state of consciousness. The first three states of consciousness it postulates are considered incomplete. Oneness of consciousness is experienced only in turya.258 Mukya Upaniad begins with

epistemological perspective and ends with ontological perspective. 3.1.1.3 Tat tvam asi Thou art That The Chndogya Upaniad in VI.8.7 is a dialogue between father and guru runi, and his son vetaketu. He teaches him on the ontological and epistemological perspective of the Ultimate reality. The Father finds his son after being in the gurukula for twelve years was not yet a Brahman knower. He questions him about the knowledge of that one thing by which one knows. In VI.1.3 it holds for the primacy of being or sad existing without a second. He begins to teach about sat which means existence.259 He continues to state that everything comes to existence from Tat. Tat refers to That which signifies the Brahman or being. He teaches his son that tat is the root, the support and abode of everything.260 Stripped of external adjuncts one is identical with Reality.261
257 258

S.K. Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 133. M.U. I.1.12, also Robert Ernest Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads: Translated from the Sanskrit, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1962) 49. 259 C.U. VI.2.1, also Swami Munni Narayana Prasad, Chndogya Upaniad, 405. 260 C.U. VI.8.4-6 261 Swami Munni Narayana Prasad, Chndogya Upaniad, 430.

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Chndogya proposes an ontological but not devoid of epistemological view. It presents the concept of oneness in the systematic teaching on the ontological ultimate tat as Brahman. Thus, oneness of consciousness is in knowing that it one and the same with Brahman.262 3.1.1.4 Aham brahmsmi I am Brahman Bhadrayaka Upaniad is accounts this aphorism in the beginning of the Upaniads. It expounds the theory of creation.263 The self identifies itself as not different from the Brahman. The Bhadrayaka Upaniad presents that Brahman is the beginning knew that it was Brahman and it became all. Brahman is clearly expressed as the foundational or ultimate reality. Therefore, the Upaniad professes, whoever knows I am Brahman become Brahman or the ultimate Reality.264 The Bhadrayaka Upaniad gives an ontological perspective. The epistemological trends are also observed in so far as knowing is involved. Both the perspectives collectively lead to the oneness of consciousness.

The above overview of the four aphorisms of the Upaniads indicates two perspectives to comprehend the oneness of Consciousness. The Aitareya Upaniad and Mukya Upaniad show strong epistemological tendencies hile the Chndogya Upaniad and the Bhadrayaka Upaniad show stron ontological views. All four equally sow both perspectives interwoven in one another. The soul of Upaniadic teaching is the oneness of tman and Brahman. The subjective consciousness is of the same essence and existence with the objective consciousness. The Mahvkyas prove this oneness. In the following section the uniqueness of both the perspectives brought elucidating the oneness of consciousness.

262 263

C.U. VI.8.7 B.U. I.4.10 264 B.U. I.4.10, also S. Radhakrishnan, The Principle Upaniads, 168-169.

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3.2 Epistemological Nature of Consciousness Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which studies knowledge. Jna is the word associated with knowledge in Indian philosophy.265 To know is the repeatedly employed in the Upaniads. Jna when used with the prefix vi or pra refers to consciousness. For example: sa tm; sa vijeya.266 It means He is the self; He is to be known. In the Upaniads, knowledge holds precedence and knowledge of the Ultimate Reality is of highest importance. The Upaniads are writings of the seekers who sought to know the Ultimate Reality.267 Knowing or knowledge is the focal point of the Upaniads. It is not knowing as in the western perspective. Knowledge is not mere intellectualism. The Upaniadic knowledge is achieved neither through reasoning nor by shining intellect not even through repeated hearing. It is not from superficial curiosity. Only when one gets wedded to the sole pursuit to know ones self it is attained intuitively.268 To know is a constant injunction. It is a command in the Upaniads: eva vedam means know thus.269 The basic nature of tman is a knowing subject.270 The Brahman is all knowing and knows by itself.271 Therefore, the constant call by the seers in the Upaniad is to know the self.272 tman as the knowing subject knows and illuminates. Its nature is like light that illuminates and enlightens.273 Thus, the epistemological perspective analyzes the self-luminosity of consciousness.

