Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR FOR STUDENTS OF C.O.U. Eloy M. Cebrin
Contents:
UNIT I: THE CONDITIONAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 I.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1. Type I: Cause and effect = real conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. Type II: hypothetical condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3. Type III: hypothetical and impossible condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 I.2. FURTHER INFORMATION ON CONDITIONAL SENTENCES .................................................................. 8 1. Inversion the conditional sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.-. if so and if not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3. if only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4. Other words with conditional meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5.- Unless and if... not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 UNIT II: MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 II.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 II.2. ABILITY: CAN AND COULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1. Present and future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2. Past. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3. Conditional could . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4. Could with the perfect infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 II.3. POSSIBILITY: CAN AND COULD, MAY AND MIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1. Theoretical possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2. Factual possibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3. May and might with the perfect infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4. Can and could with the perfect infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 II.4. PERMISSION: CAN AND COULD, MAY AND MIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1. Asking for permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2. Giving permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3. Past permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 II.5. OFFERS, INVITATIONS, REQUESTS AND COMMANDS: 1
CAN AND COULD, WILL AND WOULD, SHALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Offers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Invitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) Requests and commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.6. OBLIGATION: MUST, HAVE TO AND NEEDN'T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.7. DEDUCTION: MUST, CAN AND CAN'T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.8. ADVICE AND DUTY: SHOULD, OUGHT TO AND HAD BETTER. ................................................................. UNIT III: OTHER USES OF PRIMARY AND MODAL AUXILIARIES ........................................................................ III.1. SPECIAL USES OF PRIMARY AUXILIARIES: BE, HAVE, DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. The BE + INFINITIVE construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The HAVE + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The HAVE + OBJECT + PRESENT PARTICIPLE construction . . . . . . . . . . . 4. DO: auxiliary verb in affirmative sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III.2. SPECIAL USES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES: WILL, WOULD, USED TO, SHOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Commands expressed by will in the affirmative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Present habits expressed by will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Past habits expressed with used to and would . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Would rather/sooner + infinitive without to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. wish (that) + subject + would . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Should in subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 14 15 15 15 16 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 21 21
UNIT IV: THE PASSIVE VOICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 IV.I. ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 IV.2. PASSIVE VERB-FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.3. BY + AGENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.4. PHRASAL AND PREPOSITIONAL VERBS IN THE PASSIVE ................................................................. IV.5. VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.6. SENTENCES WITH OBJECT COMPLEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.7. SENTENCES WITH CLAUSE OBJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.8. VERBS WITH OBJECT + INFINITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV.9. VERBS WHICH CANNOT BE USED IN THE PASSIVE ................................................................. UNIT V : REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.1. REPORTED SPEECH AND DIRECT SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.2. TENSES IN REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.3. OTHER CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.4. ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.5. 'HERE' IN REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.6. INFINITIVE AND GERUND CONSTRUCTIONS IN REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.7. SAY, TELL AND ALTERNATIVE INTRODUCTORY VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) say and tell with direct speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B) say and tell with reported speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C) Other useful verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) murmur, mutter, shout, stammer, whisper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.8. REPORTED QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.9. QUESTIONS BEGINNING SHALL I / WE? AND WILL YOU / WOULD YOU / COULD YOU? 2 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 28 28 28 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 33
................................................................. 1) Speculations or requests for information about a future event: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2) Requests for instructions or advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3) Offers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4) Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.10. COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE IN INDIRECT SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.12. OTHER POINTS ON REPORTED SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Must and Needn't . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Modal verbs with perfect infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.Conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.Exclamations and yes and no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. That . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNIT VI: RELATIVE CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI.1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI.2. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Defining relative clauses: persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A) Subject: who or that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B) Object of a verb: whom or who or that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C) With a preposition: whom or that. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) Possessive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Defining relative clauses: things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A) Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B) Object of a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) Object of a preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) Possessive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The relative pronoun what . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Cleft sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI.3. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Use for persons: who , whom, whose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A) Subject: who . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B) Object: whom, who . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C) Object of a preposition: whom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) Possessive: whose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Use for things: which, whose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A) Subject: which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B) Object: which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C) Object of a preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) which with phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D) Possessive: whose or of which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. both / some / most / all / several / few etc. + of + whom / which . . . . . . . . . . . . VI.4. CONNECTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI.4. WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHATEVER, WHENEVER, WHEREVER, HOWEVER ................................................................. UNIT VII: INFINITIVES, GERUNDS, PRESENT PARTICIPLES, AND THAT-CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.1. INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Modal auxiliary verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Let, make, hear, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.2. INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.3. INFINITIVE AFTER VERB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.4. VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.5. INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.6. FOR + OBJECT + INFINITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.7. INFINITIVE AFTER NOUN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
34 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 38 38 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 46 48 48 48 48 48 49 50 50 52 52
VII.8. INFINITIVE AFTER INTERROGATIVE CONJUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.9. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.10. -ING FORM: TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.11. -ING FORM WITH POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE OR 'S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.12. -ING FORM AFTER A VERB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.13. -ING FORM AFTER PREPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.12. TO + -ING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.13. -ING FORM: SPECIAL CASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.14. -ING FORM OR INFINITIVE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.15. CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY THAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNIT VIII: ARTICLES AND OTHER DETERMINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.1. ARTICLES: BASIC INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Determiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The use of articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.2. ARTICLES: COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.3. TALKING ABOUT THINGS IN GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.4. TALKING ABOUT THINGS IN PARTICULAR: A / THE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.5. SOME, ANY OR NO ARTICLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.6. SOME, ANY, NO AND NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.Some and any compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. No and none . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Compounds with some, any and no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.7. ARTICLES: SPECIAL RULES AND EXCEPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Common expressions without articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Genitives (possessives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Nouns as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Man and woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Radio and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Musical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. All and both . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Illnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Exclamations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. Geographical areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. Place-names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. Special Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.8. ARTICLES: GOLDEN RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISCOURSE MARKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) FOCUSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) STRUCTURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.- Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.- Contrast with what came before . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.- Logical sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.- Exemplifying and excepting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.- Generalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.- Clarifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) DISMISSAL OF A PREVIOUS DISCOURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d) SHOWING OUR ATTITUDE TO WHAT WE ARE SAYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e) ADDING FURTHER DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 60 62 62 62 62 62 64 65 66 67 67 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 69 69 69 70 70 70 70 70 71 71 71 72 72 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 74 74
f) QUOTING FROM A TEXT IN ORDER TO SUPPORT OR REJECT A STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 g) STARTING A SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 APPENDIX II LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Bibliography:
This manual contains material reproduced and adapted from the following sources: Advanced English Practice. Graver, B. D. (O.U.P. 1963) Advanced Use of English. Robinson, C. (Hamish Hamilton, 1977) Counterpoint. Lavin, E. & Snchez Benedito, F. (Alhambra 1978) Crossroads. Hinton, M. & Marsden R. (Nelson, 1982) A Practical English Grammar. Thomson, A. J. & Martinet, A. V. (O.U.P. 1980) Practical English Usage. Swan, M. (O.U.P. 1980) A University Grammar of English. Quirk, R. & Greenbaum S. (Longman, 1973) Ways to Grammar. Shepherd, J., Rossner, R. & Taylor J. (McMillan, 1984)
1. Type I: Cause and effect = real conditional. Both condition and result are very likely to occur.
a) IF if if if if PRESENT you buy that car you buy that car you buy that car you buy a car FUTURE, IMPERATIVE, CAN, MAY it will cost you 10,000 drive carefully you may get broke you can be home earlier
* May in the main clause denotes that the action will not automatically happen (as when will is used) even if the condition is fulfilled: it expresses a possibility rather than a certainty. If you go to Thailand you may easily catch a venereal disease. If you don't catch an earlier flight you may not arrive in Paris in time for the meeting. * Can in the main clause means 'general ability' -the ability to do something any time you want to, providing the condition is fulfilled. Today you can easily travel abroad if you have enough money. When the meaning is particular ability, i.e., the ability to perform a certain action at one particular moment, will be able to is preferred. If you lend me some money I will be able to travel to England next summer.
