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Wireless LAN
Introduction to Wireless LAN (WLAN)

Wireless technology has been available for a long time and it is only until recent few years that wireless LAN (WLAN) becomes popular. WLAN has continued to grow at an incredible rate. Due to the convenience, availability, and cost of wireless hardware, there is an explosive growth in WLAN deployment and manufacture of WLAN hardware. It is therefore necessary to have organizations such as FCC, IEEE, the Wi-Fi Alliance and WLANA to remove barriers of operations between solutions.
Applications of Wireless LANs

Wireless LAN was first used by defense force, then the large enterprises, and now available to home users. One of the many advantages of WLAN is that it offers a variety of usages. We will discuss some of the most common uses of WLAN.
a.
Access Role Wireless LANs are used as an entry point into wired networks and are mostly deployed as an access layer role. It is another method for users to access the network. In an OSI reference model, WLAN is a Data Link Layer network. Due to lack of speed and resiliency, WLAN is not implemented at the Distribution or Core role in a network. The diagram below shows a typical access role of a wireless LAN.
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Wireless Simpo PDF Password Remover Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com LAN
Wired Network
Access Point
Client
Client Client Coverage Area
Figure 1. Access Role of a Wireless LAN
WLAN offers mobility and is accessible almost anywhere. WLAN solves the problem of the need for data cabling and offers users a fast and inexpensive solution to stay connected with ability to roam.
b.
Network Extension Wireless network can serve as an extension to wired networks. In a typical network extension, installation of additional cabling is required and this can cost a lot.
WLAN can be implemented easily to provide seamless connectivity to remote areas within a building. As only minimum wiring is required to install a WLAN, the costs of hiring installers and purchasing of Ethernet cable is kept to the minimal. The diagram below shows an extension of network using WLAN from the server farm to the warehouse.
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Server Farm
Warehouse
Figure 2. Network Extension
c.
Building-to-Building Connectivity In an environment with two or more adjacent buildings, there may be a need to have network users in each of these buildings who are accessing to the same computer network. A typical way to achieve this is by running cables underground from one building to another. Another alternative is by renting expensive leased-lines from the local telephone companies.
By using wireless technology, equipment can be installed quickly and easily to two or more buildings in the same network. It can be done without renting expensive leased line and digging the ground between buildings. With the use of proper WLAN antennas, two or more buildings can be linked together on the same network. Although there are some limitations using WLAN, the flexibility and cost-saving attracts the network administrators to make use of WLAN.
There are two different types of building-to-building connectivity. The first is called point-to-point (PTP). PTP connection uses a directional antenna at each of the end of the link.
Figure 3. Point-to-Point Connectivity

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The other building-to-building connectivity is point-to-multipoint (PTMP). PTMP links wireless connections between three or more buildings in a star topology. One building serves as the central point of the network and an omni-directional antenna is used. The remote buildings will link to the central point where the Internet connectivity and server farms are located. Directional antennas are used in these buildings.
OmniDirectional Antenna Directional Antenna
Directional Antenna
Central
Internet
Figure 4. Point-to-Multipoint Connectivity
d.
Last Mile Data Delivery Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISPs) offer the last mile data delivery service to their customers using wireless LAN. Last mile refers to the wired or wireless communication infrastructure that exists between the central office of the telecommunication or cable company and the end user.
WISP Tower
Remote Residence
Figure 5. Last Mile Service

The last mile service is useful at locations where the cable and telecommunication companies have difficulties expanding their network to offer broadband connections. For example, in rural area, there is no access to the broadband connection; it will be more cost effective for the WISP to provide wireless access to these areas.
e.
Mobility A wireless LAN cannot replace wired LAN in terms of data rates, potential WLANs intermittent connections and may have higher error rates. Therefore, applications designed for a wired LAN may not be suitable in the wireless environment. However, WLANs offer an increase in mobility as a trade off for speed and quality of service. For instance, staff can perform regular stocktake with a wireless hand-held device at any location in the supermarket.
Wired Network Supermarket
Figure 6. Mobility of Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN allows data transfer without requiring time and manpower to input data at a wired terminal. Wireless connectivity eliminates the need for user devices to be connected using wires.
f.
Small Office, Home Office (SOHO) Many users and IT professionals today have more than one computer at home. These computers are normally networked together in order to share files, printer and Internet access. This configuration is also common in many small offices with few employees sharing resources to work more efficiently with higher productivity.
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Instead of running cables throughout the office or home to create a wired LAN, the wireless LAN can provide a simple and effective solution to these small offices and homes which are not usually installed with Ethernet ports. Wired LAN can create unsightly trunks and holes on the walls and ceiling due to the cabling. With wireless LAN, users can be interconnected easily and neatly.
Internet
Print Sharing
Internet Sharing
Wireless Gateway
Wireless Print Server
File Sharing
Figure 7. SoHo Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN Standards

Wireless LAN transmits using radio frequency and it is regulated by the government bodies. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the use of wireless LAN devices. In the current wireless LAN market, there are several accepted operational standards with are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE).
These standards are created by a group of specialists that represent many organizations such as academics, business, military and government. The standards normally take years to create and agreed upon. These are the latest wireless LAN standards that are built.
a.
IEEE 802.11 This is the original wireless LAN standard with the slowest data transfer rate in both RF and light-based transmission technologies.
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b.
IEEE 802.11b This standard satisfies a faster data transfer rate and it is a more restrictive scope of transmission technologies. It uses the 2.4 GHz frequency bands. This standard is also widely promoted as Wi-Fi (certification) by the Wi-Fi Alliance. It is an amendment from the original 802.11 standard.
c.
802.11b+ Texas Instruments (TI) developed a modulation technique called Packet Binary Convolution Code (PBCC) that can provide signaling rates of 22 and 33 Mbps. TI produces 802.11b-based chipsets that also support 22 Mbps PBCC. They are fully 802.11b compliant and when communicating with each other of the same standard, it can automatically use the 22 Mbps signaling rate. Another TI enhancement is 4X mode, which uses a larger maximum packet size 4000 bytes to reduce overhead and increase throughput.
d.
IEEE 802.11a This is a much faster data transfer rate compared to IEEE 802.11b. However, it lacks backward compatibility with IEEE 802.11b. It uses the 5 GHz frequency bands. It is also an amendment from the original 802.11 standard.
e.
IEEE 802.11g This is the most recent standard based on the original 802.11 standard. The data transfer rates is as fast as IEEE 802.11a and it is backwards compatible with 802.11b.
f.
802.11g+ This is a Texas Instruments (TI) implementation of the IEEE standard, with addition of several vendor-specific capabilities. The 802.11g+ products interoperate fully with 802.11b and 802.11g devices.
g.
IEEE 802.11e This standard is developed to support Quality of Service (QoS). It will improve the capability and efficiency for applications such as voice, video and audio transport over the wireless network.
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Emerging Wireless Standards