3.2.1 Self-luminosity of Consciousness Self-luminosity is the central feature of consciousness in the Upaniadic tradition. Self-luminosity means that the self by itself very existence is aware of itself.
265 266

It is important to understand this perspective of consciousness to

Refer to chapter one section 2.6.1 M.U. I.1.7. S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 698. 267 Jose Thachil, The Upaniads: A Socio-Religious Appraisal, 15. 268 Govindagopal Mukhopadhyaya, Studies in Upaniads, 7-8. 269 B.U. I.4.10 270 B.U. IV.3.7 271 B.U. IV.3.9 272 B.U.1.4.7-9 273 Jose Thachil, The Upaniads: A Socio-Religious Appraisal, 32.

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understand its view from the point of Ultimate Reality which exists on its own. Self-luminosity proves that consciousness has its own power to manifests its self. The epistemological perspective of self-luminosity is that consciousness is able to know itself as a subject. The Upaniads use metaphor of light to explain this view. It is called as svaya-jyoti or light unto itself.274 The dialogue between Yjavalkya and King Janaka manifests the self-luminosity of the self. With the metaphor of light it points to the lustre or the capacity to manifest independently.275 consciousness manifests itself by the same activity which it manifests other objects and do not need a second cognition to lead to its own awareness. The Upaniads are emphatic on tman as self-luminous. The selfluminosity of the tman states that tman shines in its own eternal and pure light. Consciousness cannot be disproved as it is always shining and everything else is to be formed by consciousness.276 It proves that is self-revealed. Consciousness is always a subject and cannot be an object. Therefore, consciousness is held as not only other manifesting but an essential selfmanifesting. Self-luminosity characteristic makes consciousness unique. In it is the principle of all revelation and light because it is self-revealed. Upaniads highlight the self or tman as self-luminous.277 The nature of light is to reveal itself and other objects by the single act of shining. It is independent in the matter of its manifestation. The tman by itself has the knowledge to reveal itself. It is light unto itself. It is the light which illuminates though it is itself is not illumined by anything else.278 This is absolutely possible only in the oneness of consciousness. Consciousness is in this sense is Ultimate Reality cannot be divided into the distinction of knower and known. It stands as a witness and as the source of the essence of all manifestation. Consciousness exists as a selfsubsisting reality in which the distinction of subject consciousness and the object

274 275

B.U. IV.3.6-9 Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 31. 276 S.K. Seksena, The Nature of Consciousness, 71-72 277 C.U. 3.14.2 278 B.U. IV.3.6.

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consciousness merge. The oneness of consciousness in the complete union of Brahman and tman it is the merging of knowing and being. Consciousness as self-luminous exists as self-revealed even in the absence of any other object just as sun shines even though there may be no object to be illumined.279 Thus, selfluminosity is the characteristic of the epistemological perspectives of the oneness of consciousness where knowing is being.

3.2.2 Mind and Consciousness Upaniads refer to manas as the co-ordinating factor that governs the five organs of perception and five organs of action. The two other psychophysical organs buddhi the organ of discrimination and ahankara the organ of personal ego delimit the self-luminosity of the consciousness.280 Aitareya Upaniad draws distinction between consciousness as a real knower and mind as a sense organ. The various functions it categorizes as cognition, affection and conation are termed as only names of consciousness and not consciousness itself.
281

They

seem to be the consciousness but they are not. Consciousness is self-manifesting and transcends all plurality. Chndogya Upaniad describes mind as the internal organ endowed with reflection, determination, decision and choice. It acts as the doer and the enjoyer.282 It is made of subtle matter.283 Therefore, mind cannot be compared to consciousness. Oneness of consciousness is the subject that illumines everything.284 Consciousness cannot be an object of knowledge while concept is an object of knowledge. Absolute consciousness is beyond what is known, and unknown. Consciousness in the epistemological perspective is basically self-luminous.