* if + two present tenses is used to express automatic or habitual results. These sentences are statements of universal truth or general validity, and in this type of sentence, if corresponds closely in meaning to when(ever) If you heat ice it turns to water. If there is a shortage of any product prices of that product go up.
C) 6
AND and
* Joining two sentences with and is a common alternative to using if-clauses. Take my advice and your troubles will be over. (=If you take...) D) IF if if SHOULD he should decide to buy that car he should decide to buy that car FUTURE / IMPERATIVE please, tell me I will be surprised
*We can suggest that something is unlikely to happen, or is not particularly probable by using should with if. If you should run into Peter Bellamy, tell him he owes me a letter.
* Note that could and might can replace would in conditional structures. In this case, could means would be able to, and might means would perhaps or would just possibly. If I had another 500, I could buy a car. If you asked me nicely, I might take you out to lunch. * Were is often used instead of was after if, especially in a formal style, and in the expression If I were you... If my nose were a little shorter I would be quite pretty. If I were you I'd start packing now. B)
IF if
* We can use were to + infinitive in the if-clause. This makes a future possibility sound less probable; it can also be used to make a suggestion more tentative. What would you do if war were to break out? If you were to move your chair a bit to the right we could all sit down.
3. Type III: hypothetical and impossible condition (since the condition was not fulfilled in the past, the result of that condition never took place either). This is used for speculating about what would have happened if things had been different.
A) IF if B) IF if if PAST PERFECT they had been stronger they had been stronger COULD HAVE OR MIGHT HAVE they could have lifted the box they might have lifted the box PAST PERFECT you had bought a car a year ago PERFECT CONDITIONAL it would have cost you much less than now.
2.-. if so and if not These are two useful expressions which are used instead of complete clauses. Have you go a free evening next week? If so, let's have dinner. (=if you have, let's...) You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so do not hesitate to telephone our service department. Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let's put the central heating off.
3. if only
If is used with only (usually with a past or past perfect tense) to suggest a strong wish or regret. If only I had more money, I could buy some new clothes. If only we can get to the next petrol-station we'll be all right. If only you hadn't told Jackie what I said, everything would have been all right.
3) Modal verbs have no infinitives, and other expressions are used instead, when necessary. I'd like to be able to skate. (Not: ...to can skate.) You're going to have to work harder. (Not: ... to must work harder.)
4) Modal verbs have no past forms. Could and would are used with past meanings in some cases but otherwise other expressions are used. After climbing for six hours, we managed to reach the top. I had to go to Chester yesterday. 5) Modal verbs can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about things which did not happen, or which we are not sure about, in the past. You should have told me at once. Her car may have broken down.
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Sometimes we want to say that we had the ability to do something, but we didn't try to do it. There is a special structure for this could + perfect infinitive (=could have + past participle) I could have married anybody I wanted to. (=I was able to marry anybody..., but I didn't.) I could have killed her! (=I was so angry that I was capable of killing her, but I didn't.) You could have helped me! (=You were able to help me - why didn't you?)
You could be right, but I don't think you are. This might be your big chance. 3. May and might with the perfect infinitive.Both may and might can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about the possibility that past events happened. 'Polly's very late.' - 'She may have missed her train.' 'What do you think that noise was?' 'It might have been a cat. Might can also be used in this structure to say that a past event was possible, but didn't happen. You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself. 4. Can and could with the perfect infinitive.* Can and could are both used with the perfect infinitive for speculating or guessing about the past. Can is only used in questions and negative sentences. Where can she have gone? She can't have gone to school - It's Saturday. She could have gone off with some friends. (Not She can have gone...) * Could with the perfect infinitive is also used (as might was) to talk about an unrealized past possibility: something that was possible but didn't happen. You were stupid to go skiing there - you could have broken your leg. It wasn't a good idea to throw the TV out of the window - it could have hit somebody. This structure can be used to criticize people for not doing things. You could have told me you had invited people to dinner. (=Why didn't you tell me ...?) * To say that something was not a possibility, we say it couldn't have happened. My parents wanted me to be a doctor, but I couldn't have put up with all those years of study.
* May and might are used in a more formal style; they often suggest respect. Might is more hesitant, and is not very common. 13
May I make a suggestion? May I stop work a little earlier tonight. Might I take the liberty of pointing out that you have made a small mistake? Note that, in asking for permission, could and might are not past tenses; all four words refer to the future. 2. Giving permission. When we give permission, we use can and may, but not could or might. 'Could I use your phone?' - 'Yes, of course you can.' 'Might I trouble you for a light?' - 'You may indeed.' 3. Past permission.In the past, could is used to say that one was allowed to do something at any time ('general permission'). When I lived at home, I could watch TV whenever I wanted to. But we don't use could to talk about permission for one particular action in the past. I was allowed to see her yesterday evening. He had permission to go out for an hour.
II.5. OFFERS, INVITATIONS, REQUESTS AND COMMANDS: CAN AND COULD, WILL AND WOULD, SHALL
*Can and could are often used to offer to do things for people, and to ask other people to do things. Could is more 'hesitant', less definite, than can , and it is used when we want to make an offer or a request seem more polite or respectful. Statements and questions are both common. *Invitations can be expressed by will you? would you? or would you like? * Requests can be expressed by will you? would you?. They can also be used without infinitives, placed after an imperative. Come here, will you? Shut the door, would you?
But this is not very polite except when used between people who know each other very well. * Commands can be expressed by will in the affirmative. This is a formal, impersonal type of command. It implies the speaker's confidence that the order will be obeyed and is therefore much used in schools and in military etc. establishments. * Requests for orders or advice, offers, suggestions can be expressed by shall I? shall we?
a) Offers I can lend you a pound till Wednesday, if that will help. I could do the shopping for you, if you're tired. Can I carry your bag? Could I give you dinner one of these days. In questions, may is also possible. 14
May I buy you a drink? b) Invitations Will you have a drink? Would you like a drink? Will you come to lunch tomorrow? c) Requests and commands You can start by doing the washing up, and then you can clean the car. Celia can do the shopping, and I'll do the cooking. Harold can do the washing-up. You could phone Alice and see what time she's coming. Can you come here a minute, please? Could you help me with this letter? You might is possible instead of you could. You might see if John's free this evening. Will you type this letter, please? Will you give him this letter? Will anyone who saw the accident please telephone the nearest police station? (radio announcement) Would you show me the way to the station? Would you open the window, please? 'You will stay here till you are relieved,' said the officer. All boys will attend roll-call at 9 o'clock (school notice). How shall I cook it? Where shall I put this? Which one shall I buy? Shall I wait for you? Shall I help you to pack? Shall we meet at the theatre?
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Do you have to carry that heavy briefcase every day? Have got is widely used nowadays instead of have to. I've got to finish this report for tomorrow. Have you got to read all these books?
