INTRODUCTION TO HVAC

HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning) refers to technology of indoor or automotive environmental comfort. HVAC system design is a major sub discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, and many others, the invention of the components of HVAC systems went hand-in-hand with the industrial revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are constantly introduced by companies and inventors all over the world. The three central functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are interrelated, providing thermal comfort, acceptable indoor air quality, within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is known as room air distribution.

In summer due to high relative humidity, elevated air temperatures and bright sunshine can sometimes combine to produce an uncomfortable indoor environment. Air-conditioning system can provide comfort by controlling the different air properties within a space; these properties include temperature, humidity, air speed, and the cleanliness of the air, which involves controlling the amount of dust and other contaminants. In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally "size" and select HVAC systems and equipment For larger buildings, building services designers and engineers, such as mechanical, architectural or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems, and specialty mechanical contractors build and commission them. Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for all sizes of buildings.

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ASHRAE HVAC engineers generally are members of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).

ASHRAE is an international technical society for all individuals and organizations interested in HVAC. The Society, organized into Regions, Chapters, and Student Branches, allows exchange of HVAC knowledge and experiences for the benefit of the field's practitioners and the public. ASHRAE provides many opportunities to participate in the development of new knowledge via, for example, research and its many Technical Committees. These committees meet typically twice per year at the ASHRAE Annual and Winter Meetings. A popular product show, the AHR Expo, is held in conjunction with each Winter Meeting. The Society has approximately 50,000 members and has headquarters at Atlanta, Georgia, USA. The most recognized standards for HVAC design is based on ASHRAE data. The ASHRAE Handbook's most general volume, of four, is Fundamentals; it includes heating and cooling calculations. Each volume of the ASHRAE Handbook is updated every four years. The design professional must consult ASHRAE data for the standards of design and care. The Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE) were established to promote the HVAC industry in India. ISHRAE is an associate of ASHRAE. ISHRAE was started at Delhi in 1981 and a chapter was started in Bangalore in 1989. Between 1989 & 1993, ISHRAE chapters were formed in all major cities in India and also in the Middle East. Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. The definition of cold is the absence of heat and all air conditioning systems work on this basic principle. Heat can be removed through the process of radiation, convection, and Heat cooling through a process called the refrigeration cycle. The conduction mediums such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants.
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Air conditioning is the control of the different air properties within a space, such as an office, warehouse, shop or home. These properties include temperature, humidity, air speed, and the cleanliness of the air, which involves controlling the amount of dust and other contaminants. An air conditioning device draws in outside air, filters it, then heats, cools or humidifies it before circulating it around the building, forcing the poor air back outside. There are three main advantages of having air conditioning system Y The air conditioning system helps to maintain a comfortable temperature. Y Air conditioning provides fresh air for the buildings occupants. Y The air conditioning system can remove contaminants from the air, in particular, body odors. These days most air conditioning units have two functions heating and cooling and they can be easily changed from one to the other depending on the kind of air you want in the building that day. Obviously in winter the thermostat will probably be turned higher so that warm air sweeps into the room, while in the summer this will be replaced with air that is cooler than the rooms temperature to help keep everyone cool.

Refrigeration Cycle
A sequence of thermodynamic processes where heat is drawn from a cold body and expelled

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to a hot body. Theoretical thermodynamic cycles consist of non-dissipative and frictionless processes. For this reason, a thermodynamic cycle can be operated in the forward direction to produce mechanical power from heat energy, or it can be operated in the reverse direction to produce heat energy from mechanical power. The reversed cycle is used primarily for the cooling effect that it produces during a portion of the cycle and so is called a refrigeration cycle. It may also be used for the heating effect, as in the comfort warming of space during the cold season of the year. The refrigerant cycle consists of four essential elements to create a cooling effect. The system refrigerant starts its cycle in a gaseous state (1). The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up to a high pressure and temperature. From there it enters a heat exchanger known as condenser (2), where it loses energy (heat) to the outside. In the process the refrigerant condenses into a liquid. A metering device (3) allows the liquid to flow in at a low pressure at the proper rate. The liquid refrigerant is returned indoors to another heat exchanger (4) known as "evaporator". As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it absorbs energy (heat) from the inside air, returns to the compressor, and the cycle repeats. In the process, heat is absorbed from indoors, and transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building. A Refrigeration Cycle must have the four basic components to work: 1. The compressor 2. The condenser 3. The expansion device 4. The evaporator

Refrigerant:
A refrigerant is a substance used in a heat cycle usually including, for enhanced efficiency, a reversible phase change from a gas to a liquid. Traditionally, fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons were used as refrigerants, but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as methane. The ideal refrigerant has good thermodynamic properties, is un-reactive chemically, and safe. The
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desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by choice of operating pressure. These properties are ideally met by the chlorofluorocarbons. Natural refrigerants such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and non-halogenated hydrocarbons preserve the ozone layer and have no (ammonia) or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential.