279 280

Bina Gupta, Cit Consciousness, 32. Sangeeta Menon, The Beyond Experience, 32. 281 A.U.III.1.2. 282 C.U. VII.3.2 283 C.U.VI.5.1., also Jagat Praksh Atreya, Mind and Its Functions in Indian thought, (New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company, 1985)126. 284 Sangeetha Menon, The Beyond Experience, 33-34.

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The mind is not self-luminous in nature. It depends on its organs. Consciousness is self-luminous and cannot be known fully by logical reason. Reason is limited because of the duality of subject and object. It is a misconception to consider consciousness as an object of knowledge. It is through the meditative knowing or intuition one knows the true self. Self-realization is liberation. The mahvkyas are examples of comprehensively knowing the Ultimate Reality.285 This realization leads to transcendental consciousness. Consciousness is not an attribute of tman but its essence. The epistemological perspective brings out self-luminosity as the uniqueness of the oneness of consciousness.

3.3 Ontological Perspective of Consciousness Ontology is the fundamental branch of metaphysics which studies being or existence. It is analyzes of the nature of reality. It systematically studies the most basic concepts like being, existence, and reality. The Upaniadic search is basically ontological. It uses similar concepts for meditation in search for the Ultimate Reality.286 They employ these three terms being, existence and reality repeatedly. To be means to exist. Being is the eternal question of the Vedas and the Upaniads. It is expressed in tat meaning that reality beyond every reality. Upaniads dis-cover the self and the Ultimate Reality as one unit. Selfluminosity is from the view of subjective consciousness. Ultimate Reality as existence is studied from the view point of objective consciousness. Various answers are presented. It is the question to know the existence of the ultimate reality.

3.3.1 Consciousness as the Ultimate Reality The Chndogya Upaniad uses the word tat287 to mean Brahman. No other name can signify the Absolute than tat.288 Tat refers to Brahman in Chndogya Upaniad. The Chndogya seer uses the word tajjaln which is
285 286

A.U.III.1.3 (Prajnam Brahma) Sangeetha Menon, The Beyond Experience, 23. 287 C.U.VI.8.7, III.14.1 288 Ram K. Piparaiya, Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas, 597

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compact with meaning. This text is the part of Silya Vidy. Silya vidy affirms the oneness of tman and Brahman. Its philosophy: Brahman is tat or that from which all things are born, and by which they live. tman is both transcendental and immanent and the end of human person is union with self.289 It begins with the assumption of sarvam khalvidam brahma meaning the whole world is Brahman. The comprehensive word tajjaln290 is used to mean that which comes forth from Brahman, lives and moves in Brahman. It indicates the original or foundational reality is Brahman.291 There is another ontological account. In the Chndogya Upaniad the father illustrates to his son vetaketu nine examples so that he comprehends the ontological truth. The culmination of this dialogue is the great aphorism Tat tvam asi or that thou art.292 This ontological doctrine of consciousness is based on the primacy of being or Brahman or tat. It postulates that the Brahman stated in the word tat is not different than the tman. It testifies the absolute nature of the self. Thus, through an objective approach the discussion affirms that Brahman is that Ultimate reality. 293 The perspective is highly ontological but is not complete without the epistemological. The certainty of the Ultimate reality leads to the next topic consciousness as existence.

3.3.2 Consciousness as Existence The certitude of the Ultimate Reality confirms the existence as consciousness. The word aham is of prime importance in this context. It means to be or existence of I. This notion is asserted in the text of the Bhadrayaka Upaniadas as Aham Brahmsmi.294 Brahmsmi means I am Brahman. It is
289 290

S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 392. C.U.III.14.1. 291 Swami Muni Narayana Prasad, Chndogya Upaniad, 26. 292 C.U.VI.8.7 293 R. Balasubramanian, Spiritualcape of the Upaniad-s, in The Adyar Libarary Bulletin, Vol. 68-70, 2004-2006, 108 (89-115) 294 B.U.I.4.10

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further confirmed that this Brahman is satyasya satyam means the truth of truth or the real of real.295 The word satya has a composite meaning. It means the whole of reality visible and invisible.296 It is also a reference to the Ultimate Reality.297 Thus, satya meaning being or existence or truth is best understood as the principle of consciousness. Consciousness is accepted as the basic ontological reality one equal with existence: Aham as existence and Brahman as consciousness. Brahmans essence and existence is upheld as consciousness as Aitareya Upaniad reiterates consciousness is Brahman.298 Thus, existence is consciousness as the basic ontological reality.