There are other emerging standards which have not been released.
a.
IEEE 802.11h This standard adds indoor and outdoor channel selection for the 5 GHz bands in Europe. This will enhance the channel energy measurement and there is reporting mechanisms to reduce interference using Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) and improve power management using Transmit Power Control (TPC).
b.
IEEE 802.11i This standard is developed to provide WLAN network security. It uses the 802.1x port-based EAP standards for user and device authentication and Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) encryption as the protocol and algorithm to improve security of keys used with WEP. It also has two new features, pre-authentication and encryption protocols based on Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption algorithm. WPA certification, initiated from Wi-Fi Alliance, is a subset of 802.11i dealing only with 802.1x/EAP and TKIP.
c.
IEEE 802.11k This standard defines radio resource measurements for WLAN. Both the terminal and access point can make request for information from their peers and make decisions about their status and the desired action to be taken. The upper layers can also use the measurements to make appropriate decisions.
d.
IEEE 802.11n This standard defines standardized modifications to both 802.11 physical layers (PHY) and the 802.11 Medium Access Control Layer (MAC) so that modes of operation is capable of much higher throughput of at least 100 Mbps throughput for applications. It is measured at the MAC data service access point (SAP). Other goals are to achieve the throughput with sacrificing range and to maintain interoperability with 802.11a and/or 802.11g devices.
e.
WiMAX The Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) Forum is a coalition of wireless broadband access (WBA) equipment vendors and service
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providers to promote the development, refinement and market acceptance of IEEE 802.16, a series of standards for fixed wireless broadband (FWB) metropolitan area networks (MANs) operating at frequency from 10 to 66 GHz.
f.
IEEE 802.11r This standard is targeted to minimize the terminal transfer from one access point to another. The goal is to achieve a fast BSS (Basic Service Set) transition time that is compatible with applications such as VoIP. It has to accomplish the goal without reducing the security features and affecting the existing station services.
Radio Frequency (RF) Fundamentals

Radio frequencies are high frequency alternating current (AC) signals that pass along a copper conductor and then radiated into the air via an antenna. An antenna transforms the wired signal to a wireless signal and vice versa. When the high frequency AC signal is radiated into the air, it forms radio waves. These radio waves propagate from the antenna in a straight line in all directions at once.
Radio Waves
Wireless Signals
AC Signals
Wired Signals
Figure 8. Radio Frequency
Units of Measurement There are a few standard units of measurement that a wireless network administrator need to be familiar with in order to be effectively implementing and troubleshooting wireless LANs.
a.
Watts (W) The basic unit of power is a watt. A watt is defied as one ampere (A) of current at one volt (V). One watt is equal to an Ampere multiplied times a Volt.
b.
Milliwatt (mW) When implementing wireless LANs, the power levels as low as 1 milliwatt (1/1000 watt) can be used for a small area and the power levels on a single wireless LAN segment are rarely above 100mW. This is enough to communicate up to 800 meters in optimum conditions.
Access points generally have the ability to radiate 30 to 100 mW of power, depending on the manufacturer. In some cases of point-to-point outdoor connections between buildings, the power levels may reach above 100 mW. Most of the power levels referred to will be in mW or dBm. These two units of measurement both represent an absolute amount of power and are both industry standard measurements.
c.
Decibels (dB) When a receiver is very sensitive to RF signals, it may be able to pick up signals as small as 0.000001 mW. This number is too small and is likely to be ignored or misread. Decibels represent these numbers by making them more manageable and understandable. Decibels are based on a logarithmic relationship to watts. Concerning RF, a logarithm is the exponent to which the number 10 must be raised to reach some given value. For example, log 1000 = 3 because 103 = 1000, where 3 is the exponent. The logarithm of a negative number or of zero does not exist. Decibels are a relative measurement unit unlike the absolute measurement of milliwatts.
d.
dBm The reference point that relates the logarithmic dB scale to the linear watt scale is: 1 mW = 0 dBm
The m in dBm refers to the reference of 1 mW, which means a dBm is a measurement of absolute power.
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The relationship between the decibels scale and watt scale can be estimated using the following rules of thumb:
+3 dB will double the watt value: (10mW + 3dB 20 mW)
-3 dB will halve the watt value: (100mW 3dB 50 mW)
+10 dB will increase the watt value by ten-fold: (10 mW + 10dB 100mW)
-10 dB will decrease the watt value to one-tenth of that value: (300 mW 10dB 30 mW)
These rules will allow quick calculation of milliwatt power levels when given power levels, gains and losses in dBm and dB. The following chart shows the reference point is always the same, but the power levels can move in either direction from the reference point depending on whether they represent a power gain or loss.
-40 dBm
-30 dBm
-20 dBm
-10 dBm
0 dBm
+10 dBm
+20 dBm
+30 dBm
+40 dBm
100 nW
1 uW
10 uW
100 uW
1 mW
10 mW
100 mW
1,000 mW
10,000 mW
-12 dBm
-9 dBm
-6 dBm
-3 dBm
0 dBm
+3 dBm
+6 dBm
+9 dBm
+12 dBm
62.5 uW
125 uW
250 uW
500 uW
1 mW
2 mW
4 mW
8 mW
16 mW
Figure 9. Power Level Chart
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e.
dBi Gain and loss are measured in decibels which quantify the gain of an antenna. The decibel unit is represented by dBi. The unit of measurement, dBi, refers only to the gain of an antenna. The i" stands for isotropic, which means that the change in power is referenced against an isotropic radiator. An isotropic radiator is a theoretical ideal transmitter that produces useful electromagnetic field output in all directions with equal intensity, and at 100-percent efficiency, in three-dimensional space.
Radio Frequency Behaviours