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List of Refrigerants:
Boiling Refrigerant Formula temperature ( C)
o

Critical temperature ( C) Ammonia - An efficient refrigerant used

o

Properties

Ammonia

NH3

-33

133

successfully

in

industrial

applications

through many Highly toxic. Penetrating odor, soluble in water. Harmless in concentration up to 1/30%, non

flammable, explosive R11 is a single chlorofluorocarbon or R11 CCl3F 8.9 198 compound. High chlorine content and Ozone Depletion Potential, High Global Warming Potential. The use and manufacture of R11 and CFC refrigerants is now banned. Non flammable, non corrosive non stable. R12 Dichlorodiflu oromethane R22 is a single hydro chlorofluorocarbon R22 Chlorodifluoromethane CHClF2 -40.8 96 HCFC compound. Low chlorine content and ozone depletion potential, Modest global warming potential. R-134a, is a haloalkane refrigerant with R134a 1,1,1,2Tetrafluoroeth ane CH2FCF3 -26.3 100.9 thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane), but with less CCl2F2 -29.8 112 Little odor, colorless gas or liquid,

flammable, non corrosive of ordinary stable.

ozone depletion potential. It is most widely used refrigerant.

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COMPONENTS OF AN AIR CONDITIONER

1. Compressor 2. Condenser 3. Metering Device 4. Evaporator 5. Air Handling Unit 6. Duct System

Compressor:
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. The image shows a reciprocating compressor which means that it has piston(s) that go up and down. On the down stroke refrigerant vapor is drawn into the cylinder (1). On the upstroke those vapors are compressed (2). There are thin valves that act like check valves and keep the vapors from going back where they came from. They open

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and close in response to the refrigerant pressures being exerted on them by the action of the piston. The hot compressed gas is discharged out (3).

Condenser
The condenser is similar in appearance to the evaporator. It utilizes the same features to affect heat transfer as the evaporator does. However, this time the purpose is to reject heat so that the refrigerant gas can condense back into a liquid in preparation for a return trip to the evaporator. If the hot compressed gas was at 135 degrees and the air being sucked through the condenser fins was at 90 degrees, heat will flow downhill like a ball wants to roll down an inclined plane and be rejected into the air stream. Heat will have been removed from one place and relocated to another as the definition of refrigeration describes. As long as the compressor is running it will impose a force on the refrigerant to continue circulating around the loop and continue removing heat from one location and rejecting it into another area.

Expansion device:
A thermal expansion valve is a component in refrigeration and air conditioning system that controls the amount of refrigerant flow into the evaporator thereby controlling the superheat at the outlet of the evaporator. Thermal expansion valves are often referred to generically as "metering devices". Flow control, or metering, of the refrigerant is accomplished by use of a temperature sensing bulb filled with a similar gas as in the system that causes the valve to open against the spring pressure in the valve body as the temperature on the bulb increases. As temperature in the evaporator decreases, so does the pressure in the bulb decreases therefore on the spring causing the valve to close. An air conditioning system with a thermal expansion valve is often
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more efficient than other designs that do not use one. A thermal expansion valve is a key element to a refrigeration cycle; the cycle that makes air conditioning, or air cooling, possible. The condenser precipitates the high pressure and temperature gas to a high temperature liquid by transferring heat to a lower temperature medium, usually ambient air. The high temperature liquid then enters the expansion valve where the thermal expansion valve allows a portion of the refrigerant to enter the evaporator. In order for the higher temperature fluid to cool, the flow must be limited into the evaporator to keep the pressure low and allow expansion back into the gas phase. The expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line, before the evaporator.

The Evaporator
Typically the cooling coil is a section of finned tubing (it looks a lot like a car radiator) into which liquid refrigerant is metered and permitted to evaporate from liquid to gas state inside the coil. This state change of the refrigerant, from liquid to gas, absorbs heat, cooling the evaporator coil surface and thus cooling indoor air blown across the cooling coil. Usually the cooling coil is located inside the air handler. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure. The level of this pressure is determined by two factors: Y The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator Y The rate at which the low-pressure vapour is removed from the evaporator by the compressor

Air Handling Unit

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling elements filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air handlers usually connect to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU.
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Duct System
Ducts are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to deliver and remove air. These needed air flows include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust air. Ducts also deliver, most commonly as part of the supply air, ventilation air. As such, air ducts are one method of ensuring acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.