The Upaniads prove that consciousness and self are one. There is no distinction between them. Consciousness is being. It is neither a product nor a quality of the self. It is the very essence of the self. Consciousness is not an attribute nor something possessed by tman but it is tman itself. 299 Consciousness is tat or oneness of existence. Thus, consciousness is is or existence. It is unique, eternal and infinite.300 Self is consciousness and existence. It is reality itself.301 The ontological perspective focusing on ultimate reality concludes that consciousness is reality and existence itself.302

Both the approaches overlap each other. They are interwoven with each other. Self-luminosity manifests existence and existence reveals self-luminous. The two basic perspectives: the epistemological perspective orients the Self (tman) toward the Supreme Reality (Brahman) and the ontological perspective manifests the Brahman in every reality. Thus, the search koham ends in aham brahmsmi. The answer to who am I? is I am consciousness.
295 296

B.U.II.1.20 G. Gispert-Sauch, Bliss in the Upanishads: An Analytical Study of the Origin and Growth of the Vedic Concept of Ananda (New Delhi: Oriental Publishers & Distributors, 1977), 43. 297 S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniads, 190. 298 A.U.III.1.3 299 C.U.II.14.1 300 S.K.Seksena, Nature of Consciousness, 61. 301 Sangeetha Menon, The Beyond Experience, 24-25. 302 C.U.VI.2.1. The primacy of being highlighted here - In the beginning was Being alone one without a second and from being.

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3.4 Consciousness as Epistemologized Ontology The knowing and the being are core aspects of daily life. It is true of epistemology and ontology in philosophy. The above analyses prove that these perspectives knowing and being are the essence of consciousness. Consciousness as a being is the Ultimate Reality and consciousness as a knowing subject is selfluminous. Self-luminosity and existence are the core essence of consciousness.303 Upaniads do not differentiate these two aspects of knowing and being. This is based on the essential teaching of the Upaniads: Brahman is tman and tman is Brahman.304 Thus, as oneness of consciousness it is like the light where the distinction of the fire and flame are beyond distinction. Oneness of consciousness proceeds from knowing to being. The epistemological (knowing) of the objective consciousness by the subjective consciousness is culminates in (being).Therefore the researchers coins the termed as Epistemologized Ontology for consciousness as the Ultimate Reality.

Epistemologized ontology is the term coined by the researcher to express the metaphysical dynamics of the ultimate nature of consciousness in the Upaniadic philosophy. The preceding analysis demonstrates the enormous emphasis and importance to knowledge or knowing the Upaniads. Epistemological perspective completes the ontological and the ontological completes the epistemological perspectives.305 It is not a dualistic presentation of knowledge and existence. The unity of epistmic and ontologic principles make the concept of consciousness in the Upaniads holistic. The two self-luminosity and existence as a single unit lead to oneness of consciousness. The researcher considers as epistemologised ontology as the Upaniadic concept of consciousness. In simple terms knowing is being. The above thought syncs with the words of R.D. Ranade. He states that Existence is not Existence if does not mean Self-consciousness. Reality is not reality, if it does not express throughout
303 304

S. Radhakrishnan, Brahma Stra: The Philosophy of the Spiritual Life, 118-119. A.U. III.1.3, Ma.U. I.1.2, C.U. VI.8.7, B.U. I.4.10, also S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1.,169-172 305 B.U.I.4.10 (whoever knows thus, I am Brahman, becomes this all)

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it structure the marks of pure Self-consciousness. Self Consciousness thus constitutes the ultimate category of existence to the Upaniadic philosophers.306 The concept of oneness of consciousness as episitemologized ontology (since knowing precedes being) it is further explained as uncaused and pure consciousness.