* In negative sentences, don't need to, needn't or don't have to are used to say that there is no obligation; mustn't is used to tell people not to do things. Compare: You needn't work tomorrow if you don't want to (absence of obligation). You mustn't move any of the papers on my desk (prohibition). You don't have to bring your textbooks tomorrow (absence of obligation). You mustn't open your textbooks during the exam (prohibition). Peter doesn't need to pay for his lunch. He gets his meals free (absence of obligation). You mustn't leave the restaurant without paying (prohibition). * In the past the distinction between the speaker's authority and external authority disappears. a) We use had to to express obligation. I had to study pretty hard for my final exams. b) We use didn't have to, didn't need to and hadn't got to to express absence of obligation. I put in a claim and didn't have to pay that fine. You didn't need to bring a present for my birthday. c) Prohibition is expressed with wasn't/weren't to, wasn't/weren't allowed to or expressions with similar meaning. You were not to arrive later than ten yesterday evening, so I must punish you. Many Russians were not allowed to leave the USSR until "perestroika" arrived. * In the future, however, the difference between the speaker's authority and external authority persists. We use must for the first, and will have to for the second. You must hand in your essays before Friday. He will have to return the loan within the next two months.
'The lights have gone out.' - 'A fuse must have blown.' I don't think he can have heard you. Call again. Where can John have put the matches? He can't have thrown them away.
BE, HAVE, DO
1. The BE + INFINITIVE construction
* This structure is often used to talk about arrangements which have been planned. The Queen is to visit Japan next year. (=It has been arranged that the Queen...) There's to be a rail strike on July 18th. The structure can also be used in the past, to talk about arrangements which were planned. If the expected event did not happen, the perfect infinitive can be used. I felt nervous because I was to leave home for the first time. I was to have started work last week, but I changed my mind. Sometimes the reference is not to planned arrangements, but to 'destiny - things which were hidden in the future, 'written in the stars'. When we said goodbye, I thought it was for ever. But we were to meet again, many years later, under very strange circumstances. * Be + infinitive can also be used to give orders. (Parents often tell children to do things in this way.) You're to do your homework before you watch TV. (You must do your homework...) Tell her She's not to be back late. * Be about + infinitive can express the immediate future: They are about to start = They are just going to start/They are on the point of starting.
construction: She got poor old Jim to dig away the snow. The have + object + past participle construction can also be used colloquially to replace a passive verb, usually one concerning some accident or misfortune. The meaning here is to experience an event or action by means of an external agent. He had two of his teeth knocked out in the fight = Two of his teeth were knocked out in the fight. He had his fruit stolen before he had a chance to pick it up = His fruit was stolen before he etc.
* Would can also be used to talk about past habits On Sundays he used to/would get up early and go fishing. He used to/would spend the whole day by the river and in the evening used to/would come home marvellous stories of the fish he had nearly caught. with
Used to can be used to talk about states and situations as well as actions. Would can only be used for repeated actions. I used to have an old Rolls Royce. (I would... is impossible in cases like this.)
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He insisted that the contract should be read aloud. I recommended that you should reduce your expenditure. Was it necessary that my uncle should be informed? I'm anxious that nobody should be hurt. Ideas of this kind can also be expressed with the subjunctive (especially in American English) or in other, simpler ways. Was is necessary that my uncle be informed? Was it necessary to inform my uncle? (Or: ...for my uncle to be informed?) 4.- Should is also used in subordinate clauses in sentences where we express personal reactions to events (for instance, with words like amazing, interesting, shocked, sorry, normal, natural, it's a shame). In these cases, too, should is more common in past sentences. The subjunctive is not possible here instead of should. It's astonishing that she should say that sort of things to you. I was shocked that she shouldn't have invited Phyllis. I'm sorry you should think I did it on purpose. Do you think it's normal that the child should be so tired? Sentences like these can be made without should. (I was shocked that she hadn't invited Phyllips; I'm sorry you think...)
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Note the passive infinitive - to be invited, to be shot - and the perfect passive infinitive - (to) have been hurt - in the last three examples. Passive -ing forms also exist. She likes being looked at Having been rejected by everybody, he became a monk.
IV.3. BY + AGENT
In sentences like The trouble was caused by your mother, the part of the sentence introduced by by is called the agent. The agent in a passive sentence is the same person or thing as the subject of an active sentence. Compare: I was shocked by her attitude Her attitude shocked me. The agent is only expressed when it is important to say who or what something is done by. In most passive sentences, there is no agent. A new supermarket's just been opened. I'm always being asked for money. After some past participles which are used like adjectives. other prepositions are used instead of by to introduce the agent. We were worried about (or by) her silence? I was excited at (or by) the prospects of going abroad. Are you frightened of spiders? With is used when we talk about an instrument (tool, etc) which helps the agent to do an action.
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He was shot (by the policeman) with a revolver. The room was filled with smoke. The lock was covered with paint.
Similarly with verb + preposition / adverb combinations: Active: Passive: Active: Passive: The threw away the old newspapers. The old newspapers were thrown away. He looked after the children well. The children were well looked after.
When these verbs are used in the passive, there are two possibilities: Her sister was given the car. (The indirect object -person- has become the subject of passive verb.) The car was given to her sister. (The direct object -thing- has become the subject.) Most often in such cases the person becomes the subject of the passive verb. I've just been sent a whole lot of information. You were lent ten thousand pounds last year. We were shown all the different ways of making whisky. Other verbs used like this are pay, promise, refuse, tell, offer.
Most people saw him as a sort of clown. The other children called him stupid. I made the room beautiful These sentences can become passive. He was considered a genius (by Queen Victoria). He was elected president. He was regarded as an expert. He was seen as a sort of clown. He was called stupid. The room was made beautiful.
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Other verbs in this category: believe, feel, presume, report, say, understand. Note that with say the infinitive structure is only possible in the passive. Compare: They say that he is famous in his own country. (Not: *They say him to be ...) He is said to be famous in his own country. With the other verbs in this group, too, the that-structure is more common than the infinitive structure in active sentences. 3) A few verbs are followed, in the active, by an object and an infinitive without to. Examples are hear, help, make, see. In the passive, the to-infinitive is used. Compare: Active: I saw him come out of the house. Passive: He was seen to come out of the house. Active: They made him tell them everything. Passive: He was made to tell everything.
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DIRECT SPEECH
REPORTED SPEECH
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Present Simple Past simple 'I like peaches' He said he liked peaches. Present Progressive Past Progressive 'Is it raining?' He asked if it was raining. Past Simple Past Perfect 'I didn't recognize you' She explained that she hadn't recognized me. Present Perfect Past Perfect 'You've annoyed the dog.' I told her she'd annoyed the dog. Past Progressive Past Progressive or Past Perfect Progressive 'I was joking.' He said he was joking (or:had been joking) about the price about the price. Past Perfect Past Perfect 'I hadn't seen her You said you hadn't seen her before that day.' before that day.' Shall / will Should / would 'We'll be late.' I was afraid we'd be late. Can, may Could, might 'I can swim.' She thought she could swim. 'It may rain.' They said it might rain. Would, could, might, Would, could, might, ought, should ought, should 'You could be right.' I felt he could be right. 'That should be interesting.' She said it should be interesting. Must Must or Had to 'I must go.' He said he must go. (or: ...had to go) Note that we may have shall or should in direct speech, and would in reported speech (because of the difference of person). 'I should be delighted to come.' He said he would be delighted to come.
