R EYNOLDS N UMBER BASED B LADE

T IP VORTEX M ODEL
Manikandan Ramasamy∗ J. Gordon Leishman†

Alfred Gessow Rotorcraft Center

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Glenn L. Martin Institute of Technology
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742

Abstract Nb Number of blades

rc Core radius of the vortex, m
A mathematical model has been developed to estimate the r Radial distance, m
temporal growth properties of helicopter blade tip vortices r Non-dimensional radial distance, = r/rc
at any vortex Reynolds number. One unique feature of R Radius of the blade, m
the model is that it takes into account rotational stratifi- Rev Vortex Reynolds number, = Γv /ν
cation (Richardson’s number) effects on the distribution Ri Richardson number
of turbulent viscosity inside the tip vortices. This model t Time, s
is combined with another model for the effects of fila- T Rotor thrust, N
ment stretching in predicting the temporal evolution of V1 Peak swirl velocity, ms−1
the vortex. A turbulent growth model solves exactly for V1new Peak swirl velocity in new model, ms−1
the tangential (swirl) velocity starting from the Navier– Vr Radial velocity of the tip vortex, ms−1
Stokes equations using an assumed variation in eddy vis- Vz Axial velocity of the tip vortex, ms−1
cosity across the vortex core. This variation is a function Vθ Swirl velocity of the tip vortex, ms−1
of the local Richardson’s number, and the final solution αL Lamb’s constant, = 1.25643
becomes dependent on vortex Reynolds number. A more αI Iversen’s constant, = 0.01854
parsimonious functional approximation is given to repre- αnew New empirical constant, = 0.0655
sent the induced velocity distribution in the tip vortices for γ Reduced circulation, = rVθ , m2 s−1
practical applications. It is shown that the temporal core γv Reduced circulation at large distances, m2 s−1
growth rate predicted by the new model increases with an γ Non-dimensional circulation, = γ/γv
increase in vortex Reynolds number, which is consistent Γ Circulation, = 2πrVθ , m2 s−1
with experimental observations. The predictions from the Γv Circulation of the vortex at large distances, m2 s−1
model were validated, wherever possible, with tip vortex Γ1 Circulation at the core radius, m2 s−1
measurements from both model- and full-scale rotors. δ Ratio of apparent to actual viscosity
ζ Wake age, deg.
η Similarity variable, = r2 /4γvt
Nomenclature η1 Similarity variable at the core radius,= rc2 /4γvt
ηa Empirical constant
a, b Empirical constants
η Scaled similarity variable, = η/αnew 2
c Blade chord, m
κ Newly developed function, = αnew 2 VIF
C0 Constant
µ Dynamic viscosity, kgm−1 s−1
CT Coefficient of thrust, = T /ρAΩ2 R2
ν Kinematic viscosity, = µ/ρ, m2 s−1
g Core circulation function
νt Eddy viscosity
l Prandtl’s mixing length, m
νT Total kinematic viscosity, = ν + νt
∗ Research Associate. mani@glue.umd.edu ρ Density, kg/m3
† Minta Martin Professor. leishman@eng.umd.edu σ Shear stress, N/m2
Presented at the 61st Annual Forum and Technology Display of σe Effective rotor solidity, = Nb c/πR
the American Helicopter Society International, Grapevine, TX, ψ Azimuthal position, deg.
June 1–3, 2005. 2005
c by M. Ramasamy & J. G. Leishman. Ω Rotational speed of the rotor, rad/s
Published by the AHS International with permission.
 Introduction
Understanding the temporal development of helicopter
rotor blade tip vortices has been the subject of intensive
research for several decades. The motivation is clear, in
that a more complete understanding of the structure of the
tip vortices is essential for accurately predicting the un-
steady airloads on helicopter blades. It has been hypothe-
sized by many investigators that the evolution of rotor tip
vortices, such as the core growth and induced velocity dis-
tribution, are directly related to the details of the turbulent
flow structures present inside the tip vortex core (Refs. 1–
5). A better understanding of these details is critical for
helicopters because the tip vortices generated by one blade
can interact with following blades, resulting in a problem
known as blade-vortex interaction (BVI). This BVI prob-
lem results in high unsteady airloads, and is a source of
significant noise and vibration levels on helicopter rotors.
Because of the continued emphasis on reducing helicopter
noise and rotor vibration, higher-fidelity tip vortex mod-
els need to be developed to more accurately predict BVI.
Eventually, a deeper understanding of how vortices de-
velop and the factors that influence their evolution should
help analysts to devise better strategies to alleviate the ad-
verse effects associated with vortex induced airloads. This
goal, however, is a longer way off.
Most existing vortex models assume either a com-
pletely laminar or turbulent interior flow. For example,
the classic Lamb–Oseen model (Refs. 6, 7) assumes a
completely laminar interior flow, while Squire (Ref. 1)
and Iversen (Ref. 2) assume completely turbulent flow for
their models. Even though there are measurements to sup-
port both laminar and turbulent vortex flow assumptions
(Refs. 8, 9), new improvements in measurement instru-
mentation have allowed for better clarity into the details of
the flows inside rotor tip vortices. Flow visualization stud-
ies (Refs. 10, 11) and high-resolution flow measurements
performed on model scale helicopter rotors (Refs. 10, 12,
13) have confirmed an original hypothesis made by Tung
et al. (Ref. 14) that the tip vortex can be classified into
three distinct flow regions: an inner laminar region free of
all turbulence, a transitional region with eddies of small
scale, and an outer turbulent region with larger eddies.
The extent of the three regions, however, depends on sev-
eral factors, including the vortex Reynolds number.
Semi-empirical vortex models have been developed in
the past that have recognized such a multi-region vortex
structure, i.e., Tung model (Ref. 14) and Hoffman &
Joubert model (Ref. 15). However, all the aforementioned
models have been limited in their application to helicopter
rotor problems because they are not general enough to
be applied for any vortex Reynolds number, i.e., they do
not account for scaling issues. Today, the size scales in-
volved between full-scale helicopter rotors, laboratory or
wind tunnel models, and rotating-wing micro air vehicles
(MAVs) means that several orders of magnitude of differ-
ence in the tip vortex Reynolds numbers is involved. Until
the Reynolds number issues are understood and modelled,
airload predictions will remain unreliable.
The overall turbulence present inside the tip vortex has
been previously hypothesized to change with the geomet-
ric scale of the rotor (Ref. 14). Consequently, this af-
fects the core growth, peak swirl velocity, and induced
velocity distribution of the tip vortex. Bearing in mind
that most vortex models are developed empirically from
measurements made on sub-scale laboratory size rotors,
this for that matter raises many questions about the appli-
cability of these models to full-scale rotors or to MAVs.
Certainly, full-scale rotor tip vortex measurements have
been made in the past, but are very few in number and
cannot be made under the same controlled conditions that
are possible in the laboratory or the wind tunnel. There
are no vortex measurements that have been made at MAV
scale. Boatwright (Ref. 16) made measurements in the
wake of a hovering, full-scale OH-23B rotor using hot-
wire anemometry, while Cook (Ref. 17) made hot-wire
measurements using a full-scale S-58 rotor on a hover
tower. The paucity of full-scale rotor measurements has
its roots not only from the substantial financial invest-
ments but also from the numerous practical difficulties in-
volved in making vortex flow measurements at this scale,
including the required spatial and temporal fidelity.
As previously alluded to, the inherent difficulties in
making full-scale measurements in an already compli-
cated rotor flow field has caused rotor analysts to perform
tip vortex experiments mostly on sub-scale model rotors
(e.g., Refs. 11, 12, 18–20). Vortex models that have been
developed based on these sub-scale measurements have
been used to try to explain the persistence of rotor tip vor-
tices to the relatively old wakes ages that are observed in
full-scale rotor tests, but with limited success. This failure
can be attributed, in part, to the neglect of Reynolds num-
ber scaling issues while developing a tip vortex model.
This can be explained using Fig. 1, which includes
Cook’s full-scale rotor tip vortex measurements (Ref. 17),
and measurements by Martin et al. (Ref. 10), Ma-
halingam et al. (Ref. 18), Ramasamy & Leishman
(Ref. 11), McAlister (Ref. 12), and the 40% full-scale
HART II test measurements (Ref. 21). For a helicopter
rotor, the tip vortex Reynolds number is given approxi-
mately by the result