3.4.1 Uncaused Consciousness Epistemologized ontology or knowing is being of consciousness is not caused. There is no principle of causality involved. It is not because of knowing there is being. tman and Brahman is or exists as consciousness. It is not a knowing with reason or perception but rather it is beyond the normal human capacities. So the researcher takes recourse to the word transcendental. It is uncaused because there is nothing before nothing after.307 At the same time it is a transcendental principle. Transcendental is concerned with a prior or intuitive basic knowledge independent of experience and reason. It asserts a fundamental or supernatural element in experience, it also means beyond common thought or experience, mystical or supernatural.308 Upaniadic concept of consciousness is a transcendental concept. Consciousness is treated by the Upaniadic seers not from the rational knowledge but more intuitive mysticism. The four Upaniads we deal with Bhadrayaka, Chndogya, Aitaerya and Mkya all are basically meditation on the Ultimate reality. Brahman is the Ultimate Reality is often mentioned in the research work. It clearly signifies the transcendental character of consciousness.

The Ultimate Reality as epistemologized ontology the transcendental nature of consciousness. It transcends all categories of universals. Knowing and Being is the ultimate destiny of the Upaniadic seer. They sought to know that which is beyond every reality. Upaniadic consciousness is beyond the realm of physics, psychology and philosophy. It transcends the all reality of the natural
306 307

R.D. Ranade, A constructive Survey, 197 B.U IV.4.20. 308 Transcendental, on www.thefreedictionary.com/transcendental. Accessed on 13th February 2011.

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order. Consciousness as transcendental which is uncaused or exists eternally as consciousness does not change in time. It is unchanging and permanent. It is beyond the spatio-temporal limitations. Consciousness always is.309 This uncaused transcendental nature of the tman and Brahman culminates in the pure consciousness of epistemologized ontology.

3.4.2 Pure Consciousness Transcendental nature of consciousness of the Upaniads asserts that there is nothing but consciousness. Upaniads absolutize consciousness. Therefore, consciousness is everything.310 Absolute Consciousness has neither external relation nor internal differentiations.311 All differentiation and distinction belong to empirical consciousness. Empirical consciousness points towards intentionality. It is consciousness of.312Consciousness of is consciousness of something signifying intentionality. Absolute consciousness is distinctionless. All distinctions are brought by the limiting principle of subtle bodies of the organs of jva. Pure consciousness is one where only the subject exists as consciousness. Human language and grammar cannot define it adequately. Therefore, ultimate assumption and negations are used to define pure consciousness. Consciousness, with Upaniadic philosophy is treated as sui generis a genre of its kind.313 Pure consciousness is difficult to be expressed in universal and best expressed in Yjavalkyas neti neti.314 It is like the light exists and shines (existence and self-luminosity). The pure consciousness is therefore the knowing is being. Epistemologized ontology transcends all duality of subject and object. Therefore it is pure consciousness.

309 310

C.U.VI.8.7. A.U.III.1-3. 311 S.K. Seksena, The Nature of Consciousness, 134. 312 Bina Gupta, Cit: Consciousness, 8. 313 B.U.II.3.7, also S.K. Seksena, The Nature of Consciousness, 141. 314 B.U. IV.4.22

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3.5 Conclusion The concept of consciousness as Epistemologized ontology is a concept that emphasizes knowing is being or self-luminosity and existence as pure consciousness. The Upaniads characterize Pure consciousness as uncaused and transcendental, The Upaniadic seers spent their lives seeking to know that one Reality which transcends all other realities. To know explains the Upaniadic search. Knowing is an imperative in Upaniadic philosophy.315 Knowledge is the power which destroys the ignorance of plurality and leads one to oneness in Consciousness with Brahman. That One Reality that is a metaphysical concept of Brahman as the ultimate Reality. Consciousness is that the ultimate reality which is one and pure consciousness. This oneness of consciousness is epistemologized ontology or knowing is being. this is so even now. Whoever knows thus, I am Brahman, becomes this all.316

315 316

B.U. I.4.10, (Eva veda) B.U. I.4.10

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Chapter Four GENERAL CONCLUSION

Tad idam api etarhi ya eva veda, aham brahmmti sa ida sarvam bhavati. This is so even now. Whoever knows thus, I am Brahman, become this all.317

Consciousness was, is and will be a multidimensional subject. Consciousness is conscious and is as old as human being. The earliest writings of the Vedas to the writers recent times have grappled them on the mystery of consciousness. Every age witnesses the effort in unfolding the mystery of consciousness. The literature, the culture and the living witness to the fact. It is part and parcel of every individual being. Today consciousness is under the scanner of academicians, the microscope of scientists, the expositions of the philosophers, the observations of the psychologists and the meditations of the mystics, to give answer or rather to find its other dimensions.