* When the 'reporting' verb is present, future, or present perfect, the tenses used are usually the same as those in the speaker's original words. Compare: 'Will I be in time?' She wants to know if she'll be in time. 'Was your operation successful?' He'll certainly ask you if your operation was successful. * Sometimes, even after past reporting verbs, the tenses are the same as the original speaker's. This happens when we are reporting people saying things that are still true when we report them. Compare: 'The earth goes round the sun.' Galileo proved that the earth goes round the sun. 'I'm only 28.' She told me the other day that she's only 28. However, past tenses are also possible in these cases. 'How old are you?' - 'I beg your pardon?' - 'I asked how old you were.' In sentences like these, we often use present tenses if we feel that we are reporting facts; we prefer past tenses if we are not sure of the truth of what we report. Compare: She told me she's getting married next June. (And I believe her.) She told me she was getting married next June. (It may be true, it may not.)
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Indirect
that day the day before two days before the next day / the following day in two days' time the following week/year etc. the previous week/year etc. a year before / the previous year
'I saw her the day before yesterday,' he said. He said he'd seen him two days before. 'I'll do it tomorrow,' he promised. He promised that he would do it the next day. 'I'm starting the day after tomorrow, mother,' he said. He told his mother that he was starting in two day's time. She said, 'My father died a year ago.' He said that his father had died a year before/the previous year.
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But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not necessary. At breakfast this morning he said, 'I'll be very busy today' At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today. Logical adjustments are of course necessary if a speech is reported one/two days after it is made. One Monday Jack said to Tom: I'm leaving the day after tomorrow. If Tom reports this speech on the next day (Tuesday) he will probably say: Jack said he was leaving tomorrow. If he reports it on Wednesday, he will probably say: Jack said he was leaving today.
= or
= or = or
Ann promised to pay him/me etc. back the following week. or Ann said she would pay him back. Ann assured him that she would pay him back. KIDNAPPERS: If you don't pay the ransom at once we'll kill your daughter. The kidnappers threatened to kill his daughter if he didn't pay the ransom at once. The kidnappers said that they would kill etc.
B) accuse + object + of, admit, deny, apologize for, insist on + gerund can sometimes be used instead of say that: 'You took the money! might be reported by He accused me of taking the money. 'Yes, I took it' or 'I did take it' might be reported I admitted taking it. 'No, I didn't take it' might be reported I denied taking it. TOM: I'll pay for both of us. BILL: Let's each pay or own share. TOM: No, I'll pay. 'No, I'll pay' could be reported as Tom insisted on paying.
except with tell lies / stories / the truth, when the person addressed need not be mentioned: He told (me) lies. I'll tell (you) a story.
tell used with direct speech must be placed after the direct statement:
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'I'm leaving at once.' Tom told me. Inversion is not possible with tell.
C) Other useful verbs are: add, admit, answer, argue, assure + object, boast, complain, deny, explain,
grumble, observe, point out, promise, remark, remind + object, reply. These can be used with direct or indirect speech. With direct speech they follow direct statements: 'It won't cost more,' Tom assured us. They can all introduce indirect statements. that should be placed after the verb: But Tom assured us that it wouldn't cost more. Bill objected/pointed out that it would take longer.
D) murmur, mutter, shout, stammer, whisper can precede or follow direct statements or questions. Noun
subjects can be inverted as shown above: 'You are late,' whispered Tom / Tom whispered . They can introduce indirect statements. that is usually necessary: Tom whispered that we were late. There are, of course, a lot of other verbs describing the voice or the tone of voice, e.g. bark, growl, snarl, sneer, roar, scream, shriek, yell. But these are more common with direct speech than with reported speech.
* Before questions which do not have a question-word (like who, where, why), if or whether is used in reported speech. Although normally we can use either, if is more usual than whether. The bus driver asked if / whether I wanted the town centre. I don't know if/whether I can help you. Whether can emphasize that a choice has to be made. 'Do you want to go by air or sea?' the travel agent asked. The travel agent asked whether I wanted to go by air or sea. Note whether or not. 'Do you want to insure your luggage or not?' he asked. He asked whether or not I wanted to insure my luggage. Whether + infinitive is possible after wonder, want to know. Shall / Should I wait for them or go on?' he wondered. He wondered whether to wait for them or go on. He wondered whether he should wait for them or go. * Say can be used to introduce direct questions, but not reported questions. Compare: She said, 'Do you want me to help you?' She asked if I wanted her to help me. (Not: *She said...)
or
V.9. QUESTIONS BEGINNING SHALL I / WE? AND WILL YOU / WOULD YOU / COULD YOU?
* Questions beginning shall I / we? can be of four kinds. 1) Speculations or requests for information about a future event: 'Shall I ever see them again?' he wondered. 'When shall I know the result of the test?' she asked. These follow the ordinary rule about shall / will. Speculations are usually introduced by wonder: He wondered if he would ever see them again. She asked when she would know the result of her test.
2) Requests for instructions or advice: 'What shall I do with it?' = 'Tell me what to do with it.? These are expressed in indirect speech by ask, inquire etc., with should or the be + infinitive construction. Requests for advice are normally reported by should. = 'Shall we sent it to your flat, sir?' he said. He asked the customer if they were to send/if they should send it to his flat.
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= possible.
'What shall I do, mother?' she said. She asked her mother what she should do. (request for advice) When a choice is required we normally use whether in indirect speech, whether + infinitive is sometimes
'Shall I lock the car or leave it unlocked?' he said. = He asked whether he should/was to lock the car or leave it unlocked. or He asked whether to lock the car or leave it unlocked. 3) Offers: 'Shall I bring you some tea?' could be reported He offered to bring me some tea. 4) Suggestions: 'Shall we meet at the theatre?' could be reported He suggested meeting at the theatre. * Questions beginning with will you / would you / could you? may be ordinary questions but may also be requests, invitations, or, very occasionally, commands: = But = = or or or = = or = He said, 'Will you be there tomorrow?' (ordinary question) He asked if she would be there the next day. He said, 'Will you help me, please?' (request) He asked me to help him. He said, 'Will you have a drink / Would you like a drink? (invitation) He offered me a drink. He asked if I would have / would like a drink. He said, 'Will you have lunch with me tomorrow?' 'Would you like to have lunch with me tomorrow?' he said Could you have lunch with me tomorrow? (invitations) He invited me/asked me to lunch with him the following day. 'Will you post this for me?' he said. He asked if I would post it for him. He asked me to post it for him. 'Could you/would you wait a moment?' he said. He asked me to wait a moment.
object + infinitive. A) Tell and ask are the reporting verbs normally used. As an alternative to these we can also use: advise, beg, command, encourage, entreat, forbid, implore, invite, order, recommend, remind, request, urge, warn. (Note that say is not normally used). He said, 'Get your coat, Tom!' = He told Tom to get his coat. 'You had better hurry, Bill!' she said. = She advised Bill to hurry. B) Negative commands, requests etc. are usually reported by not + infinitive: 'Don't swim out too far, boys,' I said. = I warned/told the boys not to swim out too far. forbid can also be used for prohibitions, but is more common in the passive than in the active: The boys were forbidden to swim out too far. C) Examples of indirect commands, requests, advise. = = 'If I were you, I'd stop taking tranquilizers,' I said. I advised him to stop taking tranquilizers. 'Why don't you take off your coat?' he said. He asked me to show him my passport. (He asked me for my passport/He asked to see my passport.) 'You might post some letters for me,' said my boss. My boss asked me to post some letters for him. 'Yes, we have a room for you,' said the receptionist. 'If you'd just sign the register!' The receptionist said that they had a room for him and asked him to sign the register. 'Do sit down,' said my hostess. My hostess asked/invited me to sit down. 'Would you like to come for a drive with me?' said Andrew. Andrew asked/invited her to come for a drive with him. 'Please, please don't take any risks,' said his wife. His wife begged/implore him not to take any risks.