2ΩRc CT
Rev = (1)
ν σ
so that matching tip speed ΩR and blade loading coeffi-
cient CT /σ leaves only a linear dependence on geometric
rotor scaling. From the results in Fig. 1, it is apparent that
the vortex Reynolds number of the model-scale experi-
 v
Vortex Reynolds number, Re
10
8
7
10
Model scale
10
6 dicting the temporal growth rate of the vortex core. It is
5 Ramasamy & Leishman, 2004
10
4 McAlister, 2003
10
Micro-air
1000 vehicles
100
0 0.2 0.4
Ratio rotor radius (Model scale/Full scale)
Figure 1: Comparison of the vortex Reynolds number
for sub-scale and full-scale rotor measurements.
ments is lower by orders of magnitude when compared
with the full-scale tests, mainly because of geometric scal-
ing issues. In the case of the HART II tests, which are
40% of full-scale, the measured circulation of the tip vor-
tices seems relatively lower than the expected value (the
Rev values are closer to 105 than to 106 , for reasons that
are not yet clear).
Another important, but most often neglected, issue is
the effect of vortex filament strain on the growth prop-
erties of tip vortices. Helicopter rotor vortices develop
in a highly three-dimensional and nonuniform velocity
field, which causes the vortex filaments to undergo ei-
ther a stretching or contraction process as they convect
in the flow. Stretching of the vortex filaments with posi-
tive velocity gradients can intensify the core vorticity and
increase swirl velocities; contracting the vortices in a neg-
ative strain field produces the opposite effect. Therefore,
neglecting this strain process can alter significantly BVI
noise and rotor vibration predictions. The effects of vor-
tex filament strain on the development of rotor tip vortices
have been shown significant within the context of free-
vortex rotor wake predictions (Ref. 22).
A blade tip vortex model combining the effects of dif-
fusion and strain in predicting vortex evolution was pro-
posed by Ananthan et al. (Ref. 22), and was validated
in an experiment by Ramasamy & Leishman (Ref. 11).
A Reynolds number dependent transitional vortex model
that takes into account the effects of rotational stratifica-
tion effects (or Richardson number effects) on the tur-
bulence present inside the vortex was also developed by
Ramasamy et al. (Ref. 13), and was validated using avail-
able measurements from various sources. The present
work involves combining and extending these two vor-
tex models to develop a comprehensive vortex model that
takes into account both the filament straining issues and
the rotational stratification (Richardson number) effects
on the effective turbulent viscosity within the vortex in-
terior. The final model is dependent on vortex Reynolds
number.
Full scale Core Growth Theory
An important aspect of predicting vortex evolution is pre-
convenient to quantify the development of the vortex in
terms of its core size because the peak swirl velocities are
Martin & Leishman, 2003
obtained at the core boundary. It is widely accepted that
Cook, 1972 the growth of the tip vortex core depends on the nature
Mahalingam et al., 1998
of the flow inside the tip vortices, i.e., whether it is lam-
HART II test
inar or turbulent and to what extent. For example, a tur-
bulent flow state increases mixing and so the transfer of
0.6 0.8 1 1.2
momentum across the layers of the vortex. This causes the
core to grow as its vorticity spreads radially away from the
core axis. In a laminar flow, momentum transfer is possi-
ble only by molecular diffusion. A schematic explaining
the effect of diffusion on the growth properties of the tip
vortices is shown in Fig. 2. The vortex core size increases
with increasing in time and the core vorticity decreases
(but total circulation is conserved).
Lamb (Ref. 6) and Oseen (Ref. 7) assumed the flow
inside the vortex to be completely laminar and derived
an exact solution to the one-dimensional, incompressible
Navier–Stokes equations. The core growth with time pre-
dicted by the Lamb–Oseen model (Refs. 6, 7) is given
by

rc = 4αL νt (2)
where αL is Lamb’s constant (αL = 1.25643). This result,
however, suggests a growth rate that is substantially lower
than found with experimental measurements – see Fig. 3.
Also, the Lamb–Oseen model approaches a singularity at
time t = 0 with infinite kinetic energy, which is not phys-
ically realistic.
Squire (Ref. 1) and Bhagwat & Leishman (Ref. 23)
modified the Lamb–Oseen model by including an eddy
viscosity for turbulence that was present inside the tip vor-
Γv
Swirl velocity
ω Filament undergoes

viscous diffusion Γv
ω
Swirl velocity
Figure 2: Schematic explaining the physics of a vortex
filament undergoing diffusion.
tex. The modified core growth is given by McAlister, 2003
 Martin et al., 2001
Lamb–Oseen model
rc = r02 + 4ανδt (3) 0.25 Squire model, δ = 2
Squire model, δ = 8