The Upaniads contain the supreme wisdom of the Upaniadic seers. They are the witness of their concept of consciousness in their era. Upaniads as we have analysed give us a metaphysical understanding of consciousness. As analysed

systematically in the three chapters consciousness is the Ultimate Reality which is called Brahman or tman. Though looks like two separate entities it is one. Therefore, the concept articulated in the third chapter is oneness of consciousness. The oneness of consciousness is the central or the core of Upaniadic teachings. This truth is revealed in every page of the Upaniads. The four Upaniads for study deliberate on consciousness as the Ultimate Reality. They contain the aphorism which contain the esoteric teaching which leads to experience transcendence of consciousness.

The Upaniads are loaded with stories and incidents of teaching and learning, questioning and answering, meditating and contemplating on the Ultimate Reality. All agree to the fact that consciousness is self-luminous and existence.
317

B.U. I.4.10

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Consciousness by-itself is self-conscious or luminous and it is existence. Upaniads go a step forward and claim that it is the Ultimate Reality. There is nothing before nor after for it. It is always is. Consciousness is as the first and only reality. The most interesting part of the Upaniads is when one knows or the individual knows that its essence is nothing but consciousness as the Ultimate reality or as Brahman, the individual becomes that Ultimate reality. It is not the case as the becoming is a process or causality. There is no such thing involved. Knowing implies a transcendental knowing like intuition one receives as an effort of one search for the Ultimate. One knows through this knowledge that it is not different from the Ultimate Reality. It is best understood as identification or unification. Therefore, the sages announce, This is so even now. Whoever knows thus, I am Brahman, become this all. In other words Knowing is being.

Knowing is being is explained and explored extensively in the as the new concept coined as epistemologized ontology. Epistemologized refers to the whole domain of knowing - Knowing in the Upaniadic way. Knowing is essential to realise being. Knowing and being are not two different acts or processes. The two are one. Ontology refers to being or existence. Thus, the thesis as a generic study of the consciousness in the Upaniadic philosophy survey the pre-upaniadic text and the Upaniadic texts to conclude that consciousness in the Upaniadic philosophy is basically metaphysical. It is best understood as knowing is being or Epistemologized Ontology.

Upaniadic consciousness is transcendental. There are several other dimensions of consciousness which are studied. The cognitive science view consciousness as brain function. Phenomenology considers consciousness from the point of intentionality. Neuroscience anchors itself to prove that consciousness is based on neural mechanism. Psychotherapy accepts consciousness as one which is primarily related to individuals adaptive capacities. Psychology views consciousness as neurobiological and related to different states of cognitive and
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affective developments. Contemplative traditions maintain that consciousness is restricted to higher modes of awareness. Quantum mechanics views consciousness as being able to intrinsically capable of interact with the physical world through quantum interactions. All these are can be brought to an integral theory of consciousness basing it on the Upaniadic concept of consciousness.

Upaniadic consciousness is self-consciousness and existence as one. They are not different but one and cannot be divide. Consciousness is self-consciousness or self-luminous and existence at the same time. Therefore, this research concludes acknowledging consciousness as the Ultimate reality. Knowing is being is manifested in the words of the Upaniads: Tad idam api etarhi ya eva veda, aham brahmmti sa ida sarvam bhavati. (This is so even now. Whoever knows thus, I am Brahman, become this all.)318 B.U.I.4.10