= = = = =
'Forget all about this young man,' said her parents. 'Don't see him again or answer his letters.' = 'His parents ordered her to forget all about the young man and told her not too see him again or answer his letters. In the passive we could say: 'She was ordered to forget all about the young man and forbidden to see him again or answer his letters. = = = 'Don't forget to order the wine,' said Mrs Pitt. Mrs Pitt reminded her husband to order the wine. 'Try again,' said Ann's friend encouragingly. Ann's friends encouraged her to try again. 'Go on, apply for the job,' said Jack. Jack urged/encouraged me to apply for the job.
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'You had better not leave your car unlocked,' said my friends; 'there's been a lot of stealing from cars' My friends warned me not to leave my car unlocked as there had been a lot of stealing from cars. 'will you...?' sentences are normally treated as requests and reported by ask: 'Will all persons not travelling please go ashore, as the gangways are about to be taken away,' said one of the ship's officers over the loudspeaker. One of the ship's officers asked all persons not travelling to go ashore...
E) suggest is another useful reporting verb, but note that it cannot be followed by the infinite: = or 'Why don't you get a job in a bank?' said my uncle My uncle suggested (my/me) getting a job in a bank. My uncle suggested that I should get a job in a bank.
3.Conditional
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After a past reporting verb, we can sometimes use a 'conditional perfect' structure (past perfect in the main clause, conditional perfect in the other). It depends on the meaning. Compare: 1 2 He said, 'If you called on me tomorrow, I could see you for half an hour'. He said that if I called on him the next day he could see me for half an hour. He said, 'If I had any money, I'd buy you a drink.' He said if he'd had any money, he'd have bought me a drink.
In the first example, the speaker was talking about something that might happen, and the conditional perfect is not possible because it is only used for 'imaginary' situations. In the second example, the conditional perfect is possible, because the speaker was talking about something that could not happen.
5. That
After the commonest verbs of saying and thinking, that can be left out, particularly in a conversational style. I said I wanted to get drunk. Jane thought it was time to buy some new clothes. I suppose we ought to go. Deborah tells me you're leaving. That is not so often left out in a more formal style, and there are also many verbs (e.g. reply, telegraph) after which that is necessary. 38
He replied that we ought to invest half the profits. (Not: *He replied we ought to...)
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The noise that he made woke everybody up. The forms of relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses are as follows.
C) With a preposition: whom or that. In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form whom: The man to whom I spoke... In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause. whom then 41
is often replaced by that, but it is still more common to omit the relative altogether: or or or or or The man from whom I bought it told me to oil it. The man who/whom I bought it from... The man I bought it from... The French with whom I was travelling could speak French. The friend who/whom I was travelling with... The friend that I was travelling with... The friend I was travelling with...
D) Possessive whose is the only possessive form: People whose rents have been raised can appeal. The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
c) Object of a preposition The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative altogether: or or The ladder on which I was standing began to slip. The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip. The ladder I was standing on began to slip. Note that when can replace in / on which (used of time): the day when they arrived the year when he was born
where can replace in / at which (used of place): the hotel where they were staying why can replace for which: The reason why he refused is... when, where and why used in this way are called relative adverbs. D) Possessive
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whose + a clause is possible but can often be replaced by with + a phrase. Living in a house whose walls were made of glass would be horrible. Living in a house with glass walls would be horrible.
Be careful not to confuse the relative what with the connective relative which. Remember that which must refer to a word or group of words in the preceding sentence, while what does not refer back to anything. The relative what is also usually the object of a verb, while the connective which is usually the subject. He said he had no money, which was not true. Some of the roads were flooded, which made our journey more difficult.
4. Cleft sentences
If we want to give a special importance to one part of a sentence, we can put it into a separate clause. There are two common ways of doing this. One is to use the structure It is / was...that...; the other is to use What...is / was.... Compare: Harry told the police. It was Harry that told the police. I need a beer. What I need is a beer. The sentence with it gives special importance to Harry; the sentence with what emphasizes a beer. Sentences like these are called 'cleft sentences' by grammarians (cleft means 'divided').
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who which
1. Use for persons: who , whom, whose A) Subject: who No other pronoun is possible, note the commas. My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year. Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town. B) Object: whom, who The pronoun cannot be omitted. whom is the correct form, though who is sometimes used in conversation: Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent. C) Object of a preposition: whom The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is normally placed before whom: Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime payments. It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is commonly done in conversation, and who then often takes the place of whom: Mr Jones, who/whom I was working for,... If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end: Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than I was could become Peter, who / whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter than I was. D) Possessive: whose Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job. I congratulated Mrs Jones, whose son had won the high jump.
C) Object of a preposition The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the end of the clause: Ashdown forest, through which we'll be driving, isn't a forest any longer Ashdown Forest, which we'll be driving through, isn't... His house, for which he paid 10,000 ten years ago, is now worth twice as much. His house, which he paid 10,000 for ten years ago, is now...
or or
D) which with phrasal verbs Combinations such as look forward to, look after, put up with should be treated as a unit, i.e. the preposition/adverb should not be separated from the verb: This machine, which I have looked after for twenty years, is still working perfectly. Your inefficiency, which we have put up with far too long, is beginning to annoy our customers. D) Possessive: whose or of which whose is generally used both for animals and things. of which, for things, is possible but unusual except in very formal English: His house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressing sight. The car, whose handbrake wasn't very reliable, began to slide backwards.
More examples of connective clauses: He ate fungus, which made him ill. He went with Peter, whose car broke down before we were halfway there. We can use one / two etc., some / several / few etc. + of + whom / which, as shown before. I bought a dozen eggs, six of which broke when I dropped the box at my door. He introduced me to his children, one of whom offered to go with me as a guide. The lorry crashed into a queue of people, several of whom had to have hospital treatment. what cannot be used as a connective relative.
irritation / dismay. It has the same meaning as on earth / in the world. A: I lost seven kilos in a month. B: How ever did you lost so much in such a short time? A: (suspiciously): I know all about you! B: (indignantly): What ever do you mean? Where ever did you buy your wonderful carpets?
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It's easy to make mistakes. (Instead of To make mistakes is easy.) It was impossible to explain what I meant. An -ing form is often used instead of an infinitive as the subject of a sentence, particularly when we are talking about an activity in general. The -ing form can be put at the beginning of a sentence. Selling insurance is a pretty boring job. But if we are talking about one particular action, the infinitive is more usual. It was difficult to sell my car.
Some of these verbs can also be followed by the -ing form, often with a different meaning. Some of these verbs, and a number of others, can be used in the construction verb + object + infinitive (for example, I wanted her to come back early). Note that these verbs are all followed by an infinitive with to (except sometimes dare).