Radio frequency acts inconsistently under given circumstances. Things such as connector not properly tightened or slight impedance mismatch on the line can cause erratic behavior and undesired results. The following are some types of behaviors that can happen to radio waves when they are transmitted.
a.
Gain Gain is the term that describe an increase in an RF signals amplitude. Gain is normally an active process. An external power source such as a RF amplifier is used to amplify the signal. Alternatively, a high-gain antenna is used to focus the beamwidth of the signal and hence it will increase its signal amplitude.
Gain as seen by an oscilloscope Gain of DSSS as seen by a spectrum analyzer
Peak Amplitude after Gain
Peak Amplitude before Gain
Figure 10. Power Gain For passive processes, it can also cause gain. For example, reflected RF signals can combine with the main signal to increase the main signals strength. Increasing the RF signals strength may have positive or negative result. Typically, more power is better. However, when a transmitter is radiating power very close to the legal power output limit, adding more power will cause a serious problem.
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b.
Loss Loss is described as decrease in an RF signals amplitude. Many things can cause RF signal loss. Resistance of cables and connectors causes loss when converting AC signal to heat. Impedance mismatches in the cables and connectors can cause power to reflect back towards the source and result in signal degradation. An object that is blocking the propagated waves transmission path can be absorbed, reflected or destroyed.
Gain as seen by an oscilloscope Gain of DSSS as seen by a spectrum analyzer
Peak Amplitude before Gain Peak Amplitude after Gain
Figure 11. Power Loss
Being able to measure and compensate for loss in an RF connection is important because radios have a receive sensitivity threshold. Sensitivity threshold is the point at which a radio can clearly distinguish a signal from background noise. The transmitting station must transmit signal that has enough amplitude to be recognized by the receiver because receivers sensitivity is not infinite. Losses between the transmitter and receiver can be corrected either by removing the object causing the loss or by increasing the transmission power.
c.
Reflection Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave hits an object with a large dimension. Reflections occur on most surfaces and if the surface is smooth, the reflected signal will remain unchanged with minimal or reduced absorption and scattering of the signal.
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Incoming RF
Reflected RF
Figure 12. Reflection
RF signal reflection can cause serious problem for wireless LAN. The reflection of the main signal from many objects in the transmission is called multipath. Multipath affects wireless LAN and degrades or even cancels the main signal and recreates holes or gaps in the RF coverage area. Examples of multipath that cause severe reflection are metal roofs, metal doors, lakes, etc.
d.
Refraction Refraction is the bending of a radio wave as it passes through a medium of different density. When passing through such medium, some of the radio waves will be reflected away and some will be bent through the medium in another direction.
Reflected RF Incoming RF
Refracted RF
Figure 13. Refraction
Refraction can be a serious problem for long distance RF link. As the atmosphere changes, the RF waves may change direction and divert the signal away from the intended target.
e.
Diffraction
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Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a rough surface.
New Wave Direction
Old Wave Direction
Building
Antenna Old Wave Direction
New Wave Direction
Figure 14. Diffraction
Diffraction is the slowing of the wave front at the point where the wave front strikes an obstacle, while the rest of the wave front maintains the same speed of propagation. It is the effect of waves bending around the obstacle.
f.
Scattering Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are relatively small compared to the wavelength of the signal. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces or small objects. Scattering can occur when a wave strikes an uneven surface and is reflected in many directions simultaneously. There are many small amplitude reflections which can destroy the main RF signal. RF signal degradation can cause intermittent disruption in communications and signal loss.
Scattered RF Incoming RF
Figure 15. Scattering
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Scattering can also occur as the signal wave travels through particles in the medium, such as heavy dust content. Instead of being reflected off an uneven surface, the RF waves are individually reflected on very small, tiny particles.
g.
Absorption Absorption occurs when the RF signal strikes an object and is absorbed into the material of the object. The RF signal does not pass through, reflect off, or bend around the object.
Incoming RF
Absorbed RF
Figure 16. Absorption
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) VSWR occurs when there is mismatched impedance between devices in an RF system. Impedance is the resistance to current flow, measured in Ohms. Mismatch means that an equipment has higher or lower impedance compared to another equipment connected to it. VSWR is caused by an RF signal reflected at a point of the impedance mismatch in the signal path. VSWR will result in the loss of forward energy through a system due to some of the power is being reflected back towards the transmitter called Return Loss. If the impedances at the ends of a connection are mismatched, then the antenna will not receive the transmitted power.
For purpose of illustrating VSWR, an example of water flowing through two hoses may be used. When the two hoses are of the same diameter, water is able to flow through seamlessly. If the hose connected to a tap is much larger than the second hose down the other end, there would be a backpressure on the tap and also the connection between the two hoses.
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Backlog of water (Return Loss)
Lower Impedance Hose
Higher Impedance Hose
Figure 17. VSWR like water through a hose
VSWR is a ratio of impedance mismatched against a perfect impedance match. The typical VSWR value is 1.5 : 1. The second number is always 1, which represent the perfect match. The first number will vary. The lower the first number, the better impedance matching the system is.
Excessive VSWR is a serious problem in an RF circuit. It will result in a decrease in the amplitude of the transmitted RF signal. When some transmitters are not protected against power being applied to the transmitter output circuit, the reflected power can burn out the electronics of the transmitter. When the transmitter circuits is burned out, VSWRs effects will appear. The power output levels are unstable and the power observed is different from the expected power. The methods for changing VSWR in a circuit include proper use of proper equipment, such as tight connections between cables and connectors, use of impedance match hardware throughout, and the use of high-quality equipment with calibration reports.
To prevent negative effects of VSWR, it is important that all cables, connectors and devices have impedances that match as closely as possible to each other. Most of todays wireless LAN devices have impedance of 50 ohms, so 75-ohm cable should not be used.
Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum is a communications technique characterized by wide bandwidth and low peak power. In wireless LAN, modulation techniques used by spread spectrum communication has many advantages over narrowband communication. Noise-like spread spectrum signal is hard to detect and hence it is harder to intercept
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or demodulate without proper tools. In spread spectrum communication, it is lesser affected by jamming and interference.
Power Narrowband (High Peak Power)
Spread Spectrum (Low Peak Power) Frequency
Figure 18. Narrowband vs. Spread Spectrum on a frequency domain
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) FHSS is a spread spectrum technique that uses frequency agility to spread data over more than 83 MHz. Frequency agility refers to the radios ability to change transmission frequency abruptly within the usable RF frequency band. In frequency hopping wireless LANs, the usable portion of the 2.4 GHz ISM band is 83.5 MHz.
In frequency hopping systems, the carrier changes frequency, or hops according to a pseudorandom sequence. The sequence is a list of several frequencies that the carrier will hop at specified time intervals before repeating the pattern. The transmitter uses this hop sequence to select its transmission frequencies. The carrier will remain in a certain frequency for a specified time called dwell time. It then uses a small amount of time, called the hop time, to hop to the next frequency. When the list of frequencies have completed, the transmitter will repeat the whole sequence again until the information is received completely.
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Transmission Frequency (GHz) 2.4835 Repeating Sequence
2.4000 Elapsed Time
Figure 19. Single Frequency Hopping System
Frequency hopping is a method of sending data where the transmission and receiving systems hop along a repeatable pattern of frequencies together. Frequency hopping systems are resistant to narrow band interference. If a signal interferes with the frequency hopping signal, only that portion of the spread spectrum signal would be lost. The rest of the spread spectrum signal would remain intact and the lost data would be retransmitted.
In reality, an interfering narrow band signal may occupy several megahertz bandwidth. Since frequency hopping band is over 83 MHz wide, this interfering signal will cause minimal degradation of the spread spectrum signal.
IEEE 802.11 standard specifies data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps and it must be operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It allows operation in the range of 2.4000 GHz to 2.4835 GHz.
==Reference Only== A frequency hopping system will operate using a specified hop pattern called channel. Some frequency hopping systems allow creating of custom hop patterns and others allow synchronization between systems to completely eliminate collisions in a colocated environment.
It is possible to have as many as 79 synchronized, co-located access points. However, each frequency hopping ratio requires precise synchronization with the others in order not to interfere with another frequency hopping ratio in the area. To be
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practical, if synchronized ratios are used, the maximum number of co-located systems should be 12.
If non-synchronized radios are used in medium-traffic wireless LAN, 26 systems can co-locate in this wireless LAN. In an environment that has significantly large file transfer, the practical limit is about 15 co-located systems. More than 15 co-located frequency hopping systems in such environment will interfere and collisions will begin to reduce the throughput of the wireless LAN.
The time to transmit on a specific frequency is called dwell time. Once the dwell time has expired, the system will switch to another frequency and begin to transmit again.
When changing the transmission frequency from one to another, it either switches to a different circuit tuned to the new frequency or it must change some element of the current circuit in order to tune to the new frequency. The process of changing to the new frequency must be completed before transmission can resume. This small amount of time is called hop time. Hop time is usually not significant compared with dwell time.
The longer the dwell time, the greater is the throughput. However, there is a limit to this dwell time. The FCC defines the maximum dwell time of a frequency hopping spread spectrum system at 400 ms per carrier frequency in any 30 seconds time frame. Normally, frequency hopping radios are not programmed to operate at a limit. This is for the operator to have the flexibility for adjustment. By adjusting the dwell time, the administrator can optimize the frequency hopping spread spectrum network for the different level of interference. In area where there is little interference, longer dwell time may be set and hence throughput is higher. In area with interference, many retransmissions are needed due to corrupted data packets, therefore shorter dwell time is set. ==End of Reference==
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) DSSS is very widely known and the most commonly used spread spectrum type. This is due to ease of implementation and high data rate. Majority of the wireless LAN equipment uses DSSS technology. DSSS is a method of sending data which the transmitting and receiving systems are both on a 22 MHz-wide set of frequencies. A
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wide channel enables devices to transmit more information at a higher data rate compared to FHSS systems.
DSSS combines a data signal at the sending station with a higher data rate bit sequence called chipping code or processing gain. A high processing gain increases the signals resistance to interference. The process of direct sequence begins with a carrier being modulated with a code sequence. The number of chips in the code will determine how much spreading occurs. The number of chips per bit and the speed of the code will determine the data rate.
In the 2.4 GHz ISM band, IEEE 802.11 specifies the use of DSSS at a 1 or 2 Mbps. Under 802.11b standard, the data rates are 5.5 and 11 Mbps. 802.11b is backward compatible with 802.11 standard.
802.11a standard can operate up to 54 Mbps, uses the 5 GHz UNII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) bands. It is incompatible with 802.11 and 802.11b.
802.11g is able to operate up to 54 Mbps too. In addition, the advantage of this standard is that it is backwards compatible with 802.11 and 802.11b.
Unlike frequency hopping systems that use hop sequence to define channels, direct sequence systems use more conventional definition of channels. Each channel is a contiguous band of frequencies that is 22 MHz wide. FHSS is using 1MHz carrier frequencies. Power Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Frequency 2.401 GHz 3 MHz 3 MHz 2.483 GHz
Figure 20. DSSS Channel Allocation and Spectral Relationship