Non-dimensional core radius, rc/ c

Squire model, δ = 16
where r0 is the initial core radius that removes the sin- 0.2 Ramasamy & Leishman, 2004
δ = 16
gularity at t = 0, and δ is the ratio of apparent to actual Cook, 1972

viscosity, i.e., δ=8

0.15
ν + νt νt
δ= = 1+ (4)
ν ν 0.1
δ=2
where νt is the effective turbulent value of viscosity. The δ = 1 (Lamb-Oseen)
0.05
values of r0 and δ (or νt ) must be obtained from mea-
surements. Squire assumed that the eddy viscosity, which
0
results from turbulence, is a function of the kinematic vis- 0 180 360 540 720 900
cosity, however, with a different magnitude. Because the Wake age, ζ (deg)
principal permanent characteristic of a tip vortex is its cir-
culation, Squire assumed that the eddy viscosity was pro- Figure 3: Vortex core growth predicted by Squire’s
portional to the total vortex circulation, i.e., model (In this case the results that ζ0 ≈ 30◦ ).
γ 

v Γv
δ = 1+a = 1 + a1 (5)
ν ν
where a and a1 are empirical constants and the ratio Γv /ν
is the vortex Reynolds number. 1
For very low vortex Reynolds numbers, the value of δ
approaches 1, so it reduces to the laminar Lamb–Oseen 2
model. Higher values of δ correspond to an increased
level of turbulence inside the vortex. This would result 3
in increased vortex core growth rate, as shown in Fig. 3.
It should, however, be noted that δ is not a function of r,
which means that the turbulence present inside the tip vor-
tex is implied to be independent of radial location. Even
though, the Squire vortex model differs from the laminar Region 1: Fully laminar

Region 2: Transitional

Lamb–Oseen model by including (on average) the effects Region 3: Fully turbulent
of turbulence on the core growth properties, the swirl ve-
locity distribution predicted by both models are the same. Figure 4: A representative flow visualization image
This result is also independent of vortex Reynolds num- of a tip vortex emanating from a rotor blade showing
ber or other scaling. Yet this is not consistent with mea- three distinct flow regions: (1) a fully laminar region,
surements and this deficiency with the modeling was one (2) a transitionally turbulent region, and (3) a fully tur-
motivation for the present work. bulent region.
Estimating the value of a1 (and, hence, δ) from Eq. 5
largely depends upon the way in which the eddy viscos- rotor noise. This point has been addressed previously by
ity is assumed to vary radially across the entire tip vor- Ramasamy & Leishman (Ref. 13).
tex region from its core axis into the outer far-field region. There are also observations from both velocity field
For example, a1 approaches zero for laminar flow assump- measurements (Refs. 10, 13–15) and flow visualization
tions, such as in Lamb–Oseen model. While Squire as- (Refs. 10, 13) suggesting that flow structures in the vor-
sumed uniform eddy viscosity, Iversen (Ref. 24) hypoth- tex are not consistent with either the fully laminar or fully
esized that the eddy viscosity varies linearly with the ra- turbulent assumption. It is now known that a rotor tip vor-
dial distance. This different assumption affects the core tex is made of three main regions: an inner laminar re-
growth. Bhagwat & Leishman (Ref. 23) suggested that gion that rotates like a solid body, a transitional flow re-
the average value of a1 lies within the fairly broad range gion, and a more fully turbulent outer region. One such
from 0.0004 to 0.00005 based on a summary of all avail- example is shown in Fig. 4. This means the eddy viscos-
able measurements. However, determining a more exact ity is nearly zero near the vortex core axis and approaches
value for a1 is required for applications that must pre- a value equivalent to the fully turbulent region far away
dict accurately rotor airloads, helicopter vibrations, and from the center of the tip vortex. Between these regions is

a transitional region with eddies of different length scales.
Ramasamy & Leishman (Ref. 13) developed a transi-
tional vortex model that is a function of vortex Reynolds
number based on the premise of this multi-region vortex
concept. The predictions of the model were later validated
with measurements, with good agreement.
Methodology
A vortex Reynolds number dependent core growth model
for rotor tip vortices can be developed that takes into ac-
count the effects of vortex filament strain and flow rotation
effects on turbulence (or the eddy viscosity) present inside
the tip vortices. This is obtained by combining two ex-
perimentally validated individual vortex models (a strain
model and a transitional flow model).
Vortex Strain Model
A vortex strain model was developed by Ananthan et al.
(Ref. 22), which quantifies the effects of vortex filament
stretching on the core properties of rotor tip vortices. Con-
servation of fluid mass and momentum were used in de-
riving this model. A filament undergoing pure diffusion
results in increased core size per unit length (for the same
filament circulation) with increase in time, as shown pre-
viously in Fig. 3. However, the strain model suggests that
a tip vortex filament must result in a reduced core size and
an increased core vorticity when it is subjected to a pos-
itive stretching in a flow with positive velocity gradients,
as shown by the schematic in Fig. 5. Conservation of mass
and momentum leads to an expression for the vortex core
growth, which is given by
 fects of swirling flow (rotation) on the turbulence present
 ζ
rc = r0 2 + 4ανδ (1 + ε)−1 dζ (6)
ζ0
where r0 is the initial core radius, ζ is the (wake) age of
the filament, and ε(ζ) is the instantaneous filament strain
as given by
∆l
ε= (7)
l 2Vθ ∂(Vθ r)
Applying zero strain rate will reduce the strain model
(Eq. 6) into a diffusion based Squire-like core growth
model, as given previously in Eq. 3.
To validate this model, measurements were made in the
wake of a hovering rotor in the presence of a ground plane.
This resulted in very high velocity gradients being pro-
duced to strain the vortices. Flow visualization of the tip
vortex developments allowed the strain field to be mea-
sured. These high velocity gradients strained the vortex
filaments allowing the core properties of tip vortices to be
Γv
Swirl velocity
ω
l
S Γv
Filament is strained
or "stretched"
l + ∆l
S
ω
Swirl velocity
Figure 5: Schematic explaining the physics of a vortex
filament undergoing positive filament strain.
measured in a known strain field (Ref. 11). The measure-
ments were found to correlate well with the core growth
predicted by the strain model.
Transitional Vortex Model
A transitional rotor tip vortex model was developed by
Ramasamy & Leishman (Ref. 13) and takes into account
the swirling flow (rotation) effects on the turbulent struc-
ture of tip vortices. This model was developed using
an eddy viscosity function in such a way that the func-
tion smoothly and continuously models the eddy viscosity
variation across the vortex from its inner laminar region to
the outer turbulent flow region.
An intermittency function was developed based on a
Richardson number concept, which also brings in the ef-
inside the vortex boundaries. The Richardson number is
defined as the ratio of turbulence produced or consumed
as a result of centrifugal forces to the turbulence produced
by shear. Bradshaw (Ref. 25) derived an expression for
the Richardson number based on an analogy between ro-
tational and stratified flows. This expression, which was
later modified by Holzapfel (Ref. 26), is given by