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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR-CONDITIONING
Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning systems can be classified as:

1) Window A/C 2) Split A/C 3) Package A/C 4) Central A/C

Window Air Conditioners

A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. It contains: A compressor A hot coil or Condenser An expansion valve A chilled coil or Evaporator Two fans A control unit

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Split Air Conditioner

The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit. The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor, condenser and expansion valve. The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling fan. For this unit you dont have to make any slot in the wall of the room. Further, the present day split units have aesthetic looks and add to the beauty of the room. The split air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms. Split air conditioners are used for small rooms and halls, usually in places where window air conditioners cannot be installed. However, these days many people prefer split air conditioner units even for places where window air conditioners can be fitted. There are two main parts of the split air conditioner. These are:

Outdoor unit: This unit houses important components of the air conditioner like the compressor, condenser coil and also the expansion coil or capillary tubing. This unit is installed outside the room or office space which is to be cooled. The compressor is the maximum noise making part of the air conditioner, and since in the split air conditioner, it is located outside the room, the major source of noise is eliminated. In the outdoor unit there is a fan that blows air over the condenser thus cooling the compressed Freon gas in it. This gas passes through the expansion coil and gets converted into low pressure, low temperature partial
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gas and partial liquid Freon fluid. Indoor unit: It is the indoor unit that produces the cooling effect inside the room or the office. This is a beautiful looking tall unit usually white in color, though these days a number of stylish models of the indoor unit are being launched. The indoor unit houses the evaporator coil or the cooling coil, a long blower and the filter. After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid enters the cooling coil. The blower sucks the hot, humid and filtered air from the room and it blows it over the cooling coil. As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces drastically and also loses the excess moisture. The cool and dry air enters the room and maintains comfortable conditions of around 25-27 degree Celsius as per the requirements.

Packaged Air Conditioner

An HVAC designer

will suggest this type of air conditioner if you want to cool more than two rooms or a larger space at your home or office. There are two possible

arrangements with the package unit. In the first one, all the

components,

namely

the compressor, condenser (which can be air cooled or water cooled); expansion valve and evaporator are housed in a single box. The cooled air is thrown by the high capacity blower, and it flows through the ducts laid through various rooms. In the second arrangement, the compressor and condenser are housed in one casing. The compressed gas passes through individual units, comprised of the expansion valve and cooling coil, located in various rooms.
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Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems, the packaged air conditioners are divided into two types: ones with water cooled condenser and the ones with air cooled condensers. Both these systems have been described below: Packaged Air Conditioners with Water Cooled Condenser In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water. The condenser is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the cooling water flowing along the shell side. The water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain functioning of the air conditioning system. The shell and tube type of condenser is compact in shape and it is enclosed in a single casing along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit including the cooling coil or the evaporator. This whole packaged air conditioning unit externally looks like a box with the control panel located externally. In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the compressor is located at the bottom along with the condenser (refer the figure below). Above these components the evaporator or the cooling coil is located. The air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower and the air filter is located above the cooling coil. The centrifugal blower has the capacity to handle large volume of air required for cooling a number of rooms. From the top of the package air conditioners the duct comes out that extends to the various rooms that are to be cooled. All the components of this package AC are assembled at the factory site. The gas charging is also done at the factory thus one does not have to perform the complicated operations of the laying the piping, evacuation, gas charging, and leak testing at the site. The unit can be transported very easily to the site and is installed easily on the plane surface. Since all the components are assembled at the factory, the high quality of the packaged unit is ensured.

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Packaged Air Conditioners with Air Cooled Condensers In this packaged air conditioners the condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled by the atmospheric air. There is an outdoor unit that comprises of the important components like the

compressor, condenser and in some cases the expansion valve (refer the figure below). The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other open place where the free flow of the atmospheric air is available. The fan located inside this unit sucks the outside air and blows it over the condenser coil cooling it in the process. The condenser coil is made up of several turns of the copper tubing and it is finned externally. The packaged ACs with the air cooled condensers are used more commonly than the ones with water cooled condensers since air is freely available it is difficult maintain continuous flow of the water. The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve, evaporator, the air handling blower and the filter are located on the floor or hanged to the ceiling. The ducts coming from the cooling unit are connected to the various rooms that are to be cooled.