The above chart is a complete list of channels that are used in most part of Asia and Europe. 802.11b and 802.11g standard specification specifies 13 channels in this region. Each frequency is a centre frequency. From this centre, 11 MHz is added and subtracted to get the useable 22 Mbps wide channel. The channels directly next to each other overlap significantly.
The table shows the DSSS frequency assignments Channel ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Channel Frequencies (GHz) 2.412 2.417 2.422 2.427 2.432 2.437 2.442 2.447 2.452 2.457 2.467 2.467 2.473
Using DSSS systems with overlapping channels in the same space would cause interference between systems. DSSS systems with overlapping channels should not be co-located as it will reduce the wireless LAN performance. This is because the centre frequencies are 3 MHz apart and each channel is 22 MHz wide, channels should be co-located only if the channel numbers are at least five channels apart. For example, channel 1 and 6 do not overlap, channel 6 and 11 do not overlap, etc. There is a maximum of three co-located direct sequence systems because there are only 3 non-overlapping channels.
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Power
3 MHz 22 MHz
Ch 1 2.401 GHz
Ch 6
Ch 11 Frequency 2.483 GHz
Figure 21. DSSS Non-Overlapping Channels
Like frequency hopping systems, direct sequence systems are also resistant to narrow band interference due to their spread spectrum characteristics. A DSSS signal is more susceptible to narrow band interference than FHSS. This is because DSSS band (22 MHz wide) is much smaller than FHSS band (79 MHz wide). The information using DSSS is transmitted along the entire band simultaneously instead of one frequency at a time. With FHSS, the interference is only influential for a short time due to the changing of the frequency, which means, only a small portion of the data may get corruption.
Comparing FHSS and DSSS Both FHSS and DSSS technologies have their advantages and disadvantages. There are several factors that need to be considered on which technology is appropriate. a. Narrowband Interference FHSS has greater resistance to narrowband interference. DSSS systems may be affected by narrowband interference more than FHSS.
b.
Cost The cost of implementing a direct sequence system is far lesser than frequency hopping system. DSSS equipment is widely available in todays marketplace. This fast adaptation drives the cost to go down.
c.
Co-location
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FHSS supports more co-locations compared to DSSS. Since frequency hopping systems are always changing frequency and make use of 79 discrete channels, it is an advantage of FHSS compared to DSSS with maximum three co-located access points.
However, DSSS has better throughput compared to FHSS. The maximum throughput for DSSS is 33 Mbps (3 access points x 11Mbps). For FHSS, the maximum throughput is 24 Mbps (12 access points x 2 Mbps).
d.
Equipment Compatibility & Availability The Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Alliance provides testing of 802.11b and 802.11g compliant DSSS wireless LAN equipment to ensure interoperability. There are no compatibility tests for equipment that uses FHSS. Due to the popularity of 802.11b and 802.11g products, there is a growing demand for Wi-Fi compliant products while the demand for FHSS products is decreasing.
e.
Data Rate and Throughput The frequency hopping system is slower than DSSS systems. Most of the frequency hopping systems data rate is only 2 Mbps. Although there are systems that operate at more than 3 Mbps, they are not 802.11 compliant. DSSS systems throughput is up to 54 Mbps in 802.11g.
f.
Security Frequency hopping systems are less secure than direct sequence systems mainly because it is not popular and there is very minimal number of manufacturers. These few manufacturers will make use of the standard set of hop sequences produced by the standard body so that they can sell their products efficiently. Therefore breaking the code of hop sequences is relatively simple. Another reason is that the channel number is broadcasted openly with each beacon. The MAC address of the transmitted access point can be seen in each beacon. For those designs that allow flexible defining custom hopping patterns, there is no security because by using spectrum analyzers or standard computer, it can track the hopping pattern of a FHSS radio in seconds.
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Wireless LAN Infrastructure - Super G

Super G from Atheros is a series of intelligent mechanisms that is activated when additional bandwidth is needed. Its purpose is to increase the actual throughput in a wireless network. There are four capabilities of Super G that operate independently to enhance the throughput of wireless LAN in different ways.
Throughput (Mbps)
60
Bandwidth Benefits Dynamic Turbo: Dual channels to double rates, dynamically adjusts for need
40
Fast Frames & Compression: Packet aggregation & timing modification, standard LempelZiv compression Bursting: More data packets in a given time regardless of the AP type
22
BaseMode: Standard 802.11 enhanced Tx power and Rx Sensitivity
Figure 22. Super G Technology Suite
a.
Bursting Frame bursting is a transmission technique supported by 802.11e draft QoS specification. Frame bursting increases throughput of any 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g link by reducing the overhead associated with the wireless transmission. This ability for high data throughput is available for both homogeneous and mixed networks.
Super G has bandwidth enhancements that begin with the frame bursting mechanisms. It allows a transmitting device to send multiple frames in a burst rather than pause after each frame. That means more information is transmitted during each transmission opportunity for a given station.
In a standard transmission, it is separated by the distributed interframe space (DIFS). All devices must contend for airtime to transmit their data. After transmitting one frame successfully, the devices will contend for the airtime again.
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In a burst transmission, the devices only need to contend for the airtime once before sending a series of data frames. The overhead of contending for airtime between frame transmissions is reduced. There is only short interframe space (SIFS) between frames.
DIFS & Backoff
DIFS & Backoff
DIFS & Backoff
Source Frame 1 Without Bursting ACK ACK Frame 2 Time
Dest
SIFS SIFS
Source Frame 1 With Bursting ACK ACK ACK Frame 2 Frame 3 Time
Dest
SIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS
Figure 23. Burst Timing
b.
Fast Frames Fast frames enhance data throughput by increasing the number of bits sent per data frame via bundling two data frames into a single wireless LAN frame. This will eliminate the extra wireless network overhead.
In a typical network, the maximum frame size for both wired and wireless is 1500 bytes. Fast frames operate by changing the algorithms that determine the structure of the actual data frame and the frame bursting effect. Once fast frames are negotiated over a specific wireless link, both the access point and wireless client can send wireless frames of 3000 bytes. With the exception of Atheros solution, however, most bursting implementations do not provide fast frames. This requires an access point that supports fast frames.
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DIFS & Backoff
DIFS & Backoff
DIFS & Backoff
Source Without Fast Frames Frame 1 Frame 2 Time ACK ACK
Dest
SIFS SIFS
DIFS & Backoff
Source With Fast Frame Frame 1 & 2 Time ACK
Dest
SIFS
Figure 24. Fast Frames
c.
Compression A complete hardware data compression engine is embedded in the wireless chipsets. The hardware can operate in real-time to enhance throughput for many types of network traffic without affecting any of the algorithms used in the data transmission or framing technique.
Super G implements the standards-based Lempel Ziv algorithm that is used in popular programs such as PKzip, Winzip, etc. This compression is implemented on a per frame basis and affects only data frames. This engine compresses before transmission and decompresses after reception. The effect of this is the increased of data throughput of the compressed wireless link. It also means less airtime is required to transmit each frame.
d.
Dynamic Turbo
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Super G features a multi-channel capability that doubles the effect of all other enhancements and increases the range of a data link at any given data rate by adapting the way in which radio spectrum is used. This is called Dynamic Turbo.
Dynamic turbo operates by using the spectrum offered by two radio channels to transmit data, just like Ethernet trunking. With multiple radio channels, the data rate is doubled. The effective range of a network is increased as the data rate of wireless networks decreases the further a station is from access points.
Dynamic turbo is engaged based on the network traffic demand and environmental conditions. The access points with dynamic turbo can switch dynamically to this mode when an associated wireless client requires the greater bandwidth. Third-party wireless clients are not able to perform in dynamic turbo mode. The access point will dynamically reconfigure itself for multi-channel or single-channel modes, depending on the wireless clients.
The table below shows a summary on the characteristics and benefits for Super G. Feature Bursting Characteristics - More data frames per time period - Based on standards - Relevant to STA Benefits - Overhead is reduced due to increasing in throughput - Subset of 802.11e - Can be applied to any access point Transmit more data per frame and hence increase the throughput Compressed increase data data can
Fast Frames
- Utilizes frame aggregation and timing modifications
Compression
- Real-time hardware compression - Lempel Ziv standard
data -
No impact on host processor Multiple channels will maximize the bandwidth Aware of the environment
Dynamic Turbo
- Similar to trunking in Ethernet, uses dual channels to double the transmission rates - Adjust the bandwidth after analyzing the environment
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Wireless Distribution System (WDS)