Want, allow, and some other verbs are normally used with an object and an infinitive. She didn't want me to go. (Not: *...that I go.) They don't allow people to smoke. I didn't ask you to pay for the meal. The following list contains the commonest verbs which are used in this construction. Many of them can also be used in other constructions (for instance, with an -ing form or a that-clause); for detailed information about each verb you should consult a dictionary. advise allow ask bear beg cause command compel encourage expect forbid force get hate help instruct intend invite leave like mean need oblige order permit persuade prefer press recommend request remind teach tell tempt trouble want warn wish
Think, believe, consider, know, fine, imagine, suppose and feel can be followed by object + infinitive, but the structure is rather literary and not very common (though it is more frequent in the passive). These verbs are more often used with a that-clause. I thought him to be an excellent choice. (More normal: I thought that he was...) She was believed to have taken part in activities. (Or: It was believed that she had taken part...) There are some common verbs that cannot be used in the structure verb + infinitive; for instance, suggest. or I suggested that she (should) go home. I suggested her going home.
Adjectives in A above can be used here, and also strange, crazy, mad, odd, funny (= odd), extraordinary, astonishing, amazing, pointless, ridiculous etc. Comments of this type can also be expressed as exclamations. What a terrible night to be out in! What a funny name to give a dog! What an odd place to have a picnic! C) After adjectives expressing emotions I was delighted to see him. He'll be angry to find that nothing has been done. I'm sorry to say I can't find your keys anywhere. Other adjectives of this type are happy, glad, relieved, astonished, amazed, surprised, horrified, disgusted, disappointed, sad. D) it is / was + adjective can also be followed by an infinitive in such sentences as: It is lovely to see so much open country. It was dreadful to find oneself alone in such a place. It is easy to talk; you haven't got to make a decision. It is easy for you to talk; you haven't got to make a decision. E) An infinitive is often placed after the adjectives easy, hard, difficult, awkward, impossible, etc.: The book is easy to read. This car is hard to park. Some questions are awkward to answer. His actions are impossible to justify. F) apt, anxious, bound, due, inclined, liable, prepared, ready, reluctant, unwilling, willing can be followed by an infinitive. He is bound to win = He is sure to win / I am sure that he will win. He is reluctant to make any decision. The train is due to leave in ten minutes. You are inclined to judge people too hastily. We are all liable to make mistakes. I am prepared to help you = I am willing to help you. * When a verb is used with a preposition, this often comes at the end of the sentence in adjective + infinitive structures. She's easy to get on with. It's not a bad place to live in. * Enough and too are often used with an adjective + infinitive construction. Do you think the water's warm enough (for us) to go swimming? My mother's getting too old to travel. Would you be kind enough to open the window?
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B) Other nouns: an infinitive is often used to say what will be done with something, or what effect it will have. Have you got a key to unlock this door? I need a box to hold my chessmen. Have you anything to cure a bad cold? It was a war to end all wars. When we are talking in general (and not about a particular action), we can use for + -ing instead of the infinitive, with a similar meaning. A vase is a kind of pot for holding flowers. 'What's that stuff for?' - 'Cleaning silver.' C) When the infinitive is used with a preposition, another structure is possible: preposition + whom / which + infinitive. This is more common in a formal style. Mary needs a friend to play with. Or: ...a friend with whom to play. He's looking for a place to live in. Or: ...a place in which to live. I'm looking for something to clean the carpet with. Or: ... something with which to clean the carpet.
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After come, go, run, hurry up, stay, stop and some other verbs, and can be used instead of an infinitive of purpose. Come and have a drink. Hurry up and get dressed. Stay and have dinner. We ought to stop and think. Would you go and tell the children to shut up?
contemplate delay deny detest dislike endure enjoy escape For example:
forgive resent give up can't help imagine involve leave off mention mind
I really appreciate having time to relax. Have you considered getting a job abroad? Excuse my interrupting... You mentioned having been in hospital last year. Prevent is followed by object + (from) + -ing. There's nothing to prevent him (from) taking the money. The -ing form is also used in the following cases: to burst out crying / laughing to go swimming / shopping to spend / waste time / money doing something to keep (on) doing something
VII.12. TO + -ING
Sentences like I look forward to hearing from you may seem strange, if you expect the verb in every to + verb structure to be the infinitive. The point is that to is really two different words. One of them is just a sign of the infinitive. (It is used with most infinitives, but is left out in some cases, for example after can or must.) I want to go home. You can go home alone. The other to is a preposition. Lawrence has gone to Denmark. I'm looking forward to Christmas. Do you object to Sunday work? 55
I'm not used to London traffic. When this preposition is followed by a verb, we use the -ing form (as we do after all prepositions). I'm looking forward to seeing you at Christmas. Do you object to working on Sundays? I'm not used to driving in London. I prefer riding to walking. If you are not sure whether to is a preposition or not, try putting a noun after it. If you can, it is a preposition (and is followed by the -ing form of a verb). Compare: I'm not used to British traffic conditions. I'm not used to driving on the left. I object to music in restaurants. I object to having loud music playing while I eat. If to cannot be followed by a noun, it is not a preposition, and -ing is not used. You cannot say *I want to dinner, so you do not say *I want to eating. Common examples of to + -ing are: look forward to ...-ing, object to ...-ing, be used to ...-ing, in addition to ...-ing, be accustomed to ...-ing (but be accustomed to + infinitive is also possible).
This is also the case with certain adjectives: accustomed afraid certain interested sorry sure used
* With remember, forget, stop, go on and regret, the difference is connected with time. the -ing form refers to things that happened earlier (before the remembering, forgetting, etc takes place); the infinitive refers to things that happen after the remembering, etc. A) Remember + -ing = remember what one has done, or what has happened I shall always remember meeting you for the first time. Remember + infinitive = remember what one has to do. Remember to go to the post office, won't you. B) Forget + -ing = forget what one has done, or what has happened I shall never forget seeing the Queen. Forget + infinitive = forget what one has to do. She's always forgetting to give me my letters. C) Stop + -ing = stop what one is doing, or does. I really must stop smoking. Stop + infinitive = make a break or pause in order to do something. Every half hour I stop work to smoke a cigarette. D) Go on + -ing = continue what one has been doing. How long do you intend to go on playing those bloody records? Go on + infinitive = change, move on to something new. He welcomed the new students and then went on to explain the college regulations. C) Regret + -ing = be sorry for what has happened. I don't regret telling her what I thought, even if it upset her. Regret + infinitive = be sorry for what one is going to say. I regret to inform you that we are unable to offer you employment. * With the adjective interested, the -ing form refers to what will (or may) happen, and the infinitive refers to what has happened. Interested in + -ing = interested by the idea of doing something. I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you know anybody who could help me? Interested + infinitive = interested by what one learns or experiences. I was interested to read in the paper that scientists have found out how the universe began. * Like + -ing = enjoy I like walking in the rain.
