Task 3 P2.

3 Describe the structure and nature of the ionosphere with reference to daily, seasonal and long-term changes
In your own words briefly describe how the nature and structure of the ionosphere varies with time.
To answer this question, I will explain the current theory surrounding the ionosphere, and conclude with examples of real-time data and forecasting. The ionosphere is series of concentric ionised layers in the upper region of the Earths atmosphere in which the number of electrically charged particles ions and electrons are large enough to affect the propagation of radio waves. It is best described in terms of separated and distinct layers, which vary in size and compactness depending on altitude, day/night time, prevailing solar wind, ion density. The charged particles are created by the action of mainly cosmic and solar radiation on neutral atoms and molecules of air. The ionosphere begins at a height of about 30 miles (50 Km) above the mean sea level, but it is most distinct and important above 50 miles (80 Km). In the upper regions of the ionosphere, beginning several hundred miles above Earths surface and extending tens of thousands of miles into space is the magnetosphere, a region where the behaviour of charged particles is strongly affected by the magnetic fields of Earth and the Sun. The level of ionisation varies over the extent of the ionosphere, and are very variable. One reason is that radiation reduces with decreasing altitude. Also the density of the gases varies and there is a variation in the proportions of atomic and molecular forms of the gases, the single atoms forms of gases being far greater at higher altitudes. These and a variety of other atmospheric issues mean that there are variations in the level of ionisation with altitude.

An illustration to show the concentric ring layers of the Ionosphere

The level of ionisation changes with the time of day, time of year, and according to many other external influences. One of the main reasons why the electron density varies is that the Sun, which gives rise to the ionisation is only visible during the day. While the radiation from the Sun causes the atoms and molecules to split into free electrons and positive ions. The reverse effect also occurs. When a negative electron meets a positive ion, the fact that dissimilar charges attract means that they will be pulled towards one another and they may combine. This means that two opposite effects of splitting and recombination are taking place. This

is known as a state of dynamic symmetry. Accordingly the level of ionisation is dependent upon the rate of ionisation and recombination. This has a significant effect on radio communications. Other effects like the season and the state of the Sun also have a major effect. Sunspots and solar disturbances have a major impact on the level of radiation received, and these effects are covered in other articles on this website on Sunspots and Solar Disturbances Frequencies below about 10 MHz (wavelengths longer than 30 metres), including broadcasts in the medium wave and shortwave bands (and to some extent long wave), propagate most efficiently by sky wave at night. Frequencies above 10 MHz typically propagate most efficiently during the day. Because the lower-altitude layers of the ionosphere largely disappear at night, the refractive layer of the ionosphere is much higher above the surface of the Earth at night. This leads to an increase in the "skip" or "hop" distance of the sky wave at night. Because of the losses in both the refractive and reflective processes, the less hops that you can use to get to your destination the better. To get fewer hops, you need a lower angle of incidence at the ionosphere, making each hop longer. There is sometimes a dead zone where the surface wave has run out and the ionisation levels and frequency in use will not allow the wave to return to earth. On a band like 10m this may mean that communications over relatively short ranges is virtually impossible. For example it will be rare to hear signals on 10m from stations between 20km away (where the surface wave runs out) and 1500km away where the first ground reflection occurs.

An illustration to show how the ionosphere layers refract at different frequencies. Layers of the ionosphere
Historically, the ionosphere was thought to be composed of a number of relatively distinct layers that were identified by the letters D, E, and F. The F layer was subsequently divided into regions F1 and F2. It is now known that all these layers are not particularly distinct, but the original naming scheme persists.

D region
The D region is the lowest ionospheric region, at altitudes of about 70 to 90 km (40 to 55 miles). The D region differs from the E and F regions in that its free electrons almost totally disappear during the night, because they recombine with oxygen ions to form electrically neutral oxygen molecules. At this time, radio waves pass through to the strongly reflecting E and F layers above. During the day some reflection can be obtained from the D region, but the strength of radio waves is reduced; this is the cause of the marked reduction in the range of radio transmissions in daytime. At its upper boundary the D region merges with the E region.

E region
The E region is also known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. It extends from an altitude of 60 miles (60Km) to about 100 miles (160 Km). Unlike that of the D region, the ionisation of the E region remains at night, though 5 it is considerably diminished. The ionisation density is typically 10 electrons per cubic centimetre during the day, though intermittent patches of stronger ionisation are sometimes seen. Instead of attenuating radio communications signals this layer chiefly refracts them, often to a degree where they are returned to earth. As such they appear to have been reflected by this layer. However this layer still acts as an attenuator to a certain degree. The ionisation in this region results from a number of types of radiation. Soft X-Rays produce much of the ionisation, although extreme ultra-violet (EUV) rays (very short wavelength ultra-violet light) also contribute. The degree to which all of the constituents contribute depends upon the state of the Sun and the latitude at which the observations are made.

F region
The F region extends upward from an altitude of about 100 miles (160 Km). This region has the greatest concentration of free electrons. Although its degree of ionisation persists with little change through the night, there is a change in the ion distribution. During the day, two layers can be distinguished: a small layer known as F1 and above it a more highly ionised dominant layer called F2. At night they merge at about the level of the F2 layer, which is also known as the Appleton layer. This region reflects radio waves with frequencies up to about 30 MHz; the exact value depends on the peak amount of 6 the electron concentration, typically 10 electrons per cubic centimetre, though with large variations caused by the sunspot cycle.

An illustration to show the ionosphere, and how at night the D layer disappears and the two F layers merge.
The most important region in the ionosphere for long distance HF radio communications is the F region. During the daytime when radiation is being received from the Sun, it often splits into two, the lower one being the F1 region and the higher one, the F2 region. Of these the F1 region is more of an inflection point in the electron density curve and it generally only exists in the summer.