Central Air Conditioning System

The central air conditioning system is used for cooling big buildings, houses, offices, entire hotels, gyms, movie theaters, factories etc. If the whole building is to be air conditioned, HVAC engineers find that putting individual units in each of the rooms is very expensive initially as well in the long run. The central air conditioning system is comprised of a huge compressor that has the capacity to produce hundreds of tons of air conditioning. Cooling big halls, malls, huge spaces, galleries etc is usually only feasible with central conditioning units.

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Central Air Conditioning Plants Central air conditioning plants are used for applications like big hotels, large buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc, where very high cooling loads are required. The article describes various possible arrangements of central air conditioning plants. The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings, hotels, theaters, airports, shopping malls etc are to be air conditioned completely. The window and split air conditioners are used for single rooms or small office spaces. If the whole building is to be cooled it is not economically viable to put window or split air conditioner in each and every room. Further, these small units cannot satisfactorily cool the large halls, auditoriums, receptions areas etc. In the central air conditioning systems there is a plant room where large compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the evaporator are kept in the large plant room. They perform all the functions as usual similar to a typical refrigeration system. However, all these parts are larger in size and have higher capacities. The compressor is of open reciprocating type with multiple cylinders and is cooled by the water just like the automobile engine. The compressor and the condenser are of shell and tube type. While in the small air conditioning system capillary is used as the expansion valve, in the central air conditioning systems thermostatic expansion valve is used. The chilled is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other spaces that are to be air conditioned. Thus in all the rooms there is only the duct passing the chilled air and there are no individual cooling coils, and other parts of the refrigeration system in the rooms. What is we get in each room is the completely silent and highly effective air conditions system in the room. Further, the amount of chilled air that is needed in the room can be controlled by the openings depending on the total heat load inside the room. The central air conditioning systems are highly sophisticated applications of the air conditioning systems and many a times they tend to be complicated. It is due to this reason that there are very few companies in the world that specialize in these systems. In the modern
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era of computerization a number of additional electronic utilities have been added to the central conditioning systems. There are two types of central air conditioning plants or systems 1) Direct expansion central air conditioning plant In this system the huge compressor and the condenser are housed in the plant room, while the expansion valve and the evaporator or the cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in separate room. The cooling coil is fixed in the air handling unit, which also has large blower housed in it. The blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various ducts and into the spaces which are to be cooled. This type of system is useful for small buildings.

2) Chilled water central air conditioning plant This type of system is more useful for large buildings comprising of a number of floors. It has the plant room where all the important units like the compressor, condenser, throttling valve and the evaporator are housed. The evaporator is a shell and tube. On the tube side the Freon fluid passes at extremely low temperature, while on the shell side the brine solution is passed. After passing through the evaporator, the brine solution gets chilled and is pumped to the various air handling units installed at different floors of the building. The air handling units comprise the cooling coil through which the chilled brine flows, and the blower. The blower sucks hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cool air is then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts. The brine solution which has absorbed the room heat comes back to the evaporator, gets chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling unit.

To operate and maintain central air conditioning systems you need to have good operators, technicians and engineers. Proper preventative and breakdown maintenance of these plants is vital.

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Air Handling Unit:

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling elements filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air handlers usually connect to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and from the space served without ductwork. Small air handlers, for local use, are called terminal units, and may only include an air filter, coil, and blower; these simple terminal units are called blower coils or fan coil units. A larger air handler that conditions 100% outside air, and no recirculates air, is known as a makeup air unit (MAU). An air handler designed for outdoor use, typically on roofs, is known as a packaged unit (PU) or rooftop unit (RTU).

Air handler components

1) Blower/fan 2) Heating and/or cooling elements
3) Filters

4) Humidifier 5) Mixing chamber 6) Heat recovery device 7) Controls 8) Vibration isolators

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Blower/fan Air handlers typically employ a large squirrel cage blower driven by an AC induction electric motor to move the air. The blower may operate at a single speed, offer a variety of set speeds, or be driven by a Variable Frequency Drive to allow a wide range of air flow rates. Flow rate may also be controlled by inlet vanes or outlet dampers on the fan. Some residential air handlers (central 'furnaces' or 'air conditioners') use a brushless DC electric motor that has variable speed capabilities. Multiple blowers may be present in large commercial air handling units, typically placed at the end of the AHU and the beginning of the supply ductwork (therefore also called "supply fans"). They are often augmented by fans in the return air duct ("return fans") pushing the air into the AHU.