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Like + infinitive = choose to; be in the habit of; think it right to. I like to get up early so that I can have plenty of work done before lunch. I heard you talking and I didn't like to disturb you, so I went away. Note that would like means 'wish' or 'want', and is always followed by the infinitive. What would you like to do tomorrow? (Not: *What would you like doing tomorrow?) * With love, hate and prefer there is not much difference between the two structures. I love lying / to lie on my back and staring / to stare at the sky. Some people hate working / to work in the early morning. Personally, I prefer working / to work in the morning. When we are referring to one particular occasion, it is more common to use the infinitive. Would you like to have lunch now or would you prefer to wait? I'll love to come and see you some time. I hate to break things up, but it's time to go home. I hate to mention it, but you owe me some money. 'Can I give you a lift?' - 'No, thanks, I prefer to walk.' * Allow, advise, forbid and permit are followed by an -ing form when there is no personal object. If we say who is allowed, advised, etc, the infinitive is used. Sorry, we don't allow smoking in the lecture room. We don't allow people to smoke in here. I wouldn't advise taking the car - there's nowhere to park. I wouldn't advise you to take the car... * After see, watch and hear, and -ing form suggests that we observe part of a complete action; when we start looking or listening it is already going on. The infinitive is used when we want to suggest that we observe the whole action from beginning to end. When I walked past his house I heard him practising the violin I heard Oistrakh play the Beethoven violin concerto last week. When I glanced out of the window I saw Mary crossing the road. I watched him step off the pavement, cross the road, and disappear into the post-office. * Try + -ing = make an experiment; do something to see what will happen. I tried sending her flowers but it didn't have any effect. Try putting in some more vinegar - that might make it taste a bit better. Try + infinitive = make an effort; attempt to do something difficult. Please, try to understand. I once tried to learn Japanese. * Afraid of + -ing and afraid + infinitive can often both be used with little difference of meaning. I'm afraid to fly / of flying. I'm afraid to tell / of telling her. However, when we are talking about things which happen to us unexpectedly, without our wanting or choosing them, only the -ing form is possible. 58
I'm afraid of crashing. (Not: *...to crash.) I don't like to speak French because I'm afraid of making mistakes. (Not: *...to make...) Compare: I'm afraid of diving / to dive into the swimming pool. (= I don't want to do it.) I'm afraid of falling into the swimming-pool. (= I don't want it to happen to me. Here *...to fall is impossible.) * Begin and start can be followed by an -ing or infinitive structures, usually with no real difference of meaning. It is perhaps more common to use an -ing form when we are talking about the beginning of a long or habitual activity. How old were you when you first started playing the piano? The -ing form is not used after a progressive form of begin or start. I was beginning to get angry. (Not: *...getting...) After begin and start, the verbs understand and realize are only used in the infinitive. She began to understand what he really wanted. (Not: *...understanding...) * After propose, attempt, intend, continue, can't bear and be accustomed to, both structures are possible with little difference of meaning, but the infinitive is probably more common after propose, attempt and intend. I can't bear getting / to get my hands dirty. He intends to double the advertising budget. * Sorry is used with an infinitive when we apologize for something that we are doing or about to do. Sorry to disturb you? - Could I speak to you for a moment? When we apologize for something that we have done, we use a perfect infinitive or for + -ing, or a that-clause. Sorry to have woken you up yesterday. I'm sorry for waking you up (or for having woken you up) yesterday. I'm sorry that I woke you up yesterday.
confess declare decide demand demonstrate determine be determined discover estimate expect fear feel find
know learn make out mean notice observe occur order perceive presume pretend warn promise propose
seem show stipulate suggest teach tell think threaten turn out vow wish
Most of the above verbs can also take another construction (see sections on the infinitive and the -ing form). Note however that a verb + that + subject construction does not necessarily have the same meaning as the same verb + infinitive + -ing. but or He saw her sweeping under the beds = He watched her sweeping etc. He saw that she swept under the beds could mean either 'He noticed that she did this' 'He made sure by supervision that she did this.' The tense of the main verb will affect the tense in the noun that-clause: I hope I haven't made a mistake. I promise I will help you. Tom thinks it's going to rain. I hoped that I hadn't made a mistake. I promised I would help you. Tom thought it was going to rain.
appear, occur, happen, seem requite it as a subject. It occurred to me that he might be lying. It turned out that nobody remembered the address. It appears that we have come on the wrong day. that + subject + should can be used after a number of verbs (see unit III): agree, arrange, be anxious, command, decide, demand, determine, be determined, order, resolve and urge instead of an infinitive construction, and after insist and suggest instead of -ing. They decided / agreed to put up a statue. They decided / agreed that a statue should be put up. He suggested offering a reward. He suggested that a reward should be offered. * that + subject + verb can be used after be + adjectives expressing feeling: astonished, delighted, glad, relieved etc. I am delighted that you can come. He was relieved that no one had been hurt. * that + subject + verb can also follow an abstract noun such as belief, fact, fear, hope, report, rumour. The rumour that prices were going to rise led to a rush on the shops. * A that-clause can also be the subject of a sentence. Normally the sentence begins with it + be + adjective / noun.
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It is unfortunate that you were not insured. It is a pity that he didn't come earlier.
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This is a list of English uncountable nouns which might lead foreign students into error: health, weather, English, advice, information, travel, progress, research, news, luggage, furniture, knowledge, hair, toast. None of these words, therefore, can be used with the indefinite article or take plural forms (news is a plural only in form, not in meaning). It's nice weather. (Not: *...a nice weather.) Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen. Not: *A water...) My father's in very good health. I speak very good English. Can you give me some advice? (Or: ...a piece of advice.) I need some information. (Or: ...a piece of information.) I live travel. Can I have any more toast? Some expressions, however, can be used to quantify or divide uncountable nouns. Here follows a list of the most useful ones: - a piece of news, advice, information, furniture, luck, chalk, iron, chocolate, toast, etc. - a loaf bread. - a clap of thunder. - a kilo / pound / etc. of flour, etc. - a pint / litre of beer, water, milk. - a lump of sugar, earth, etc. - a spoonful of sugar, medicine, etc. - a sheet of paper. - a great deal of money, enthusiasm, etc. - a slice of bread, cake. Note 1) A lot of words can be both countable and uncountable, with different meanings or uses (e.g. iron, an iron; coffee, a coffee). 2) Some plural words have no singular (e.g. trousers, scissors).
* The complete rules for the use of articles with countable and uncountable nouns are: A) a / an can only be used with singular countable nouns (a cat). B) the can be used with all kind of nouns (the cat, the cats, the water). C) Plural nouns and uncountable nouns can be used with no article (cats, water), but singular uncountable nouns cannot.
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no article
cats water
A very important point: singular countable nouns must always have an article (or another determiner like my, this). We can say a cat, the cat, this cat my cat, but not *cat. There are some exceptions in expressions with prepositions like by car, in bed. Do not leave out the article before the names of professions. Alice is studying to be a doctor. (Not: *...to be doctor.)
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2) Another way of generalizing is to use a singular countable noun with an article. The indefinite article (a / an) is often used in this way to talk about things in general. A baby deer can stand as soon as it is born. One should give a child plenty of encouragement. A healthy society can tolerate a lot of criticism. A, here is rather like any. The sentences would mean almost exactly the same if we used plural nouns with no article (e.g. One should give children plenty of encouragement.) The definite article (the) is often used in generalizations with singular countable nouns. This is common when we are talking about science and technology. Galileo claimed that he had invented the telescope. I hate the telephone. The whale is a mammal, not a fish. Man's greatest discovery is the hot bath. We also talk about musical instruments in this way. I'd like to learn the guitar. In Heaven, Miles Davis will play the trumpet every night. We also talk about the cinema and the theatre as general ideas. I prefer the cinema to the theatre . 3) We use the with a few adjectives to refer to general classes of people. the blind the rich the Irish
you a drink, the piece of bread or the drink are not definite - it could be any one of several pieces of bread, any one of several kinds of drink. If we say I met a friend of yours yesterday, it could also be any one of several - the listener does not know which one. In cases like these, we do not use the. With singular countable nouns, we use a / an. I've lost a button. Shall we go and see a film? There's a letter for you. Could I have a p stamp, please? I've got a headache. With uncountable and plural nouns, we express this 'indefinite' meaning by using either some / any or no article. Would you like some cheese? I haven't got any problems. We need beer. I think we've got mice. We also use a / an when we say that a person or thing is a member of a particular class or group. or when we say what people or things are like. She's a doctor. A sailor is a man who works is ships. 'What's that?' - 'It's an adjustable spanner.' You're a beautiful girl. No article is used with uncountable and plural words in this case; some and any are not used. What's that?' - 'It's petrol.' They're original Russian icons. You're fools. 3) When we mention something for the first time, we will probably use an indefinite article (or some or no article with uncountables and plurals), because our listener knows nothing about it. But when we mention the same thing again, it becomes definite (because now he knows which one we mean). A man came up to a policeman and asked him a question. The policeman didn't understand the question, so he asked the man to repeat it.