2
∂ (Vθ /r)
Ri = r (8)
r2 ∂r ∂r
and involves the velocity gradients in the vortex flow.
Cotel & Breidenthal (Ref. 27) and Cotel (Ref. 28)
suggested that the tip vortex will not develop or sustain
any turbulence until the local gradient Richardson num-
ber, Ri, falls below a critical value (or stratification thresh-
old). Based on experiments, Cotel et al. (Ref. 29) deter-
mined that the critical value of Richardson number to be
1/4
Ri = Rev . This would mean that at any radial location
 10 6 1
3

Vortex intermittency function, VIF

10 5 Lamb–Oseen model
Iversen's model
0.8
Richardson number, Ri

4
10 Measurements
Intermittency function
Stratification line
1000 0.6
100 2

10 0.4
1/4
Stratification line, Ri = Re
V
Core radius
1
0.2
0.1
1
0.01 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1 2 3
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / rc
c

Figure 6: Plot of Richardson number with radial coor- Figure 7: Eddy viscosity intermittency function across
dinate for a vortex flow. the vortex: (1) laminar flow region, (2) transitional
flow region, and (3) fully turbulent region.
the vortex will not be able to develop or sustain any turbu-
lence if the local value of Ri stays above the stratification based on Eq. 9. Far away from the vortex core axis, the
1/4
threshold of Rev . value of VIF approaches one, resulting in the value of
Figure 6 shows the variation of Ri for the previously eddy viscosity equivalent to the eddy viscosity for a com-
mentioned Squire and Iversen models along with the mea- pletely turbulent flow.
surements made by Ramasamy & Leishman (Ref. 11). It This expression for eddy viscosity was then incorpo-
is evident that there exists a multi-region vortex structure rated into the momentum equation governing the develop-
with laminar flow until a particular distance from the cen- ment of an axisymmetric vortex flow, i.e.,
ter of the vortex where the Richardson number is always 


above the threshold value. This is followed by a transition ∂γ ∂ ∂ γ ∂ γ
=r νT r + 2ν T (11)
flow region and then an outer turbulent region on moving ∂t ∂r ∂r r2 ∂r r2
far away from the vortex core axis. This concept is clearly
consistent with flow visualization (Fig. 4). This results in a similarity solution for the circulation dis-
Using this Richardson number concept, Ramasamy & tribution that is a function of vortex Reynolds number, i.e.,
Leishman (Ref. 13) developed a generalized eddy viscos-   2
∂γ ν 1 ∂ γ 2|X|X ∂
ity function to represent the variation of eddy viscosity − = + 4VIF · |X|
2
+ VIF
across the tip vortex. The expression for eddy viscosity, ∂η γ0 α2i ∂η2 η ∂η
(12)
which was derived using an analogy based on boundary
layer theory, is given mathematically by
where  
1 ∂γ


 X= η −γ
∂ Γ γ0 ∂η
νt = VIF αnew 2 r2 (9)
∂r r2 The sequence of steps involved in deriving the solution
for this equation, along with the various assumptions, is
where αnew is an empirical constant (found empirically). given in Ref. 13. It can be understood from Eq. 12 that
VIF is called the vortex intermittency function, which is the model reduces to the laminar Lamb–Oseen model or
defined by to a completely turbulent model for values of the VIF ap-


 
 proaching 0 and 1, respectively. Also, for very low vor-
1 η
VIF = 1 + erf b − ηa (10)
2 η1
where b and η a are empirical constants, η is the similarity
variable and η/η1 is equivalent to the ratio (r/rc )2 .
The variation of the vortex intermittency function (VIF)
with respect to the radial location of tip vortices is shown
in Fig. 7. It can be observed that near the center of the
vortex the VIF approaches zero. This results in zero eddy
viscosity, as assumed by the laminar Lamb–Oseen model
tex Reynolds numbers, the model approaches the laminar
Lamb–Oseen model for any value of the VIF. The three
empirical constants involved in the model were derived
using vortex flow measurements from various available
sources.
Solving Eq. 12 numerically using a Runge-Kutta
scheme showed that the circulation and induced veloc-
ity distribution of tip vortices predicted by the transitional
model correlated extremely well with experimental mea-
surements. Examples are shown in Figs. 8 and 9 in terms
 Lamb–Oseen model
Iversen's model
1.2 Transitional model
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2004
1 3
v

2
Non-dimensional circulation, Γ / Γ

Martin & Leishman, 2000

McAlister, 2003
1 McAlister, 1996
Cook, 1972
0.8 Cliffone & Orloff, 1975
Jacob et al., 1996
Mahalingam & Komerath, 1998
0.6 Bhagwat & Leishman, 1998
Govindaraju & Saffman, 1971
Jacob et al., 1995
Measurements Kraft, 1955
0.4
Lamb–Oseen model McCormick, Tangler & Sherrib, 1963
Iversen's model 4 Rose & Dee, 1963
10 Corsiglia et al., 1973
0.2

Effective viscosity coefficient, δ

Transitional model
Baker et al., 1974
Tung model Dosanjh et al., 1964
1000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r 100
c
Figure 8: Predicted ratio of circulation to circulation
10
at large distance, Rev = 48, 000, (1) laminar region, (2)
transitional region and, (3) turbulent region. 1
1.2
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, Vθ / V1

Model scale Full scale

0.1
1 Measurements 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6 7
10
Transitional model Vortex Reynolds number, Re
v
0.8 Lamb–Oseen model
Iversen's model Figure 10: Variation of δ with vortex Reynolds num-
0.6 ber based on new core growth model.