Heating and/or cooling elements Air handlers may need to provide heating, cooling, or both to change the supply air temperature depending on the location and the application. Smaller air handlers may contain a fuel-burning heater or a refrigeration evaporator, placed directly in the air stream. Electric resistance and heat pumps can be used as well. Evaporative cooling is possible in dry climates. Large commercial air handling units contain coils that circulate hot water or steam for heating, and chilled water for cooling. Coils are typically manufactured from copper for the tubes, with copper or aluminum fins to aid heat transfer. Cooling coils will also employ eliminator plates to remove and drain condensate. The hot water or steam is provided by a central boiler, and the chilled water is provided by a central chiller. Downstream temperature sensors are typically used to monitor and control 'off coil' temperatures, in conjunction with an appropriate motorized control valve prior to the coil.

Filters Air filtration is almost always present in order to provide clean dust-free air to the building occupants. It may be via simple low-MERV pleated media, HEPA, electrostatic, or a combination of techniques. Gas-phase and ultraviolet air treatments may be employed as well.
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It is typically placed first in the AHU in order to keep all its components clean. Depending upon the grade of filtration required, typically filters will be arranged in two (or more) banks with a coarse-grade panel filter provided in front of a fine-grade bag filter, or other 'final' filtration medium. The panel filter is cheaper to replace and maintain, and thus protects the more expensive bag filters. The life of a filter may be assessed by monitoring the pressure drop through the filter medium at design air volume flow rate. This may be done by means of a visual display, using a pressure gauge, or by a pressure switch linked to an alarm point on the building control system. Failure to replace a filter may eventually lead to its collapse, as the forces exerted upon it by the fan overcome its inherent strength, resulting in collapse and thus contamination of the air handler and downstream ductwork.

Humidifier Humidification is often necessary in colder climates where continuous heating will make the air drier, resulting in uncomfortable air quality and increased static electricity. Various types of humidification may be used: Evaporative: dry air blown over a reservoir will evaporate some of the water. The rate of evaporation can be increased by spraying the water onto baffles in the air stream. Vaporizer: steam or vapour from a boiler is blown directly into the air stream. Spray mist: water is diffused either by a nozzle or other mechanical means into fine droplets and carried by the air. Ultrasonic: A tray of fresh water in the airstream is excited by an ultrasonic device forming a fog or water mist. Wetted medium: A fine fibrous medium in the airstream is kept moist with fresh water from a header pipe with a series of small outlets. As the air passes through the medium it entrains the water in fine droplets. This type of humidifier can quickly clog if the primary air filtration is not maintained in good order.

Mixing chamber In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers commonly have provisions to allow the introduction of outside air into, and the exhausting of air from the building. In temperate climates, mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with warmer return air can be used to
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approach the desired supply air temperature. A mixing chamber is therefore used which has dampers controlling the ratio between the return, outside, and exhaust air.

Heat recovery device A heat recovery device heat exchanger of many types may be fitted to the air handler between supply and extract airstreams for energy savings and increasing capacity. These types more commonly include for: Cross Plate Heat exchanger: A sandwich of plastic or metal plates with interlaced air paths. Heat is transferred between airstreams from one side of the plate to the other. The plates are typically spaced at 4 to 6mm apart. The heat recovery efficiency is up to 70%. Thermal Wheel: A slowly rotating matrix of finely corrugated metal, operating in both opposing airstreams, heat is absorbed as air passes through the matrix in the exhaust airstream, during one half rotation, and released during the second half rotation into the supply airstream in a continuous process. Can also be used to recover and cool. Heat recovery efficiency is up to 85%. Wheels are also available with a hydroscopic coating to provide latent heat transfer and also the drying or humidification of airstreams Run around coil: Two airs to liquid heat exchanger coils, in opposing airstreams, piped together with a circulating pump and using water or a brine as the heat transfer medium. This device, although not very efficient, allows heat recovery between remote and sometimes multiple supply and exhaust airstreams. Heat recovery efficiency is up to 50%. Heat Pipe: Operating in both opposing air paths, using a confined refrigerant as a heat transfer medium. The 'pipe' is multiple sealed pipes mounted in a coil configuration with fins to increase heat transfer. Heat is absorbed on one side of the pipe, by evaporation of the refrigerant, and released at the other side, by condensation of the refrigerant. Condensed refrigerant flows by gravity to the first side of the pipe to repeat the process. Heat recovery efficiency is up to 65%.

Controls Controls are necessary to regulate every aspect of an air handler, such as: flow rate of air, supply air temperature, mixed air temperature, humidity, air quality. They may be as simple as an off/on thermostat or as complex as a building automation system using BACnet or LonWorks, for example.
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Common control components include temperature sensors, humidity sensors, sail switches, actuators, motors, and controllers.