4.1 Positive contribution of the Upaniads Having commented and giving concluding remarks it is important to appreciate the positive contribution of the Upaniadic Seers. The Upaniadic seers were on a systematic search for the Ultimate Reality They received their subjective mystical experience through meditation and contemplation. This experience led them to the oneness of consciousness. It is the foundational mystical experience which made them seers. Seer is a person who sees. As referred to in the General Introduction Indian Philosophy held uses this word di meaning seeing. From koham to aham brahmsmi is a journey of the Upaniadic Seer to see meaning experience knowledge but not the same as perceptual knowledge. Here it refers to transcendental experiential knowledge in which one see the true nature pure consciousness. They state that knowledge includes the knower beyond the

known. The known is studied scientifically in the west but not the knower. The Upaniads is the science of consciousness. The all embracing characteristic of consciousness can be understood as self existent. All existence rests in that consciousness.
318

B.U. I.4.10

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The second positive achievement of the Upaniadic seer is in tune and parallel to that of the modern day scientist. Though poles apart from each other with regard to subject matter, approach, times, sophistication and instrumentations. Just as thorough and systematic investigation for the last about half a millennium scientist have explained matter. They use hi-technological devices and computers to observe matter and give theories stating matter to be a particle, particle to strings and then to waves and stills further divided as quarks. Scientist like Erwin Schrdinger who proposed the quantum mechanics theory makes statements similar to the Upaniads. The Upaniadic seers accomplished the same with regard to consciousness though their search and discoveries were through tapas and investigation within themselves they have found out that consciousness is the fundamental reality of things. Their conclusions in this respect are treasured in the axioms. Thus, the Upaniadic contribution is pivotal for the metaphysical understanding of consciousness.

4.2 Recent Trends in consciousness studies The Upaniadic contribution: Consciousness as the Ultimate Reality is the crux of comprehensive studies in consciousness. Brain studies, cognitive studies and cultural studies in the last few decades has refined the complexity of consciousness. Consciousness is the in-thing in the present global scenario. The problem of conscious self-awareness is not addressed adequately by modern science. Although attempts are made in variety of fields including neuroscience, psychology, philosophy of science, the basic challenge remains that it is by nature science speak about objective reality and consciousness as self-awareness as studied widely in the west ultimately concerns itself to subjective experience and existence.

Consciousness is perhaps a greatest mystery today. Discoveries in science related to physical, neuro-chemical, psychological are done on consciousness. The western philosophers and physiologists have tried to examine and formulate the
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nature of consciousness from different viewpoints. They have opposing theories and unacceptable conclusions. They seem a very remote possibility for a common opinion on consciousness. For them consciousness is mental phenomenon to our brain and nervous system. Neuroscientists interest in consciousness has been a recent advancement. The field of neuroscience has advanced greatly. The processes of the brain are understood much better than before because of the hi-tech electronic gadgets. Brain researchers have also made great advancements and man realises the existence of intricate invisible creative hand in all the brain processes. Scientists in brain research have starts incorporating consciousness as an independent creative entity governing the processes of the brain. In relation to the recent advancement Upaniadic search is purely metaphysical. The recent developments remain more attached to empirical sciences.

In recent times two famous philosophers on consciousness are drawing attention. Daniel Clement Dennett provides a philosophy of mind based on scientific research and David Chalmers presents the easy and the hard problem of consciousness as the first person data cannot be subjected to the standard method of explanation. Consciousness is still the mysterious part of the universe. While things other than consciousness are objective, consciousness is a subjective experience. Consciousness is more than subjective it is the very existence in the Upaniadic philosophy.

4.3 Final Comment The Upaniadic concept of Consciousness is systematically analyzed as epistemologized ontology. It is based on the search of the Upaniadic seers who asked the question to themselves koham? (Who am I?). Their long and disciplined search ends in stating aham Brahmsmi. (I am Brahman). It is in knowing who I am? leads to the revelation of I am Brahman. Similar thought of oneness of consciousness is also seen in the Bible. In John 10:30 Jesus says, I and the Father are one. Here, it does not mean that they are one person but Jesus
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shares in the divinity of Father. This statement is not like the Upaniadic aphorism which expresses the Ultimate Reality. It allows the mind to stretch human thinking to go beyond boundaries of religion in the understanding, Epistemologized Ontology as the crux of Upaniadic philosophy of consciousness.

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