0.4
where αnew is a “new” empirical constant estimated based
0.2
1 2 3
on measurements from various available sources that were
0
listed in Ref. 13, and V1 is the peak swirl velocity pre-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 dicted by the transitional model.
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c
The ratio δ predicted by the transitional vortex model is
Figure 9: Predicted swirl velocity distribution pre-
plotted against vortex Reynolds number in Fig. 10. It can
dicted by the transitional vortex model for Rev =
be observed that the Lamb–Oseen model predicts a con-
48, 000, (1) laminar region, (2) transitional region and,
stant core growth independent of Reynolds number (be-
(3) turbulent region.
cause of the inherent laminar flow assumption), while the
of the circulation distribution and the swirl velocity pro- Iversen model and the transitional model predicts an in-
files, respectively. The agreement of the new model with creased growth rate for an increase in vortex Reynolds
the measurements is clearly better than for either a model number. It should, however, be noted that the Iversen core
developed on laminar flow assumptions or a model based growth model shows a much higher core growth rate com-
on fully turbulent flow assumptions. pared with measurements or with the transitional vortex
model. This is because the Iversen model assumes that the
New Vortex Model eddy viscosity inside the vortex is fully turbulent from the
vortex core axis to the outer potential region. The value
The development of the new vortex model, which is ob- of δ predicted by the transitional model correlates well
tained by combining the strain and transitional models with measurements both in sub-scale experiments (where
previously discussed, will be complete by: (i) formulat- the vortex Reynolds number is lower) as well as full-scale
ing an expression for δ in Eq. 6 using the temporal growth tests (that have vortex Reynolds numbers at least an order
predictions from the transitional vortex model, and (ii) de- of magnitude higher).
riving a more convenient algebraic expression to represent
the swirl velocity distribution. Comparing the value of δ predicted by the transitional
The expression for δ based on the transitional vortex model with the value of δ based on the uniform eddy vis-
model is given by cosity model proposed by Squire (as given in Eq. 5) en-
ables the determination of a unique value for the constant
 
Rev α2new Γv Lamb 2 a1 , which is 6.5 × 10−5 – see Fig. 11. With this unique
δ= (13) value for a1 , substituting the expression for δ from Eq. 5
2παL V1new
 5
10 1.2

1
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V θ / V
Effective viscosity coefficent, δ
4
10 New model 1
-5
a = 6x10
1
1000 Lamb–Oseen model 0.8 All results
overlap
a1 here
100 0.6

10 0.4 Transitional Model

Lamb–Oseen model
Curve fit
1 0.2

0.1 0
4 6 8
1 100 10 10 10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Vortex Reynolds number, Re Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
v c
Figure 11: Comparison of δ between the transitional Figure 12: Numerical prediction of swirl velocity ver-
vortex model and Squire’s model to determine the con- sus expeonential approximation for Rev = 1 × 102 .
stant a1 . 1.2

1
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V θ / V
into Eq. 6 results in the core growth model 1
 Transitional model
 ζ 0.8 and
curve fit
rc = r0 2 + 4αν(1 + a1 Rev ) (1 + ε)−1 dζ (14)
ζ0 0.6

Because this model is a function of vortex Reynolds num- 0.4 Transitional model
Lamb–Oseen model
ber, the core growth properties for a tip vortex that devel-
Curve fit
ops in time (i.e., with age) through any strain field ε(ζ) at 0.2

any vortex Reynolds number, Rev , can now be determined.

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
Swirl Velocity Distribution c

Figure 13: Numerical prediction of swirl velocity ver-

The induced velocity profile as a function of the Reynolds sus expeonential approximation for Rev = 48 × 103 .
number can be obtained from the circulation distribution
are determined by fitting this expression to the numeri-
predicted by the vortex model, as given by Eq. 12. The
cally predicted velocity profiles. Because the swirl veloc-
difficulty in using this model arises from the relatively
ity profile changes with vortex Reynolds number, different
inconvenient mathematical form of the final result and
values of an , and bn are obtained as Rev varies. The curve-
the need for its numerical solution. The computational
fit was made in such a way that
cost involved in repeatedly solving a differential equa-
tion for the velocity profile is significant within the con- 3
text of routine velocity field evaluations in comprehensive ∑ an = 1 (16)
rotor codes. Therefore, a more approximate solution was n=1
sought. so as to satisfy the boundary condition that the swirl ve-
Algebraic vortex models have gained increasing popu- locity is zero at the vortex core axis. Care was also taken
larity over the past few years because of their extremely to make sure that the predicted swirl velocity based on the
low computational cost (such as for inclusion within free- curve fit asymptotes to zero at large values of r.
vortex wake models) and good fidelity when compared to The value of the constants that are obtained for var-
measurements, at least at a single Reynolds number, e.g., ious vortex Reynolds number are given in Table 1. It
the Vatistas vortex model (Refs. 30, 31). To have a rel- can be observed that at low vortex Reynolds numbers
atively parsimonious mathematical function to represent a1 = 1 and an = 0 for n = 1 and b1 = αL = 1.25643
the velocity profile, an expression of the form and bn = 0 for n = 1. This confirms that the expression

