ANTI-SLEEP ALARM

A Project Report Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted By
G.ROHIT REDDY SWAPNA 08881A0434 09885A0403

Under the Guidance of Mr. RAJENDER SINDRI Associate professor Department of ECE

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH & Accredited by NBA)

2010 - 11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of the task would be put incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crown all the efforts with success. We express our heartfelt thanks to Mr. S. Rajender, Associate Professor & Project Supervisor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Vardhaman College of Engineering, for his valuable guidance, and encouragement during my project. We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to Mrs. A. Vijaya Lakshmi, Associate Professor & Project Co-ordinator for her able guidance and useful suggestions, which helped us in completing the project work, in time. We are particularly thankful to Prof. Y. Pandu Rangaiah, Head, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for his guidance, intense support and encouragement, which helped us to mould our project into a successful one. We show gratitude to our honorable Principal Dr. N. Sambasiva Rao, for having provided all the facilities and support. We also thank P. Ravinder Reddy Assistant Professor, for his continuous support and all the staff members of Electronics and Communication Engineering department for their valuable support and generous advice. Finally thanks to all our friends for their continuous support and enthusiastic help.

G.ROHIT REDDY SWAPNA

CHAPTER- 1 Introduction

While actually giving in to our bodys natural wants such as sleep, were keeping the balance beam in an upright and neutral position generally a good thing to do. But life comes and calls quite often, many times forcing us to put hunger, drowsiness, and other basic human needs on the back burner in order to seal the deal and get the job done. So heres the scenario, youre sitting in your car getting ready for a big meeting that if completed will net your company nice little multi-billion dollar deal. Youre supposed to be going over your notes and preparing yourself for this staple achievement. But instead, you find yourself doing the whole bobble head thing, getting dangerously to the steering wheel with each and every bob. If only there were something to keep you awake This circuit saves both time and electricity for students. It helps to prevent them from dozing off while studying, by sounding a beep at a fixed time interval, say, 30 minutes. If the student is awake during the beep, he can reset the circuit to beep in the next 30 minutes. If the timer is not reset during this time, it means the student is in deep sleep or not in the room, and the circuit switches off the light and fan in the room, thus preventing the wastage of electricity.

Students: Maybe they forgot the exam was tomorrow, maybe they were out partying, or maybe they just waited until the last minute. In any case, college students always have the need to burn the midnight oil. The problem is that it is extremely easy to fall asleep in the midst of studying and before you know it, morning has come and the exam is already over or you still haven't learned the material. If you don't want that to happen, then keep this reliable anti sleep alarm at your side.

CHAPTER- 2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Feed back

Timer in astable mode

counter

Logic circuit

reset

relay

load

Power supply: This block is used to supply the required power to the circuit. Usually the power given is in the range of 5-12V. Timer: this block generates train of pulses which control the functioning of counter. Counter: this is used to count the given input clock pulses and the output changes for each clock pulse. Logic circuit: this is designed using AND, OR,NOT gates which provides the desired logic output. Relay: it is used as an interface between our circuit and the electrical load. Load: load can be anything like a light bulb or a fan or a television or any electronic and electrical appliance . Feed back: the logical output is fed back to the timer to stop the working or to reset the whole circuit to initial stage.

Chapter 3

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE COMPONENTS

Resistors: Introduction
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).

Fig : resistor code

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,

noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Fig. Resistor color code

Theory of operation Ohm's law The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400 ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.

Capacitors:
A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When current is applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate. Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals and this makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This is now considered an antiquated term. The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:
C=Q/V

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF), or picofarad (pF).

The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.

Capacitor types:
Vacuum: Two metal, usually copper, electrodes are separated by a vacuum. The insulating envelope is usually glass or ceramic. Typically of low capacitance - 10 - 1000 pF and high voltage, up to tens of kilovolts, they are most often used in radio transmitters and other high voltage power devices. Both fixed and variable types are available. Variable vacuum capacitors can have a minimum to maximum capacitance ratio of up to 100, allowing any tuned circuit to cover a full decade of frequency. Vacuum is the most perfect of dielectrics with a zero loss tangent. This allows very high powers to be transmitted without significant loss and consequent heating.

Air:

Air dielectric capacitors consist of metal plates separated by an air gap. The metal plates, of which there may be many interleaved, are most often made of aluminum or silver-plated brass. Nearly all air dielectric capacitors are variable and are used in radio tuning circuits.