In IEEE 802.11, a distribution system is a system that interconnects Basic Service Sets (BSS). A BSS is a cell in which an access point can cover. A distribution system connects these cells together to build a bigger area network that allows mobile users to roam and stay connected to the network resources using the wireless equipment.
In a typical Wired Distribution System, the access points in the same network are connected together using cable.
Access Point BSS

Channel 6
Wired Distribution System Access Point BSS

Channel 11
Figure 25. Typical Wired Distribution System
However if no cable is used in the distributed system, the connection between the access points can be established using wireless modules. This single wireless module in the access point can perform multiple roles at the same time. It can connect wireless clients to the infrastructure and it can maintain up to six different wireless connections to other access points. The access point will denote port 1 as its Ethernet port and port 2 to 7 for all the six different wireless connections. It is necessary for the operational frequency channel to be the same for the cell that is controlled by the access point and for the wireless links to other access points.
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Access Point BSS

Channel 1
Wireless Distribution System Access Point BSS

Channel 1
Figure 26. Wireless Distribution System
There is a wireless module in the access point and it contains Media Access Control (MAC) address. The wireless client with the wireless module also has MAC address. In a WDS link, four MAC addresses are involved. That includes sender and destination computers, sender and destination access points. All these MAC addresses are included in the 802.11 frame.
Upon receiving the 802.11 frame, the wireless module in the access point will convert it to an 802.3 Ethernet frame. The 802.3 Ethernet frame consists of both the source and destination computers MAC addresses. It will also pass the frame to the bridge address table. This bridge address table consists of all the wired and wireless computers connecting directly or indirect to it. The wired computers will be listed as port 1. As for wireless computers, it will be listed as one of the six wireless LANs that is associating to the access point as port 2 to 7.
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Computer A
Access Point A
Access Point B
Computer B
Send frame with MAC addr of Computer B Acknowledge receive the traffic The forwarding table indicates that the frame is to pass to its own PC card PC card look up its own forwarding table Forward the frame to the PC card of AP B Acknowledge receive the traffic The forwarding table indicates that the frame is to pass to Computer B Forward the frame to the computer Acknowledge receive the traffic
Figure 27. Steps in Traffic Flow in WDS
Roaming between cells that are interconnected by a WDS link works exactly the same as the cells that are interconnected via Ethernet. The bridge learning table will be upgraded when there is a relocation of a wireless client from one cell to another. The Inter Access Point Protocol (IAPP) handles the hand-over request messages.
Due to the flexibility of WDS, there are a few configurations that can be implemented. a. Star Configuration Star configuration can cover a more rectangular or square area. The central access point is connected to the wired infrastructure network.
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Figure 28. Star Configuration using WDS
b.
Chain Configuration A chain configuration allows coverage for a longer shape. The first access is connected to the wired infrastructure network.
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Figure 29. Chain Configuration in WDS
c.
Ring Configuration When the end points of a chain are connected to each other, a loop is created. It is advisable to avoid ring configuration because it will lead to bad performance, broadcast and multicast storms. If the access points support spanning tree protocols, the ring will allow redundancy in case one of the access points fails.
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STP Enabled
Figure 30. Ring Configuration in WDS
Wireless Distribution System (WDS) offers a great flexibility at low cost and it can be applied in many situations. However, there are a few considerations to make before deciding to use WDS. a. Advantages of WDS Without additional cost, the existing access point with WDS function can have a WDS link by reconfiguring the device. There is no need to pay for an additional wireless module.
It is more flexible when adding a wireless point compared to a wired Ethernet point. WDS is able to create a roaming network without the hazard of installing physical cables. It is excellent for areas where cables are not accessible.
b.
Disadvantages of WDS It is not possible to use encryption with dynamic assigned rotating keys on a WDS link*. Only fixed assigned Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) keys can be used. If the user wants to secure their network by using 802.1x, it will not be able to use WDS. *except certain specific models like DWL-3200AP
PSK which supports WPA/WPS2-
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Basic Principles of Antennas

We will discuss on the basic antenna principles that directly relates to the use of wireless LAN. It is important for network administrator to understand the antenna design very well in order to administrate the network.
The following are two important key points to understand about antennas. Transmitting antennas convert electrical energy into RF waves. Receiving antennas converts RF waves into electrical energy. Physical dimensions of an antenna, such as its length, are directly related to the frequency at which the antenna can propagate waves or receive propagated waves.
Type of Antennas An RF antenna is a device used to convert high frequency signals on a transmission line (for example, cable) into propagated waves in the air. The electrical fields emitted from antennas are called beams or lobes.
There are three generic categories of RF antennas. Each category has different RF characteristics and appropriate usages. a. Omni-directional (Dipole) Antennas Omni-directional antenna is the most common wireless LAN antenna. It is simple to design and it becomes the standard antenna for most access points. It radiates its energy equally in all directions around its axis. It concentrates its energy into a cone, known as beam.
Dipole Doughnut
Dipole Side view
Figure 31. Omni-Directional (Dipole) Antenna
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The radiated energy for a dipole is concentrated into a region that looks like a doughnut. In the above figure, the dipole is positioned vertically through the hole of the doughnut. The signal from the omni-directional antenna radiates in a 360-degree horizontal beam equally. In the side view, the dipole antenna will form a figure 8.
Side View Top View
Figure 32. Coverage Area of an Omni-Directional Antenna
High gain omni-directional antennas offer more horizontal area but the vertical coverage area is reduced.
Side View Top View
Figure 33. Coverage Area of a High-Gain Omni-Directional Antenna
Omni-directional antennas are used when coverage in all directions around the horizontal axis of the antenna is required. They are most effective when large coverage of areas are needed around a central point.
b.
Semi-directional Antennas
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Semi-directional antennas come in many different styles and shapes. The frequently used types are Patch, Panel and Yagi antennas. They have different coverage characteristics. These antennas direct the energy from the transmitter significantly more in one particular direction. They often radiate in a hemispherical or cylindrical coverage pattern.
Directional Patch Antenna Directional Yagi Antenna
Figure 34. Coverage Area of a Semi-Directional Antenna
Semi-directional antennas are suitable for short and medium range bridging. It is also ideal for using indoors where the antennas are mounted at one side of the whole coverage area.
c.
Highly-directional Antennas Highly-directional antennas emit the most narrow signal beam of any antenna type and have the greatest gain of the three groups of antennas. They are typically concave, disk-shaped devices. These antennas are ideal for long distance, point-to-point wireless links.
Figure 35. Radiation Pattern of a Highly-directional Antenna
The RF antenna concepts and fundamentals are needed to allow the administrator to understand how wireless LAN equipment functions over the wireless medium. A solid understanding of the basic antenna functionality is important. It includes how to position the antennas, how much power they radiate, the distance the radiated power is likely to travel and how much the power can be picked up by the receiver, etc.
a.
Line of Sight (LOS)