Vibration isolators The blowers in an air handler can create substantial vibration and the large area of the duct system would transmit this noise and vibration to the occupants of the building. To avoid this, vibration isolators (flexible sections) are normally inserted into the duct immediately before and after the air handler and often also between the fan compartment and the rest of the AHU. The rubberized canvas-like material of these sections allows the air handler to vibrate without transmitting much vibration to the attached ducts. The fan compartment can be further isolated by placing it on a spring suspension, which will mitigate the transfer of vibration through the floor

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CHILLER

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat exchanger to cool air or equipment as required.

In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils, in air handling units, or other type of terminal devices which cool the air in its respective space(s), and then the chilled water is re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled again. These cooling coils transfer sensible heat and latent heat from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 to 1500 tons (180,000 to 18,000,000 BTU/h or 53 to 5,300 kW) in cooling capacity. Chilled water temperatures can range from 35 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 to 7 degrees Celsius), depending upon application requirements.

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Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large- size commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be water- cooled, air cooled, or evaporatively cooled. Water- cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which improve the chillers' thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air- cooled chillers. This is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet- bulb temperature rather than the higher, sometimes much higher, dry- bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer higher efficiencies than air- cooled chillers but lower than water- cooled chillers. Water- cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by a separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the atmosphere. Air- cooled and evaporatively cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and operation. Air- cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically circulated directly through the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere. Evaporatively cooled machines are similar, except they implement a mist of water over the condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling, making the machine more efficient than a traditional air- cooled machine. No remote cooling tower is typically required with either of these types of packaged air- cooled or evaporatively cooled chillers.

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STUDY of PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS

Psychrometric Charts
A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic properties of moist air at a constant pressure (often equated to an elevation relative to sea level). The ASHRAE-style psychrometric chart was pioneered by Willis Carrier in 1904. In the Psychrometric chart The vertical lines represent dry bulb temperatures. The diagonal lines represent wet bulb temperatures. The properties are:

1) Dry-bulb temperature (DBT)

2) Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) 3) Dew point temperature (DPT) 4) Relative humidity (RH) 5) Humidity ratio 6) Specific enthalpy 7) Specific volume

8) Psychrometric ratio

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Psychrometric properties
1. Dry-bulb temperature (DBT): It is the temperature of an air sample, as determined by an ordinary thermometer, the thermometer's bulb being dry. It is typically the abscissa (horizontal axis) of the graph. The SI units for temperature are kelvins or degrees Celsius; other units are degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Rankine. 2. Wet-bulb temperature (WBT): It is the temperature of an air sample after it has passed through a constant -pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation process, that is, after the air has passed over a large surface of liquid water in an insulated channel. In practice, this is the reading of a thermometer whose sensing bulb is covered with a wet sock evaporating into a rapid stream of the sample air. When the air sample is saturated with water, the

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WBT will read the same as the DBT. The slope of the line of constant WBT reflects the heat of vaporization of the water required to saturate the air of a given relative humidity. 3. Dew point temperature (DPT): It is the temperature at which a moist air sample at the same pressure would reach water vapor saturation. At this point further removal of heat would result in water vapor condensing into liquid water fog or solid hoarfrost. The dew point temperature is measured easily and provides useful information, but is normally not considered an independent property of the air sample. It duplicates information available via other humidity properties and the saturation curve.

4. Relative humidity (RH): It is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole fraction of saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure. RH is dimensionless, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Lines of constant RH reflect the physics of air and water: they are determined via experimental measurement. Note: the notion that air "holds" moisture, or that moisture dissolves in dry air and saturates the solution at some\ proportion, is an erroneous (albeit widespread) concept .

5. Humidity ratio (also known as moisture content or mixing ratio): It is the proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the given conditions (DBT, WBT, DPT, RH, etc.). It is typically the ordinate (vertical axis) of the graph. For a given DBT there will be a particular humidity ratio for which the air sample is at 100% relative humidity: the relationship reflects the physics of water and air and must be measured. Humidity ratio is dimensionless, but is sometimes expressed as grams of water per kilogram of dry air or grains of water per pound of air (7000 grains equal 1 pound).Specific humidity is closely related to humidity ratio but always lower in value as it expresses the proportion of the mass of water vapor per unit mass of the air sample (dry air plus the water vapor).

6. Specific enthalpy (symbolized by h, also called heat content per unit mass): It is the sum of the internal (heat) energy of the moist air in question, including the heat of the air and water vapor within. In the approximation of ideal gases, lines of constant enthalpy are parallel to lines of constant WBT. Enthalpy is given in (SI) joules per kilogram of air or BTU per pound of dry air.

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7. Specific volume (also called inverse density): It is the volume per unit mass of the air sample. The SI units are cubic meters per kilogram of dry air; other units are cubic feet per pound of dry air.