 for estimating the swirl velocity distribution reduces to the
Γv 3
laminar Lamb–Oseen model for low values of Rev .
Vθ = 1 − ∑ an exp(−bn r) (15)
2πr n=1 Figures 12, 13 and 14 show the results for the swirl
velocity that were obtained at three different vortex
has been used to approximate the results given by the vor- Reynolds numbers. Using this parsimonious mathemat-
tex model in Eq. 12. Here, an and bn are constants that ical form in representing the induced velocity field of the
 Rev a1 b1 a2 b2 b3
1 1.0000 1.256 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
100 1.0000 1.2515 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1000 1.0000 1.2328 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
10, 000 0.8247 1.2073 0.1753 0.0263 0.0000
2.5 × 104 0.5933 1.3480 0.2678 0.01870 0.2070
4.8 × 104 0.4602 1.3660 0.3800 0.01380 0.1674
7.5 × 104 0.3574 1.3995 0.4840 0.01300 0.1636
1 × 105 0.3021 1.4219 0.5448 0.0122 0.1624
2.5 × 105 0.1838 1.4563 0.6854 0.0083 0.1412
5.0 × 105 0.1386 1.4285 0.7432 0.0058 0.1144
7.5 × 105 0.1011 1.4462 0.7995 0.0048 0.1078
1 × 106 0.0792 1.4716 0.8352 0.0042 0.1077

Table 1: Values of the coefficients used in the curve fit to the numerical predictions of swirl velocity as a function of
vortex Reynolds number.
th 4
1.2 1/7 scale model, Re = 8X10
1

v
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V θ / V

th 5
1/15 scale model, Re = 1.7X10
v
1 Lamb-Oseen model
5
S-58 Full-scale, Re = 8 X 10
v
0.8
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2004
McAlister, 1996
0.6 McAlister, 2003
Cook, 1972
0.4 Mahalingam et al., 1998
0.4
Non-dimensional core radius, rc / c

Transitional model
Lamb–Oseen model
Curve fit
0.2
0.3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r 0.2
c
Figure 14: Numerical prediction of swirl velocity ver-
sus expeonential approximation for Rev = 1 × 106 . 0.1

tip vortices is not only computationally inexpensive, but

also takes into account the required change in the form of 0
0 180 360 540 720
Vθ with Rev , which will be necessary for accurate aeroa-
Wake age, ζ (deg)
coustic predictions. Values of the coefficients for interme-
diate Reynolds numbers can be found through interpola- Figure 15: Core growth predicted by the new vortex
tion. model at different vortex Reynolds numbers.

Core Growth It can be observed that for full-scale flight conditions

the vortex core size grows up to 25% of the blade chord
The core growth predicted by the new model for a range within 360◦ of wake age but only up to 35% by two rotor
of vortex Reynolds numbers is shown in Fig. 15. This in- revolutions. Because the new vortex model has its basis
cludes vortex Reynolds numbers that correspond to both in the Iversen model, a logarithmic growth rate is found at
full- and model-scale rotors. Vortex measurements from older wake ages. Again, it is seen that the model reduces
various available sources at different vortex Reynolds to the laminar Lamb–Oseen model at very low values of
number are shown. It can be observed that the core size vortex Reynolds number (Rev < 1000). The new model
predicted by the new model correlates well with the mea- slightly overpredicts the tip vortex core growth measured
surements that are made at different vortex Reynolds num- by Cook (Ref. 17) using the full-scale Sikorsky S-58
bers. An increase in the vortex Reynolds number corre- rotor. This difference can, at least in part, be attributed to
sponds to an increase in the amount of turbulence present the measurement uncertainties involved in making a full-
inside the tip vortices and this, therefore, increases the scale measurement in the open air environment; for exam-
growth rate of the vortex cores. ple, the problem of vortex wandering must clearly be an
issue as it is in the laboratory (Refs. 32, 33). The measure-
ments of Boatright (Ref. 16) were noted to exhibit sub-
stantial scatter, most likely because of this problem and
are not shown here. The measurements of Mahalingam et
al. (Ref. 18) suggest a somewhat higher core growth rate
at young wake ages than that might be expected based on
the vortex Reynolds number. This could be because the
measurements were made using a rotor operating in for-
ward flight; as previously alluded to in this case the vortex
filaments experience velocity gradients in the rotor wake,
which can strain or squeeze filaments and can affect the
measured growth properties of the tip vortices. The im-
portance of vortex filament strain and its interdependence
on diffusion (and vortex Reynolds number) is explained in
the next section.
Combining Diffusion & Stretching Model
The growth of the vortex core, as shown in Eq. 14, de-
pends not only on the vortex Reynolds number but also on
the local velocity gradient experienced by the vortex fila-
ments as they age in the flow. These local velocity gradi-
ents can stretch or squeeze the vortex filaments, changing
the vorticity (but not the net circulation) and so producing
a different induced velocity field. This is especially impor-
tant in the vortex ring state when the helicopter rotor oper-
ates in forward flight, or in ground effect, where velocity
gradients are typically higher. Ananthan et al. (Ref. 22)
used a free vortex-wake method to show that the magni-
tude of the velocity gradients when the rotor operates in
forward flight are large enough to have significant effects
on growth properties of tip vortices. This suggests that
any vortex measurements that are made in forward flight
must be corrected for the effects of strain if the intent is to
isolate the competing mechanisms of stretching and diffu-
sion from each other. The ability to do this would seem to
be a prerequisite to validate any kind of blade tip vortex
model.
0.1
Non-dimensional core radius, r c/c
Rectilinear vortex, Vε = 0
0.08
Positive strain, V = 0.25
ε
Negative strain, V = -0.25
ε
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0
0 360
Wake age, ζ (deg.)
Figure 16: Variation of core growth predicted by the
new model for different values of uniform strain rates
at Rev = 5 × 105 .
The importance and sensititivity of vortex filament
strain on the growth properties of tip vortices can be il-
lustrated with reference to the viscous development of a
rectilinear vortex at a particular vortex Reynolds num-
ber. The effects on the filaments were examined as a
function of prescribed strain rate defined by Vε = dε/dt.
Figure 16 shows the growth rate predicted by the model
given by Eq. 14 for a rectilinear vortex filament operat-
ing at Rev = 5 × 105 . This is a representative value of
most model-scale rotor measurements. This figure also in-
cludes the core growth predicted by the model for a vortex
filament undergoing a constant filament strain rate, both
positive and negative. It can be observed that an appli-
cation of positive filament strain rate results in a reduced
core growth rate. Generally, these results show that the
effects of stretching counter the effects of diffusion with
a notable reduction in the core size. On the other hand, a
negative filament strain results in an increased core growth
rate, showing that the effects of strain enhances the effects
of diffusion. This would mean that under the action of
certain velocity gradients the vortex would exhibit an in-
creased core growth rate even if the vortex Reynolds num-
ber is small.
The core growth predicted by the model at different vor-
tex Reynolds numbers when the vortex filament undergoes
a constant positive strain rate is shown in Fig. 17. The core
growth predicted by the model in the absence of strain for
the same type of vortex Reynolds numbers is shown in
Fig. 18. It can be observed that the core growth changes
both with the sign and magnitude of the strain on the vor-
tex filament and also with vortex Reynolds number. Even
if the magnitude of diffusion of the vortex is increased
through an increase in turbulence in the core (or an in-
crease in vortex Reynolds number), the vortex filament
Re = 100
v
Re = 1 X 10
4
v
5
Re = 1 X 10
v
0.06
Non-dimensional core radius, r c/c
6
Re = 1 X 10
v
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
720 0 360 720
Wake age, ζ (deg.)
Figure 17: Variation of core growth predicted by the
new model for a uniform strain rate vε = 0.25 at dif-
ferent vortex Reynolds numbers.