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LOS is defined as a straight line from the object in sight (the transmitter) to the observers eye (the receiver). However, LOS is not exactly a straight line because light waves can change direction due to refraction, diffraction and reflection. RF works in a similar way as visible light within wireless LAN frequencies, but RF LOS can also be affected by blockage of the Fresnel Zone.
Line of Sight
Figure 36. Line of Sight
b.
Fresnel Zone (pronounced as fra-NEL) The Fresnel Zone occupies a series of concentric ellipsoid-shaped area around the LOS path. The Fresnel Zone is important to the integrity of the RF link because it defines an area around the LOS that can introduce RF signal interference if blocked. Examples of objects in the Fresnel Zone are trees, hilltops and buildings that can diffract or reflect the main signal away from the receiver, changing the RF LOS. These objects can absorb or scatter the main RF signal, causing degradation or complete signal loss.
Fresnel Zone
Figure 37. Fresnel Zone
The radius of the Fresnel Zone at its widest point can be calculated by the following formula.
r = 43.3 x
d 4f
where d is the link distance in miles, f is the frequency in GHz, and the answer r, is in feet. For example, suppose there is a 2.4 GHz link 5 miles in length. The resulting Fresnel Zone would have a radius of 31.25 feet.
Some blockage of the Fresnel Zone can occur without significant link disruption. To be conservative, it is suggested to allow no more than 20% blockage of the Fresnel Zone.
Fresnel Zone cannot be defined clearly in indoor installations unless the signal is partially or fully blocked. In most indoor installations, RF signals pass through, reflect off and refract around the walls, furniture and other obstructions. Most of the wireless users are mobile and the Fresnel Zone is constantly changing.
c.
Polarization The radio wave is made of two fields, one electric and one magnetic. These two fields are on planes that are perpendicular to each other.
H-Plane E-Plane
Antenna
Figure 38. E-planes and H-planes
The sum of the two fields is called the electro-magnetic field. Oscillation is the process where energy is transferred back and forth from one field to the other. The plane that is parallel with the antenna is called the E-plane and the plane that is perpendicular to the antenna is called the H-plane. The wave
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polarization is the position and direction of the electric field with reference to the Earths surface.
Polarization is the physical orientation of the antenna in a horizontal or vertical position. The electric field that is parallel to the ground is called horizontal polarization while the electric field that is perpendicular to the ground is called the vertical polarization.
Vertical polarization is typically used in wireless LANs and it is perpendicular to the Earths plane. In most access points, the antennas are sticking up vertically. Antennas that are not polarized in the same way are not able to communicate with each other effectively.
d.
Antennas Gain An antenna is a passive device without any amplifiers and filters associating with it. The antenna does not condition, amplify or manipulate the signal. Antenna amplification is the result of focusing the RF radiation into a tighter beam. The focusing of the radiation is measured by ways of horizontal and vertical beamwidth in degrees.
Omni-Directional antenna has a 360-degree horizontal beamwidth. By limiting the 360-degree beamwidth into a more focused beam, say 30 degrees, at the same power, the RF waves will be radiated further.
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a a
Vertical Beamwidth Horizontal Beamwidth
Omni-Directional Antenna
>a
Yagi Antenna Figure 39. Different distance using different antenna with same power
e.
Beamwidth Focusing antenna beams can increase the antennas gain. The antennas beamwidth means the width of the RF signal beam that the antenna transmits.
Horizontal Beamwidth
Vertical Beamwidth
Figure 40. Beamwidth of an Antenna
The two vectors for an antenna are vertical and horizontal beamwidth. The vertical beamwidth is perpendicular to the Earths surface and the horizontal
beamwidth is parallel to the Earths surface. Both vectors are measured in degrees. Each type of antenna has different beamwidth specifications. The chart below shows a general guideline for the beamwidth.
Antenna Type Omni-Directional Patch / Panel Yagi Parabolic Dish
Horizontal Beamwidth 360 30 to 180 30 to 78 4 to 25
Vertical Beamwidth 7 to 80 6 to 90 14 to 64 4 to 21
Selecting an antenna with the appropriate wide or narrow beamwidths is essential in having the desired RF coverage pattern.
f.
Free Space Path Loss Free space path loss refers to the loss incurred by an RF signal due to signal dispersion which is a natural broadening of the wave front. The wider the wave front, the less power can be induced into the receiving antenna. As the transmitted signal propagates, its power level decreases at a rate inversely proportional to the distance traveled and proportional to the wavelength of the signal. This power level is an important factor when considering link viability. Path loss represents the single greatest source of loss in the wireless system.
g.
Intentional Radiator An intentional radiator is an RF device that is specifically designed to generate and radiate RF signals. This intentional radiator will include the RF device and all cabling and connectors up to, but not including, the antenna.
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Power Output of the Intentional Radiator
Antenna Connector
Connector
RF device
Connector
Components included in the Intentional Radiator
Figure 41. Intentional Radiator
Any reference to the power output of the Intentional Radiator is referred to the power output at the end of the last cable or connector before the antenna.
h.
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP) EIRP is the power actually radiated by the antenna element. This is very important because it is used in calculating whether or not a wireless link is viable. EIRP will take into account the gain of antenna.
EIRP (Output Power)
Antenna Connector
Connector
RF device
Connector
Components included in the Intentional Radiator
Figure 42. EIRP
For example, use an 18 dBi antenna with a 50 cm cable.
The calculated EIRP will be as follows:
EIRP = Antenna Gain Loss via cable