The versatility of the psychrometric chart lies in the fact that by knowing three independent properties of some moist air (one of which is the pressure), the other properties can be determined. Changes in state, such as when two air streams mix, can be modeled easily and somewhat graphically using the correct psychrometric chart for the location's air pressure or elevation relative to sea level.
Psychrometric ratio

The Psychrometric ratio is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the product of mass transfer coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface. It may be evaluated with the following equation:

Where: r = Psychrometric ratio, dimensionless hc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1 ky = convective mass transfer coefficient, kg m-2 s-1 cs = humid heat, J kg-1 K-1

The Psychrometric ratio is an important property in the area of Psychometrics, as it relates the absolute humidity and saturation humidity to the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temperature. Mixtures of air and water vapor are the most common systems encountered in psychrometry. The Psychrometric ratio of air-water vapor mixtures is approximately unity, which implies that the difference between the adiabatic saturation temperature and wet bulb temperature of air-water vapor mixtures is small. This property of air-water vapor systems simplifies drying and cooling calculations often performed using Psychrometric relationships.

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Advantages of using the Psychrometric Chart

1) If all the values are calculated manually using the formulae, it takes lots of time, but with psychrometric chart these values can be found within seconds or minutes. 2) With psychrometric chart we can easily find out the present and the final condition of the air. Say if the air is cooled from 100oF to 75oF, all we have to do is draw the horizontal line to locate the initial and final condition of the air. 3) Psychrometric chart is very useful in carrying out heat load or cooling load calculations.

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MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is energy in transit due to temperature difference. Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a medium or between media, heat transfer must occur. The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of temperature difference. There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at the same temperature. The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature gradient (the temperature difference per unit length or the rate of change of temperature) in that direction. The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer. Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two bodies. Heat transfer processes are classified into three types. ! Conduction ! Convection ! Radiation

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CONDUCTION:
conduction (or heat

In

heat

transfer, the

conduction) is

transfer of thermal energy between regions of matter due to a temperature gradient. Heat spontaneously flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature, and reduces temperature differences over time, approaching thermal equilibrium. The previous statement can be argued to apply to heat transfer in general, but to distinguish conduction specifically, it should be stated that the heat flows through the region of matter itself, as opposed to requiring electromagnetic waves as does radiation or to requiring bulk motion of the matter as does convection. Conduction takes place in all forms of matter, viz. solids, liquids, gases and plasmas, but does not require any bulk motion of matter. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice or phonons with the energy transported by free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. Under the steady state conditions, where the temperature distribution is linear, the temperature gradient may be expressed as

CONVECTION: Convective heat transfer, or

convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids. (In physics, the term fluid means any substance that deforms under shear stress; it includes liquids, gases, plasmas, and some plastic solids.) Bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the fluid. [5] Convection is
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usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although often discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection actually describes the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow. 1. Forced convection 2. Free convection (natural convection)\ ! Forced convection takes place when the flow is caused by an external agent such as fan, pump or atmospheric winds. For example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling of hot electrical components on a stack of printed circuit boards. ! Natural convection takes place when the flow is induced by density differences caused by the temperature variations in the fluid. For example, consider heat transfer that occurs from hot components on a vertical array of circuit boards in still air. Convection is described by Newton's law of cooling: "The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings."

RADIATION:

Thermal radiation is energy

emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves due to the pool of thermal energy that all matter possesses that has a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space. Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random

movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (protons and electrons), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.

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HEAT LOAD CALCULATIONS

The Segment of Total Heat Load Calculation
The segments of total load are transmission load, which is heat transferred into the conditioned space through its surface; internal load, which is heat produced by internal sources (e.g., lights, electric motors, and people working in the space); infiltration air load, which is heat gain associated with air entering the refrigerated space; and equipment-related load. The first three segments of load constitute the net heat load for which a refrigeration system is to be provided; the fifth segment consists of all heat gains created by the refrigerating equipment. Thus, net heat load plus equipment heat load is the total refrigeration load for which a compressor must be selected.