seven.) Is there any more beer in the fridge? (indefinite quantity.) We need beer, sugar, butter, eggs, rice and toilet paper. (The usual quantities.) 2) There is a special use of the strong form of some ([sm] ) with singular countable nouns. She's going out with some footballer. There's some man at the door for you. His got some plan for changing the world. In cases like these, some means 'I don't know about him / her / it, and I'm not very interested.'
any is used: - In negative sentences. I haven't any matches and Tom hasn't any either. - With hardly, barely, scarcely (which are almost negatives). I have hardly any time. - With questions except those noted above. Have you any money? Did you see any eagles? - After if / whether, and in expressions of doubt. I don't think there's any petrol in the tank. If you have any difficulty, let me know.
2. No and none
no (adjective) and none (pronoun) can be used with affirmative verbs to express a negative; they are 67
therefore an alternative to negative verb + any. I have no apples = I haven't any apples. Tom has none = Tom hasn't any. I took no photos = I didn't take any photos. On the whole a negative verb + any is more usual than an affirmative verb + no / none.
2. Genitives (possessives)
Articles are not normally used in genitive expressions when the first word is a proper name.
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3. Nouns as adjectives
When a noun is used as an adjective (before another noun), the first noun's article is dropped. Lessons in how to play the guitar are guitar lessons; a spot on the sun is a sun spot.
6. Musical instruments
We normally use the definite article in expressions like play the guitar, learn the piano. Note the difference in the use of articles between the languages of classical music and jazz / rock. with Alfred Brendel at the piano. with Eric Clapton on guitar, Phil Collins on drums... (The definite article is not used with the names of games. compare play the piano, play the guitar, play chess, play football)
8. Illnesses
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable, and we talk about them with no article. 69
I think I've got measles. She's had appendicitisWe say a cold, I've got a cold. We say a headache, but other aches (toothache, earache, etc) are uncountable, with no article, in British English.
9. Numbers
The indefinite article is used in a hundred, a thousand, a million, a billion, etc. It'll cost about a hundred pounds. Note the use of the article in expressions like sixty pence a pound, seventy miles an hour, forty hours a week.
10. Seasons
We can say spring or the spring, in summer or in the summer, etc. There is very little difference between the expressions with and without the article. The article is usually used in in the fall (US).
11. Positions
In certain constructions, the names of positions that people can occupy are used without articles. Elizabeth II, Queen of England. They elected George chairman. Henry was made captain of the team. Mr Lewis was appointed chief clerk in 1968. Note (i) the name of the position is the complement, not the subject of the sentence (you cannot say *Chairman came to lunch, with no article) (ii) these are 'unique' positions - there is only one Queen of England, only one captain of the team. Do not drop the indefinite article before the name of a profession or job in other cases. We say He's a doctor or I don't want to be a secretary.
12. Exclamations
We don't leave out a / an in exclamations after what. What a lovely dress!
13. Ships
The definite article is used in the names of ships. The Titanic. The Queen Mary.
We often use the with the words country, sea, seaside and mountains, even when we don't say which sea, or which mountains, etc. are meant. I'm going to the country for a week. I love the mountains, but I hate the sea.
15. Place-names
We usually use the with the following kinds of place-names: seas (the Atlantic) mountain groups (the Himalayas) island groups (the West Indies) areas (the Middle East, the Ruhr, the Midwest, the Gulf) rivers (the Rhine) deserts (the Sahara) hotels (the Grand Hotel) cinemas (the Odeon) theatres (the Albert Hall) We generally use no article with: continents (Africa) counties, states, departments, etc (Berkshire, Westphalia, Texas) towns (Oxford) streets (High Street) lakes (Lake Windermere) countries (Andorra, Brazil) Exceptions: countries whose name contains a common noun (The People's Republic of China; The United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland; The United Arab Emirates; The USA; The USSR) Note also The Netherlands, and its capital The Hague. We do not usually use articles in expressions which refer to the principal buildings of a town: Oxford University Cambridge Polytechnic Westminster Abbey Salisbury Cathedral Bognor Town Hall Wigan Police Station Birmingham Airport Names of single mountains usually have no article (Everest, Snowdon). But we use the with the names of European mountains if their name has an article in the local language: Das Matterhorn = The Matterhorn; La Meije = The Meije. Exception: the is not used before Mont(e): Le Mont Blanc is called Mont Blanc in English.
Dictionary entries: palm inner surface of hand between wrist and fingers. Lists: Take car to garage; buy buttons; pay phone bill... Notes: In 17th century, balance of power between King and Nobles changed.
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c) DISMISSAL OF A PREVIOUS DISCOURSE- expressions often used to mean 'what is said before doesn't really matter -the main point is as follows'.
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d) SHOWING OUR ATTITUDE TO WHAT WE ARE SAYING.-frankly honestly (often used to introduce critical remarks) -I think -I feel -I reckon -to my mind -in my view -in my opinion (these are ways of making our opinions sound less definite). -according to the text -according to the author -in the author's view -after all -undoubtedly -no doubt -it goes without saying that... (these are ways of making our arguments sound more categorical and persuasive) -I'm afraid (shows an apologetic attitude) - I approve of... / I disapprove of... e) ADDING FURTHER DETAILS: -actually -in fact -as a matter of fact -what's more
f) QUOTING FROM A TEXT IN ORDER TO SUPPORT OR REJECT A STATEMENT: - I think this statement is true / false since... -according to the text... -the text states that... -according to the author... - the text mentions that... -in the author's words...
-This statement is supported by the following sentences in the text.... g) STARTING A SUMMARY: - The text deals with... - The author's point / view / opinion is that... - I think the text could be summarized in the following way: WARNING!: avoid by all means *the author wants to say.
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INFINITIVE eat feed feel fight find fly forbid forget forgive forsake freeze get give go grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel know lead lean learn leave lend let lie light lose
PAST ate fed felt fought found flew forbade forgot forgave forsook froze got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knew led leant learnt left lent let lay lit lost
PAST PART. eaten fed felt fought found flown forbidden forgotten forgiven forsaken frozen got given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt kept knelt known led leant learnt left lent let lain lit lost
MEANING
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INFINITIVE make mean meet mow pay put quit read ride ring rise run saw say see seek sell send set sew shake shine shoot show shut sing sink sit sleep smell speak spell spend spill
PAST made meant met mowed paid put quit read rode rang rose ran sawed said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook shone shot showed shut sang sank sat slept smelt spoke spelt spent spilt
PAST PART. made menat met mown paid put quit read ridden rung risen run sawn said seen sought sold sent set sewn shaken shone shot shown shut sung sunk sat slept smelt spoken spelt spent spilt
MEANING
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INFINITIVE spin spit split spoil spread stand steal stick stink strike swear sweep swim swing take teach tear tell think throw understand wake wear weep win write
PAST spun spat split spoil spread stood stole stuck stank struck swore swept swam swung took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore wept won wrote
PAST PART. spun spat split spoil spread stood stolen stuck stunk struck sworn swept swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown understood woken worn wept won written
MEANING
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