Metalized plastic film:

Made

from

high

quality polymer

film

(usually polycarbonate,

polystyrene,

polypropylene, polyester (Mylar), and for high quality capacitors polysulfone), and metal foil or a layer of metal deposited on surface. They have good quality and stability, and are suitable for timer circuits suitable for high frequencies.

Mica:

Similar to metal film, often high voltage, suitable for high frequencies, expensive, excellent tolerance.

Paper:

Used for relatively high voltages. Now obsolete.

Glass:

Used for high voltages, expensive, stable temperature coefficient in a wide range of temperatures.

Ceramic:

Chips of alternating layers of metal and ceramic. Depending on their dielectric, whether Class 1 or Class 2, their degree of temperature/capacity dependence varies. They often have (especially the class 2) high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation, their capacity depends on applied voltage, and their capacity changes with aging. However they find massive use in common low-precision coupling and filtering applications, suitable for high frequencies.

Aluminum electrolytic:

Polarized, constructionally similar to metal film, but the electrodes are made of etched aluminum to acquire much larger surfaces. The dielectric is soaked with liquid electrolyte. They can achieve high capacities but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacity especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage. Tend to lose capacity in low temperatures. Bad frequency characteristics make them unsuited for high-frequency applications. Special types with low equivalent series resistance are available.

Tantalum electrolytic:

Similar to the aluminum electrolytic capacitor but with better frequency and temperature characteristics, high dielectric absorption, high leakage. Has much better performance in low temperatures.

Super capacitors: Made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials. Extremely high capacity and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.

Gimmick capacitors:

These are capacitors made from two insulated wires that have been twisted together. Each wire forms a capacitor plate. Gimmick capacitors are also a form of variable capacitor. Small changes in capacitance (20 percent or less) are obtained by twisting and untwisting the two wires.

Varicap capacitors:

These are specialized, reverse-biased diodes whose capacitance varies with voltage. Used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

Relay

Ch3,fig 1 Relay

3.1 Introduction
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

3.2 Working

Ch3,fig:-2 electromagnetic relay operation

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contractor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

ACTIVE COMPONENTS Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a

signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionised the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, amongst other things. A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.

4.1 Introduction

Fig:-1 NPN BJT with forward-biased EB junction and reverse-biased BC junction An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base. To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collectorbase junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase junction. The thin shared base and

asymmetric collectoremitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.

4.2 Voltage, current, and charge control

The collectoremitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the baseemitter current (current control), or by the baseemitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the currentvoltage relation of the baseemitter junction, which is just the usual exponential currentvoltage curve of a p-n junction (diode)

Ch 4,Fig. 2 Voltage, current, and charge control

The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority-carrier charge in the base region. Detailed models of transistor action, such as the GummelPoon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behavior more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.

In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately F times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the emitterbase voltage is approximately constant, and that collector current is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, EbersMoll) model is required. The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modelled as a transconductance, as in the EbersMoll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in which the exponential IV curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modelled as voltage controlled with transconductance proportional to collector current. In general, transistor level circuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable analogue circuit simulator, so model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer.

Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay

The Bipolar transistor exhibits a few delay characteristics when turning on and off. Most transistors, and especially power transistors, exhibit long base storage time that limits maximum frequency of operation in switching applications. One method for reducing this storage time is by using a Baker clamp.

Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta'

The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by F or hfe; it is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in forward-active region. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Another important parameter is the common-base current

gain, F. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the following identities (NPN transistor):

4.3 Structure

Ch4,Fig 3 Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor

A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus making the resulting value of very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large . A cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collectorbase junction has a much larger area than the emitterbase junction.

NPN

Ch4,Fig5 The symbol of an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" (negative) and "P" (positive) refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

4.4 BC547
NPN general purpose transistors
FEATURES Low current (max. 100 mA) Low voltage (max. 65 V).

APPLICATIONS

General purpose switching and amplification. DESCRIPTION NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package. PNP complements: BC556 and BC557. LIMITING VALUES OF BC 547

Diode
Introduction: In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two

electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

Fig: Diode

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward bias direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action.This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits. Diode used in the present project is 1N4148

Features:
Hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) package High switching speed: max. 4 ns

General application Continuous reverse voltage: max. 100 V Repetitive peak reverse voltage: max. 100 V Repetitive peak forward current: max. 450 mA.

Applications:

High-speed switching.

Description:
The 1N4148 is high-speed switching diodes fabricated in planar technology, and encapsulated in hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) packages.