Transmission Load
Sensible heat gain through walls, floor, and ceiling is calculate at steady state as Q = UAt Where Q = heat gain, W A = outside area of section, m T = difference between outside air temperature and air temperature of the conditioned space, F The overall coefficient of heat transfer U of the wall, floor, or ceiling can be calculated by the following

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Where U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/ (m2 K) x = wall thickness, m k = thermal conductivity of wall material, W (m2 oK) hi = inside surface conductance, W/ (m2 oK) ho = outside surface conductance, W/ (m2 oK) The heat load calculation is done on the basis of E-20 form proposed by the ASHRAE standards. Which are classified as

SENSIBLE HEAT
Sensible heat is the energy exchanged by a thermodynamic system that has as its sole effect a change of temperature. With contrast to the E-20 form the sensible heat comprises of Heat gains through The factors that effects the sensible heat are

1. Glass 2. Walls and partitions 3. Roof , floor and ceiling 4. Infiltration and outside air 5. People 6. Electrical appliances

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1. Glass
Glass is a complex material compared to pure metals. Glass is made up of SiO2 with other things mixed in like boron oxide and dyes and other stuff. Glass is not, technically, a solid because solids are defined in terms of long range crystal structure (a regular repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules). Glass does not have that long range order so, technically, it is liquid even though it does not flow like water. The heat transfer through glass causes much of the heat to enter into the conditioned space, if proper shading is not provided.

Single Pane The single pane window can account for considerable heat loss or gain in a home. The traditional approach to a more energy efficient window has been to add more panes of glass to the unit, because the multiple panes increase the ability of a window to resist heat transfer. Double Pane Double pane windows are relatively lightweight, relatively efficient, and moderately priced.

Depending on what type of weather you have, you will have to decide what works best for you. In most temperate areas, double pane glass is suited most.

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Tinted Glass Tinted glass refers to any glass that has been treated with a material such as a film or coating, which reduces the transmission of light through it. Glass can be tinted with various types of coating, which block and/or reflect different amounts and types of light, according to the needs and preferences of the consumer. One of the most common ways in which tinted glass is used is in apartment windows in order to provide privacy for the occupants, as well as to reduce the buildup of heat in a room.

2. Walls and partitions

When heat transfers through wall occur due to convection that is the heat from outside the wall is transferred into the room hence making the inside air warmer. Due to this all the heat through all the sides of the walls are taken into consideration. In this, the calculation is done on the basis of data given by the ASHRAE table and on the geographical location.

3. Roof, ceiling and floor

The surface temperature of a roof is mainly determined by the vigorous heat flows at the outside surface. Of these external energy flows, convective cooling is the least precisely known. The solar and infrared radioactive cooling can be readily calculated if the solar reflectance and infrared emittance is known. Once the roof temperature is known, the heat flow leaking into the interior is readily computed. Decreasing a roof's emittance may lead to an increase energy use.

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4. Infiltration & Outside Air

Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated, outdoor air directly into the conditioned space. Infiltration of outdoor air into the indoors takes place due to wind and stack effects. The wind effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to the pressure difference developed across the building due to winds blowing outside the building. The stack effect refers to the entry of Outdoor air due to buoyancy effects caused by temperature difference between the indoor and outdoors. It is taken as standard measurement that only 20% of outside fresh air is to be included and 15% of that outside air is infiltration. It is calculated as

Where, CFM 15% of outside air gr/ lb Grain per pound 1.08 Conversion factor in Sensible Heat

5. People
People add to the heat load, and this load varies depending on such factors as room temperature, type of work being done, type of clothing worn, and size of the person. Heat load from a person. It is calculated as

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People Number of people per SFT Metabolic rate Btu/hr

6. Electrical Appliances
All electrical energy dissipated in the refrigerated space (from lights, motors, heaters, and other equipment) must be included in the internal heat load.

LATENT HEAT
The latent heat component of the internal load is usually very small compared to the total refrigeration load and is customarily regarded as all sensible heat in the total load summary. It is the heat released or absorbed during a change of state that occurs without a change in temperature, meaning a phase transition such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water. In latent heat Moisture content in air is taken into consideration which is calculated as gr/lb.

1. Infiltration & Outside air

Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated, outdoor air directly into the conditioned space. Infiltration of outdoor air into the indoors takes place due to wind and stack effects. The wind effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to the pressure difference developed across the building due to winds blowing outside the building. The stack effect refers to the entry of Outdoor air due to buoyancy effects caused by temperature difference between the indoor and outdoors. It is taken as standard measurement that only 20% of outside fresh air is to be included and 15% of that outside air is infiltration. It is calculated as

Where, CFM 15% of outside air gr/lb Grain per pound 0.68 Conversion factor in Latent Heat

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2. People
People add to the heat load, and this load varies depending on such factors as room temperature, type of work being done, type of clothing worn, and size of the person. Heat load from a person. It is calculated as

People = Number of people per sft Metabolic rate = Btu/hr

Ventilation
It is the process of "changing" or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality. Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside air, to keep interior building air circulating, and to prevent stagnation of the interior air. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings.

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