EIRP = 18 dBi 0.415 dB = 17.585 dB (1 meter of cable loss is 0.83 dB)
Antenna Installation It is very important to install the antennas properly in Wireless LAN. An improper installation can lead to damage or destruction of equipment and also personal injury. a. Placement For omni-directional antennas that are attached to the access points, they are placed in the middle of the desired coverage area. Placing the antenna as high as possible will increase the coverage area too, especially for high-gain omnidirectional antennas. Outdoor antennas should be mounted above all possible obstructions such as tree and building such that there are no objects on the Fresnel Zone.
b.
Mounting The antenna must be mounted. There is no definite answer of where to mount the antenna. A site survey is needed to determine this. Each antenna comes with mounting instructions that show how to install and secure the antenna from the manufacturers. Also, the antenna will be packaged with its own mounting kit.
There are some issues that need to be taken into consideration while mounting antennas. In certain scenarios, the brackets that are packaged together with the antenna may not be suitable. Modifying the brackets or custom making another set may be necessary.
The mounting must be solid and secure and not just hang on by its cable. The cable may break and swaying of the cable can produce a moving cell.
Antennas can be unsightly and is therefore normally hidden. Some manufacturers produce ceiling-mount panel antennas. When these aesthetics are important, patch or panel antennas are used instead of omni-directional antennas.
c.
Appropriate Use
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The indoor antennas are used inside the buildings while outdoor antennas are used outside the buildings. In scenarios where there is a significantly large indoor area, the outdoor antenna may be used.
Outdoor antennas are mostly sealed to prevent water from entering the antenna internal hardware component. They are made of plastics so that they can withstand extreme heat and cold. Indoor antennas are not made for outdoor usage without the above elements.
d.
Orientation Antenna orientation determines polarization which has a significant impact on the signal reception. The antenna of the access points and the wireless clients should have the same orientation for maximum reception. The throughput of the link will be reduced drastically if each end of the link does not have the same antenna orientation.
e.
Alignment Antenna alignment can be critical in certain scenarios and may not in others. Antennas with very wide horizontal and vertical beamwidth allow the administrator to easily aim two antennas in a building-to-building bridging environment in each others general direction and will get an almost perfect reception.
Alignment is more important when implementing long-distance bridging links using highly-directional antennas. Most of the wireless bridges come with alignment software to help the administrator in optimizing antenna alignment for the best reception, which will reduce lost packets and high retry counts while maximizing signal strength.
When using access points with omni-directional or semi-directional antennas, proper alignment is needed to cover the appropriate area where the wireless clients are located.
f.
Safety RF antennas can be dangerous to implement and operate. Always read the instruction manual provided by the manufacturers carefully. Following the provided instructions will prevent damage to the antenna and personal injury.
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Never touch a high-gain antenna to any part of the body or point it towards the body while it is transmitting. The transmission power is equivalent to putting your body in a microwave oven.
It is advisable to engage a professional installer to install the wireless LAN. These installers are trained with proper climbing safety and will be able to provide a better installation and secure the antenna if it is to be mounted on a pole, tower or other type of elevated constructions.
Always keep antennas away from metal obstructions, such as heating and airconditioning ducts, major cabling, etc. These metal obstructions create a significant amount of multipath. They can also reflect a large portion of the RF signal and this reflected signal can be dangerous to bystanders.
Antenna towers should keep a safe distance from the overhead power lines. The recommended safe distance is twice the antenna height. The antennas should not be placed near the power source because an electrical shock between the power source and the wireless LAN can be dangerous to people working on the wireless LAN and is likely to destroy the wireless LAN equipment.
Power-over-Ethernet (PoE)
Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) is a method of delivering DC voltage to an access point or wireless bridge over the Cat 5 Ethernet cable for the purpose of powering the unit. PoE is used when the AC power supply is not available at the location where the wireless LAN infrastructure devices are installed. The Ethernet cable is used to carry both the power and the data to the units.
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Passive Hub or Switch
Unpowered Ethernet PoE Device PoE Device
Access Point
Powered Ethernet
Unpowered Ethernet
Figure 43. PoE Installation Example
Although configuration and management is generally not necessary for PoE device, there are a few points that need to be taken notice before implementing PoE. There is a PoE industry standard, 802.3af. However, there are still some minor manufacturers who do not use this standard. This means that PoE devices from different manufacturers may not work together. The output voltage required to power a wireless LAN device may differ from manufacturer to manufacturer if it is not 802.3af compliant.
There are the two common PoE options. a. Single-port DC Voltage Injectors A pair of single-port DC voltage injectors is needed to connect a set of wireless LAN infrastructure device, such as an access point. One of the devices is connected to the passive switch and the power socket. The output UTP cable contains the powered Ethernet. The other device is connected to the power and LAN input of the access point.
b.
Active Ethernet Switches For an enterprise installation of access points, an active Ethernet switch is used. These devices incorporate DC voltage injection into the Ethernet switch itself and allow a large number of PoE devices without any additional hardware in the network.
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Troubleshooting Wireless LAN