Mechanisms of ionisation Photoionisation

Most of the electrical activity in the ionosphere is produced by ionisation caused by light energy (photoionisation). Photons of short wavelength (that is, of high frequency) are absorbed by atmospheric gases. A portion of the energy is used to eject an electron, converting a neutral atom or molecule to a pair of

charged atoms or molecules which are an electron, which is negatively charged, and a companion positive ion. Ionization in the F1 region is produced mainly by ejection of electrons from molecular oxygen (O 2), atomic oxygen (O), and molecular nitrogen (N2). Positive ions in turn can react with neutral gases. There is a tendency for these reactions to favour production of more-stable ions.

Recombination
The electron density in the D, E, and F1 regions reflects for the most part a local balance between production and loss. Electrons are removed mainly by, a process in which electrons attach to positively charged molecular ions and form highly energetic, unstable neutral molecules. These molecules decompose spontaneously.

Diffusion
Ions and electrons produced at high altitude are free to diffuse downward, guided by Earths magnetic field.

Photon absorption
Ionisation at any given level depends on three factors; 1. the availability of photons of a wavelength capable of effecting ionisation, 2. a supply of atoms and molecules necessary to intercept this radiation, 3. and the efficiency with which the atoms and molecules are able to do so

How the data is produced

An ionosonde, or chirp-sounder, is a special-radar for the study of the ionosphere. An ionosonde consists of: A high frequency (HF) transmitter, automatically tunable over a wide range. Typically the frequency coverage is 0.523 MHz or 140 MHz, though normally sweeps are confined to approximately 1.6 12 MHz. A tracking HF receiver which can automatically track the frequency of the transmitter. An antenna with a suitable radiation pattern, which transmits well vertically upwards and is efficient over the whole frequency range used. Digital control and data analysis circuits.

An ionosonde measures the time for a wave to go up, and to be reflected around, and to come back down. Thus it measures the time, and not height. This translates to virtual height assuming the speed of light and mirror-like reflection. The real wave does not get as high as the virtual height

A real-time example of an Ionogram, which was recorded over Australia (26/01/12)

An ionogram is a display of the data produced by an ionosonde. It is a graph of the virtual height of the ionosphere plotted against frequency. Ionograms are often converted into electron density profiles. Data from ionograms may be used to measure changes in the Earth's ionosphere due to space weather events. World-wide information gathered to produce the above graph, can be used to produce a general ionosphere profile, as illustrated below.

A graphic to show the various layers of the ionosphere,their ion populations,and their respective heights above ground. The density in the ionosphere varies considerably.
Below a global data produced from; http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/drap/global.html

Real Time Data of a map to illustrate the D region frequency absorption

The map, above illustrates conditions in the D region of the ionosphere which is having a powerful effect on high frequency (HF) communications and low frequency (LF) navigation systems. The global D Region Absorption Predictions (D-RAP) depicts the D region at high latitudes where it is driven by particles as well as low latitudes, where photons cause the prompt changes. (note, the purple region is day light, the black region is night, and the effects on high latitudes). Below a global data produced from ; http://www.ips.gov.au/HF_Systems/6/5

Real Time Data of a map to illustrate the F2 region frequency absorption

References
Physics of the Upper Atmosphere (1960)...................................................................................By J.A. Ratcliffe Physics of the Earths Upper Atmosphere (1965).........................................................................By C.O. Hines An introduction to the ionosphere and magnetosphere............................................By John Ashworth Ratcliffe The ionosphere: its significance for geophysics and radio communications................................By Karl Rawer Models of the atmosphere and ionosphere: proceedings of Workshop VIII and X of the COSPAR twenty-fifth Plenary Meeting...........................................................................................................................By Karl Rawer Path toward improved ionosphere specification and forecast models, Volume 33, Issue 6................................ .......................................................................by D. Bilitza, Karl Rawer, Bodo W. Reinisch, COSPAR D. Bilitza, International Reference Ionosphere 1990. (ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/modelweb/ionos/iri/IRI1990pp084.pdf) D. Bilitza, International Reference Ionosphere 2000, Radio Science 36, 2001. (ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/modelweb/ionos/iri/iri_2000_rs.pdf)

Internet references

http://twistedphysics.typepad.com/cocktail_party_physics/ionosphere/ http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/5/1 http://www.frankswebspace.org.uk/ScienceAndMaths/physics/physicsGCE/radioComms.htm http://www.amateur-radio-wiki.net/index.php?title=Propagation http://aprs.mountainlake.k12.mn.us/ http://prop.hfradio.org/ http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/modelweb/ionos/iri.html http://iono.jpl.nasa.gov/gim.html http://iono.jpl.nasa.gov/sitemap.html http://www.rsgb.org/committees/spectrumforum/band-plans.php http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchresults.aspx?q=ionosphere http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1369043/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1262240/radio-technology/25125/Theionosphere#ref189670 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1369043/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/199594/F-region http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1369043/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchresults.aspx?q=ionosphere http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/ionosphere.aspx http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/propagation/ionospheric/ionosphere.php http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/propagation/ionospheric/hf-propagation-basics.php http://www.vlba.nrao.edu/memos/sci/gps_ion/node3.html http://www.cnofs.org/Handbook_of_Geophysics_1985/Chptr10.pdf http://physics.info/em-waves/ http://myplace.frontier.com/~k9la/The_Structure_of_the_Ionosphere.pdf http://ecjones.org/physics.html http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/info/Iono.pdf http://www.ips.gov.au/HF_Systems/7/1/12