0.06
Non-dimensional core radius, r c/c
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0 tip vortex measurements. The model was developed by
0 360
Figure 18: Variation of core growth predicted by the
new model for a rectilinear vortex, vε = 0.0, at different
vortex Reynolds numbers.
might show reduced core growth and increased vorticity
(with higher peak swirl velocity values) if the vortex fila-
ment undergoes high positive strain. Overall, these results
show the highly interdependent nature of filament strain
and diffusion (or vortex Reynolds number) on the growth
of tip vortices.
For rotors operating near ground, the magnitude of ve-
locity gradients will be of the same order of magnitude
as that of forward flight. Strain values measured using
a model scale rotor operating in the presence of a solid
boundary (Ref. 13) were applied to the core growth model
given by Eq. 14, the results of which are shown in Fig. 19.
It can be observed that the model correlates well with the
measurements for a value of δ that represents the core
growth without the effects of vortex filament strain. Also,
the core growth predicted by the new model deviates from
the simple diffusion based Squire core growth model at
older wake ages where the vortex filament strains were re-
0.25
Non-dimensional core radius, rc/ c
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 180
Figure 19: Core growth predicted by the new model
for measured values of strain rates. Rev = 48, 000.
Re = 100 ported to be significant. An increased or decreased value
v
4
of positive filament strain corresponds to reduced or in-
Re = 1 X 10
v
5
creased core size, respectively, for the same wake age.
Re = 1 X 10
v
This change in core size can significantly alter the wake
6
Re = 1 X 10
v geometry and the induced velocities inside the rotor wake.
The implications are that this will also affect predictions
of BVI airloads on the rotor and also BVI induced noise.
Conclusions
A vortex model in terms of vortex Reynolds number was
successfully developed and validated using available rotor
720
combining two experimentally validated individual vor-
Wake age, ζ (deg.)
tex models that take into account the effects of filament
stretching and rotational flow (Richardson number) effects
on the turbulence present inside the tip vortices in predict-
ing their temporal evolution. An useful exponential series
approximation was also developed to represent the swirl
velocity distribution predicted by the transitional vortex
model. The following conclusions have been derived from
the work:
1. Vortex filament strain and diffusion efffects are inter-
dependent processes. Tip vortices will show an in-
creased growth rate even when the vortex Reynolds
number is small if the filament undergoes signifi-
cant (negative) strain. Similarly, the tip vortices will
exhibit reduced growth rate despite being at higher
Reynolds numbers if they experience large positive
strain.
2. The core growth rate predicted by the model for a
rectilinear vortex filament increases with an increase
in vortex Reynolds number (for Rev > 1, 000). In-
creasing the vortex Reynolds number increases the
turbulence present inside the tip vortices and, hence,
gives an increased core growth rate. At lower Rev ,
Lamb-Oseen model however, the core growth rate reduces to the laminar
Squire model, δ = 8
Martin & Leishman, 2001 Lamb–Oseen model by being independent of vortex
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003
New model with measured strain rate Reynolds number but with a finite core radius at time
New model with reduced strain rate
New model with increased strain rate δ=8 t = 0.
3. An exponential series approximation emulated the
properties of the swirl velocity distribution predicted
δ = 1 (laminar)
by the transitional vortex model at a much lower
computational cost. This provides a useful approach
for incorporating vortex Reynolds number effects
360 540 720 900
into the vortex model for use in a variety of aeroa-
Wake age, ζ (deg.) coustic applications.
4. The effect of strain on growth properties of a tip vor-
tex at a given vortex Reynolds number was found
to favor, balance, or counter the effects of diffusion
 based on the nature and magnitude of the stretch-
ing. Vortex measurements that are made in velocity
gradients must be corrected for the effects of vortex
filament strain if the results are to be interpreted in
correct manner for the development of better vortex
models.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported, in part, by the National Ro-
torcraft Technology Center under Grant NCC 2944.
References
1 Squire,
H. B., “The Growth of a Vortex in Turbulent
Flow,” Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. 16, August 1965,
pp. 302–306.
2 Iversen,
J. D., “Correlation of Turbulent Trailing Vor-
tex Decay Data,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 13, No. 5, May
1976, pp. 338–342.
3 Govindraju, S. P., and Saffman, P. G., “Flow in a Tur-
bulent Trailing Vortex,” Physics of Fluids, Vol. 14, No. 10,
October 1971, pp. 2074–2080.
4 Zeman, O., “The Persistence of Trailing Vortices: A
Modeling Study,” Physics of Fluids, Vol. 7, No. 1, January
1995, pp. 135–143.
5 Baldwin, B. S., Chigier, N. A., and Sheaffer, Y. S.,
“Decay of Far-Flowfield in Trailing Vortices,” AIAA
2nd Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference, Palo Alto,
California, Sept. 11–13, 1972, 72–89.
6 Lamb, H., Hydrodynamics, 6th ed., Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, 1932.
7 Oseen, C. W., “Uber Wirbelbewegung in einer reiben-
den Flüssigkeit,” Arkiv för Matematik, Astronomi och
Fysik., Vol. 7, No. 14, 1911, pp. 14–21.
8 Ciffone,D. L., and Orloff, K. L., “Far-Field Wake-
Vortex Characteristics of Wings,” Journal of Aircraft,
Vol. 12, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 464–470.
9 Singh, P. I., and Uberoi, M. S.,
“Experiments on Vortex
Stability of Aircraft Wake Turbulence,” The Physics of
Fluids, Vol. 19, No. 12, Dec. 1976, pp. 1858–1863.
10 Martin,P. B., Pugliese, G., and Leishman, J. G., “High
Resolution Trailing Vortex Measurements in the Wake of
a Hovering Rotor,” Journal of the American Helicopter
Society, Vol. 48, No. 1, Jan. 2003, pp. 39–52.
11 Ramasamy, M., and Leishman, J. G., “Interdependence
of Diffusion and Straining of Helicopter Blade Tip Vor-
tices,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 41, No. 5, Sept.–Oct.
2004, pp. 1014–1024.
12 McAlister, K., “Rotor Wake Development During
the First Rotor Revolution,” American Helicopter Soci-
ety 59th Annual National Forum, Phoenix, AZ, May 6–8
2003.
13 Ramasamy, M., and Leishman, J. G., “A Generalized
Model For Transitional Blade Tip Vortices,” American
Helicopter Society 60th Annual National Forum, Balti-
more, MD, June 7–11, 2004.
14 Tung,C., Pucci, S. L., Caradonna, F. X., and Morse,
H. A., “The Structure of Trailing Vortices Generated
by Model Helicopter Rotor Blades,” NASA TM 81316,
1981.
15 Hoffman, E. R., and Joubert, P. N., “Turbulent Line
Vortices,” Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 16, 1963,
pp. 395–411.
16 Boatwright, D. W., “Three-Dimensional Measure-
ments of the Velocity in the Near Flow Field of a Full-
Scale Hovering Rotor,” Mississippi State University Re-
port EIRS-ASE-74-4, 1974.
17 Cook, C. V.,“The Structure of the Rotor Blade Tip Vor-
tex,” Paper 3, Aerodynamics of Rotary Wings, AGARD
CP-111, Sept. 13–15, 1972.
18 Mahalingam, R., and Komerath, N. M., “Measure-
ments of the Near Wake of a Rotor in Forward Flight,”
AIAA Paper 98-0692, 36th Aerospace Sciences Meeting
& Exhibit, Reno, NV, January 12–15, 1998.
19 McAlister, K. W., “Measurements in the Near Wake
of a Hovering Rotor,” AIAA Paper 96-1958, Proceedings
of 27th AIAA Fluid Dynamic Conference, New Orleans,
LA, June 18–20, 1996.
20 Bhagwat, M. J., and Leishman, J. G., “Correlation
of Helicopter Tip Vortex Measurements,” AIAA Journal,
Vol. 38, No. 2, Feb. 2000, pp. 301–308.
21 Yu.,Y. H., and Tung, C., “The HART-II Test: Rotor
Wakes and Aeroacoustics with Higher Harmonic Pitch
Control (HHC) Inputs,” American Helicopter Society 58th
Annual National Forum, Montréal, Canada, June 11–13,
2002.
22 Ananthan, S., and Leishman, J. G., “Role of Fila-
ment Strain in the Free-Vortex Modeling of Rotor Wakes,”
Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 49,
No. 2, April 2004, pp. 176–191.
 23 Bhagwat, M. J., and Leishman, J. G., “Generalized