CHAPTER 3 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 3. Integrated circuit

3.1 Introduction
In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, chip, or microchip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits. A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. A

monolithic integrated circuit is made of devices manufactured by diffusion of trace elements into a single piece of semiconductor substrate, a chip.

Fig.3.1: Integrated Circuit Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2.

3.2 555 Timer

3.2.1 Introduction

The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in many projects. It is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillations. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing! It was produced by Signetics Corporation in early 1970. The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine". The 555 gets its name from the three 5-K resistors used in typical early implementations. It is widely used because of its ease to use, low price and reliability. It is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits which can be used to build lots of different circuits. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8) A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556.

Fig.3.2: 555 and 556 pin configurations The circuit symbol for a 555 is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labeled with their function. The 555 Timer can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum). Standard 555 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg: 100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555. A 555 Timer can be operated under following modes:

Astable - Producing a square wave Monostable - Producing a single pulse when triggered Bistable - A simple memory which can be set and reset Buffer - An inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

The timer basically operates in one of the two modesmonostable (one-shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free-running) multivibrator. In the monostable mode, it can produce accurate time delays from microseconds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangular waves with a variable duty cycle. Frequently, the 555 is used in astable mode to generate a continuous series of pulses, but you can also use the 555 to make a one-shot or monostable circuit.

Fig.3.3: Pin diagram of 555 Timer

3.2.2 Definition of Pin Functions:

Pin 1 (Ground):

The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages.

Pin 2 (Trigger):

This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5). The action of the trigger input is level-sensitive, allowing slow rate-ofchange waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources. The trigger pulse must be of shorter duration than the time interval determined by the external R and C. If this pin is held low longer than that, the output will remain high until the trigger input is driven high again.

Pin 3 (Output):

The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of transistors Q20 Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor Q24 has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good noise margin, when driving current-sinking logic.

Pin 4 (Reset):

This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+ level; thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off".

Pin 5 (Control Voltage):

This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc. When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltage-controlled operation ranges from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is not

guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability.

Pin 6 (Threshold):

Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 0.1A, and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+.

Pin 7 (Discharge):

This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14), the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to ground) when the output is low and "off" (high resistance to ground) when the output is high.

Pin 8 (V+):

The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts (maximum), and it is

specified for operation between +5 volts and +15 volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period.

In the present project IC 555 Timer is operated under Astable multivibrator mode.

3.2.3 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

An astable circuit produces a 'square wave; this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'.

Fig.3.4: 555 Timer circuit

Fig.3.5: 555 Astable output, a square wave(Tm and Ts may be different)

The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second. 1.4 T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f = (R1 + 2R2) C1

Where, T = Time period in seconds (s) f = Frequency in hertz (Hz) R1 = Resistance in ohms ( ) R2 = Resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = Capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1+R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1. For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm is less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below.

Choosing R1, R2 and C1: R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k available in just a few values.

to 1M . It is best to choose C1 first because capacitors are

Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as a guide). Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you requires. Assume that R1 is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use: R2 = 0.7/fC1

Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k significantly longer than the space time Ts.

min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to be

If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2. If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series

(this is not required for R2 if it is variable).

555 astable frequencies R2 = 10k R1 = 1k R2 = 100k R1 = 10k 6.8kHz R2 = 1M R1 = 100k 680Hz

C1

0.001F 68kHz

0.01F 0.1F 1F

6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz

680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz

68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz 0.068Hz

10F

6.8Hz

(41 per min.) (4 per min.)

Table 1: Different frequencies of 555 Timer Astable operation: With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V.

Fig.3.6: Astable 555 Timer input and output waveforms The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V. An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome.

Fig.3.7: Wave forms representing duty cycle Duty cycle: The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a percentage. For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%:

Tm Duty cycle = Tm + Ts =

R1 + R2 R1 + 2R2

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 as shown in the diagram. This bypasses R2 during the charging (mark) part of the cycle so that Tm depends only on R1 and C1: Tm = 0.7 R1 C1 (ignoring 0.7 V across diode)

Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 (unchanged)

Tm Duty cycle with diode = Tm + Ts =

R1 R1 + R2

Use a diode such as 1N4148.

Fig.3.8: 555 Astable circuit with diode across R2

3.2.4 Applications of Astable 555 Timer:

Modulate transmitters such as ultrasonic and IR transmitters. Create an accurate clock signal (Example: There is a pulse accumulator pin on the 68HC11 microcontroller that counts pulses. You can apply an astable 555 timer circuit set at 1 Hz frequency to the pulse accumulator pin and create a seconds counter within the microcontroller. The pulse accumulator will be covered in later in the course).

Turn on and off an actuator at set time intervals for a fixed duration.

7.4 COUNTERS 7.4.1 Introduction

Counters belong to the class of sequential circuits. The important characteristic of these circuits is memory, hence flip-flops naturally constitute the main circuit element of these devices. We are already familiar with some sequential devices, in which operations are performed in a certain sequence. For instance, when you dial a phone number, you dial it in a certain sequence, if not, you cannot get the number you want. Similarly, all arithmetic operations have to be performed in the required sequence. While dealing with flip-flops, you have dealt with both clocked and un-clocked flip-flops thus, there are two types of sequential circuits, clocked which are called synchronous, and unclocked which are called asynchronous. In asynchronous devices, a change occurs only after the completion of the previous event. A digital telephone is an example of an asynchronous device. If you are dialing a number, say 6354, you will first punch 6 followed by 3, 5 and 4. The important point to note is that, each successive event occurs after the previous event has been completed. Sequential logic circuits find application in a variety of binary counters and storage devices and they are made up of flip-flops.

A binary counter can count the number of pulses applied at its input. On the application of clock pulses, the flip-flops incorporated in the counter undergo a change of state in such a manner that the binary number stored in the flip-flops of the counter represents the number of clock pulses applied at the input. By looking at the counter output, you can determine the number of clock pulses applied at the counter input. Digital circuits use several types of counters which can count in the pure binary form and in the standard BCD code as well as in some special codes. Counters can count up as well as count down. In our project we use 7490 decade counter which is an asynchronous type 4 bit up counter.

DECADE COUNTER 7490:

7490 is decade binary counter. It consists of four master-slave flip flops and additional gating to provide a divide-by-two counter and a three stage binary counter for which the count cycle length is divide-by-five.

Since the output from divide-by-two section is not internally connected to succeeding stages, the device may be operated in various counting modes. 1. BCD decade (8421) counter: The B input must be externally connected to the QA output and A input receives the incoming count and a BCD count sequence is produced.

2. Symmetrical Bi-quinary Divide-By-Ten Counter: The QD output must be externally connected to the A input. The input count is then applied to the B input and a divide-by-ten square wave is obtained at output QA.
3. Divide-By-Two and Divide-By-Five Counter: No external interconnections are required.

The first flip-flop is used as a binary element for the Divide-By-two function(A as the input and QA as the output). The B input is used to obtain binary Divide-By-five operation at the QD output.
PIN FUNCTIONS:

fig. pin diagram of IC 7490

7490 is a 14 pin ic in which 2 pins(13,4) have no connection. Pin 1 and 14 are inputs B and A respectively which can be used based on the required applications specified above. Pin 12,9,8,7 are the output bits from LSB to MSB respectively. These 4 output pins specify the number of input pulses given to the counter. Pin 2,3 are master reset(MR) and pin 6,7 are master set(MS) inputs. Pin 5 functions as Vcc and pin 10 functions as ground. In our project we need a BCD counter hence we connect pin 1 and pin 12 i.e. the LSB output is connected to B input so that 7490 acts as a BCD counter. The output sequence of the 7490 ic is shown in the table below.

fig. 7490 BCD count sequence

To reset the counter, gate 1 is provided with two inputs MR1 and MR2, any one of which will reset the counter with a high input. This makes it possible to reset the counter from any one of two sources. Normally both inputs are tied together. MS1 and MS2, inputs to gate 2 are used to preset the counter to binary 1001 (decimal 9) by taking any one or both inputs to gate 2 high. Normally both inputs are tied together. It is worth noting that, although this is an asynchronous counter, it has a count frequency of approximately 32 MHz, and therefore it finds wide application in frequency counters. In general the reset pins and the set pins are connected to ground to make the counter work uninterruptedly.

The 7490 IC can be configured into different modes depending on the applications required. In it's most common mode, the 7490 is used as a general purpose decade counter, where only one of it's 10 lines is active at any given time. Sending in clock pulses into it's CLK input pin causes the currently active line to shut off and consequentially enables the next line in the sequence. After ten occurrences of this pattern, the device resets and line 0 starts the sequence over. By running one of the output lines into the reset pin, count sequences can be controlled to any length from one to ten.

This chip is suitable for chasing light circuits where only one light is one at a time. If counts of more than 10 are required, multiple 7490s can be cascaded, with suitable external controlling logic, to expand the sequence.

Other applications might include, sequence controllers, stepper motor controllers, microcontroller assisted display drivers, etc.