Viscous Vortex Core Models for Application to Free-

Vortex Wake and Aeroacoustic Calculations,” Proceed-
ings of the 58th Annual Forum of the American Heli-
copter Society International, Montréal Cananda, June 11–
13, 2002.
24 Iversen, J. D., and Corsiglia, V. R., “Hot-Wire,
Laser-Anemometer, and Force Measurements of Interact-
ing Trailing Vortices,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 16, No. 7,
July 1979, pp. 448–454.
25 Bradshaw,P., “The Analogy Between Streamline Cur-
vature and Buyoyancy in Turbulent Shear Flows,” Journal
of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 36, 1969, pp. 177–191.
26 Holzapfel,A. Hofbauer, T., Gerz, T., and Schumann,
U., “Aircraft Wake Vortex Evolution and Decay in Ide-
alized and Real Environtments: Methodologies, Benefits
and Limitations,” Proceedings of the Euromech Collo-
quium, 2001.
27 Cotel, A. J., and Breidenthal, R. E.,
“Turbulence Inside
a Vortex,” Physics of Fluids, Vol. 11, No. 10, Oct. 1999,
pp. 3026–3029.
28 Cotel,
A. J., “Turbulence Inside a Vortex: Take Two,”
Physics of Fluids, Vol. 14, No. 8, Aug. 2002, pp. 2933–
2934.
29 Cotel,A. J., Gjestvang, J. A., RamKhelawan, N. N.,
and Breidenthal, R. E., “Laboratory Experiments of a Jet
Impinging on a Stratified Surface,” Experiments in Fluids,
Vol. 23, No. 2, June 1997, pp. 155–160.
30 Vatistas,
G. H., Kozel, V., and Mih, W. C., “A Simpler
Model for Concentrated Vortices,” Experiments in Fluids,
Vol. 11, 1991, pp. 73–76.
31 Vatistas,
G. H., “New Model for Intense Self-Similar
Vortices,” Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 14,
No. 4, April 1998, pp. 462–469.
32 Leishman,J. G., “On the Aperiodicity of Helicopter
Rotor Wakes,” Experiments in Fluids, Vol. 25, 1998,
pp. 352–361.
33 Devenport, W. J., Rife, M. C., Liapis, S. I., and Follin,
G. J., “The Structure and Development of a Wing-Tip Vor-
tex,” Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 312, 1996, pp. 67–
106.