In the implementation of wireless LAN, dealing with the behavior of RF signals is the main challenge. In order to implement a successful wireless LAN, several obstacles need to be taken into consideration on how to troubleshoot them. a. Multipath The RF signal grows wider as it is transmitted farther. When the RF signal encounters objects in its path, it will reflect, diffract, or interfere with the actual signal. Some of the reflected waves will also head towards the receiver. This behavior is called multipath. Multipath is defined as the composition of the primary signal plus the duplicate or echoed wave cased by the reflections of the waves off objects between the transmitter and the receiver. The delay between the time that the primary signal arrives and the time that the last reflected signal arrives is known as delay spread.
Transmitter Receiver
River
Figure 44. Multipath
Multipath can cause several conditions which can affect the transmission of the RF signal differently. Decreased Signal Amplitude When the RF wave arrives at the receiver, many reflected waves may arrive at the same time from different directions. The amplitude for these waves are combined and added to the main RF wave. Reflected wave, if out-ofphase with the main wave, can decrease signal amplitude at the receiver. This occurrence is called downfade.
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Antenna
Amplitude decrease
Out-of-phase reflected signal is added to the main signal
Antenna
Reflected Surface
Figure 45. Downfade
Corruption Corrupted signals due to multipath can occur as a result of the same phenomena that cause decreased amplitude, but it is more serious. When the reflected waves arrive at the receiver out-of-phase with the main wave, they will cause the wave to reduce in amplitude greatly. Although there is a reduction in amplitude, the receiver is sensitive enough to detect most if the information carried on the wave, but not all of them.
The signal to noise ratio (SNR) is generally very low. The receiver is unable to decipher between the signal and noise. Therefore, data is only part of the transmitted data. This corruption of data will require the transmitter to resend the data. It will lead to increasing of overhead and decreasing in throughput in the wireless LAN.
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Reflective Surface
Antenna
Received signal is corrupted by reflected signals
Antenna
Reflective Surface
Figure 46. RF Signal Corruption
Nulling Nulling occurs when one or more reflected waves arrive at the receiver outof-phase with the main wave. This will lead to the main waves amplitude being cancelled or null the entire set of RF waves.
When nulling occurs, retransmission of the data will not solve the problem. The transmitter, receiver, or reflective objects must be moved to compensate for the nulling effects on the RF wave.
Reflective Surface
Antenna
Reflected signals added to main signal cancel all signal amplitude and result in no signal
Antenna
Reflective Surface
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Figure 47. RF Signal Nulling
Increased Signal Amplitude Multipath conditions can also cause a signals amplitude to be increased. Upfade is the term used to describe when multipath causes an RF signal to gain strength. The reflected signals will arrive at the receiver in-phase with the main signal. All these waves are added to the main signal.
However, the received signal will not be stronger than the transmitted signal due to free path loss. Path loss is the effect of s signal losing amplitude as the signal travels through an open space. The total signal that reaches the receiver will be stronger than the signal without the presence of multipath.
Amplitude decrease due to Path Loss
In-phase reflected signal is added to the main signal
Antenna
Antenna
Reflective Surface
Figure 48. Upfade
We cannot see an in-phase or out-of-phase RF wave. We can only look for the effects of the multipath to detect its occurrence. A common method of finding multipath is to look for the RF coverage holes in a site survey. These holes are created due to lack of coverage and also the multipath reflections that cancel the main signal. The administrator needs to understand the sources of the multipath to eliminate its effects.
Multipath is caused by reflected RF waves. Obstacles that can easily reflect RF waves include metal and water. They should be removed from or avoided in the signal path. It also includes the moving of transmitting and receiving antennas. Users may roam into an area with high multipath, without knowing why their RF signal is upgraded significantly.
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Antenna diversity was devised to compensate for multipath. It uses multiple antennas, inputs and receivers in order to compensate for the conditions that cause multipath. One of the types of receiving diversity is called antenna switching diversity. Transmission diversity is commonly used by most wireless LAN manufacturer.
Antenna Diversity (not active) Switching Diversity
- Multiple antennas on single input - Rarely used - Multiple antennas on multiple receivers - Switches receivers based on signal strength
Antenna Switching Diversity (active)
- Used by most WLAN manufacturers - Multiple antennas on multiple inputs single receiver - Signal is received through only one antenna at a time
Phase Diversity
- Patented proprietary technology - Adjust phase of antenna to the phase of the signal in order to maintain signal quality
Transmission Diversity
- Used by most WLAN manufacturers - Transmits out of the antenna last used for reception - Can alternate antennas for transmission retries - A unit can either transmit or receive, but not both simultaneously
Most of the access points in todays wireless LAN are built with dual antennas so as to compensate for the degrading effects of multipath on signal quality and throughput.
b.
Hidden Node Collision is always a problem for computer networks. Collisions occur when two or more nodes sharing the communication medium transmit data
simultaneously. The two signals will corrupt each other and result in unreadable packets. CSMA/CD is used with Ethernet to check the channel before transmitting data. It involves checking of the voltage on the wire before
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transmitting. However, the process is more difficult for wireless system because collisions are undetectable.
Hidden node is a situation encountered with wireless LANs in which at least one node is unable to detect one or more of the other nodes connected to the wireless LAN. A node can see the access point but cannot see that there are other clients connecting to the same access point. It can be due to obstacles or long distance between nodes. This will cause a problem in the sharing of the medium, and hence causing collision between node transmissions. It will significantly result in degrading the throughput in wireless LAN.
Access Point
Wireless Client A
Wireless Client B
Wall
Figure 49. Hidden Node
The symptom of degradation in the throughput of a wireless LAN is called a hidden node. The administrator will normally discover there is a hidden node when there is complain on a sudden sluggishness in the network.
Due to the mobility of wireless LAN, hidden nodes may appear anytime. It is therefore necessary to locate the hidden nodes. This process usually includes a manual search for the nodes using trial and error. Once the nodes are located, there are a few remedies and workarounds for the problem.
Use RTS/CTS The RTS/CTS (request-to-send/clear-to-send) protocol may not be a solution to the hidden node problem. However, it is a method to reduce the
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negative impact of hidden nodes on the network. Hidden node cause excessive collisions and has an impact on the network throughput.
The RTS/CTS involves sending a small RTS packet to the intended recipient and prompt it to send back a CTS packet to clear the medium for data transmission before sending the data. This process will inform all the nearby wireless stations that there is data about to be sent, hence inform them to delay transmissions. This will avoid collisions. Both the RTS and CTS packets contain the length of the intended data for transmission so that the other hearing stations will know how long is the transmission and when they can start to transmit again.
Increase Power to the Nodes Increasing the power of the nodes can solve the hidden node problem by allowing the size of the cell around each node to increase. This will enable the normal nodes to detect and hear any hidden nodes. When the normal nodes hear the hidden nodes, the hidden nodes are no longer hidden nodes.
Remove Obstacles If increasing power on the nodes does not solve the problem, this means that the hidden node is located in a cement or steel wall that prevents communication with other nodes. Removing the obstacle will allow unblocked communication.
Move the Node If the obstacles cannot be removed, the administrator might need to force the user to move to another area. Alternatively, the administrator can add an access point in the hidden area for the proper coverage.
c.
Near / Far The near/far problem in wireless LAN implementation may occur if the wireless client is in the following scenarios: - very near to the access point / having very high power settings - very far away from the access point / using much less transmitting power This will lead to the wireless clients that are far away from the access point fail to be heard due to the louder signal by the closer and high-powered clients.
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Access Point Unheard Signal
100 mW 3 meters 90 meters
5 mW
Figure 50. Near / Far
In wireless LAN, the node that is within the normal range of the access point is being drown out and it fails to hear the signals of the other further clients. The administrator has to be aware of this near/far problem in the site survey.
Troubleshooting the near/far problem can be done by taking a good look at the layout with information on the locations of stations. The administrator can also use a wireless protocol analyzer to pick up the transmissions from all stations. If the node is not heard nor has faint signal, this node is too far.
The near/far problem can be resolved by increasing the power of the far-end nodes, decreasing the power of the near-end nodes, or moving the far-end nodes closer to the access points.
d.
System Throughput The throughput of wireless LAN is based on many factors. This includes the amount and type of interference that may affect the amount of data that can be transmitted successfully. Additional security solutions that involve encrypting and decrypting of data, such as WEP, can cause a decrease in throughput. Using VPN tunnels can add overheads to the wireless LAN system as well.
When the distance between the transmitter and receiver is far apart, it will cause the throughput to decrease due to increase in the number of errors.
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Retransmission is needed. In todays popular wireless LAN, spread spectrum systems can make discrete jumps to specified data rate, such as 11, 5.5, 2 and 1 Mbps. For example, if device cannot maintain at 11 Mbps, it will drop to 5.5 Mbps. The throughput is about 50% of the data rate on wireless LAN system. Changing the data rate will result in a great impact on the throughput.
Hardware limitation can also dictate the data rate. When an IEEE 802.11b device communicates with the IEEE 802.11g device, the maximum data rate is only 11 Mbps, even though 802.11g can communicate up to 54Mbps. The actual throughput in this case is less than 50%. Another hardware limitation is the CPU power of the access point. If the slow CPU cannot handle full 54 Mbps and 128-bit WEP, it will affect the throughput.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) make a difference in throughput too. FHSS is typically transmitted as 800 kbps or 1.6 Mbps while DSSS can support up to 11 or 54 Mbps.
Other factors that limit the throughput of wireless LAN include proprietary data link layer protocols, fragmentation, and packet size. Larger packets can have greater throughput because the ratio of data to overhead is better.
RTS/CTS is used in some of the wireless LAN implementations and it will create significant overhead due to the amount of handshaking that is taking place during the transfer.
The number of users attempting to access a medium simultaneously will have an impact. The increase of simultaneous users will decrease the throughput of each wireless client received from the access point.
Co-location is a common wireless LAN implementation technique that is used to provide more bandwidth and throughput to the wireless users in the given area. In wireless LAN, it allows three non-overlapping RF channels (1, 6 and 11). These three channels can be used to co-locate multiple access points within the same physical area using 802.11b/g equipment.
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Channel 6
Channel 1
Channel 11
Figure 51. Co-location Throughput
In reality, however, there is still a small amount of overlap for channel 1 and 6 (or channel 6 and 11). This overlap is due to the transmission of two access points at the same high output power which are located relatively very close to each other. Instead of the normal half-duplex throughput from each access point, a detrimental effect is seen on all three of them. The throughput can be decreased on all three access points.
Signal Level Channel Overlap Channel Overlap
Channel 1
Channel 6
Channel 11 Frequency
Figure 52. DSSS Channel Overlap
Although the above shows overlapping channels using channel 1, 6, and 11, and there should not have been three co-located access points, you may still use these channels. When you experience degraded throughput, you may keep this in mind and change the channels accordingly. You may use two co-located access points instead of three.
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Signal Level
Remove this access point allowing more channel separation for greater throughput
Channel 1
Channel 6
Channel 11 Frequency
Figure 53. Using Two Access Points instead of Three
Another alternative is to use 802.11a compliant equipment which operates in the 5 GHz UNII bands. This 5 GHz UNII bands is wider compared to 2.4 GHz ISM band. Having a mixture of 802.11b/g and 802.11a equipment co-located in the same space will not have any interference between systems. There are up to two (or three) 802.11b/g systems and eight 802.11a systems in the same physical space. However, 802.11a equipment has lesser availability and they are more expensive compared to the popular 802.11b/g devices.
e.
Type of Interference RF technology has many unpredictable behaviors and therefore it is necessary to consider many kinds of RF interference when implementing and managing a wireless LAN. Narrowband Narrowband RF is the opposite of spread spectrum technology. Narrowband signals can interrupt the RF signals from a spread spectrum device such as access points. Narrowband signal primarily disrupt the RF signals in channel 3, as such, if channel 11 is used, there may not such interference experienced. Typically, only a single carrier frequency would be disrupted due to narrowband interference. The spread spectrum technologies usually have a workaround for problems with this type of interference without additional administration or configuration.
The narrowband interference can be identified using a spectrum analyzer and disabled from the network. Alternatively, some wireless LAN vendors packaged a software spectrum analyzer with the wireless client driver
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software. The administrator will be able to know which is the available RF that is present in a given area.
All-band Interference All-band interference refers to any signal that interferes with the entire RF band. Technologies like Bluetooth, which utilize the 2.4 GHz ISM band, has a significant interference with the 802.11 RF signals. The other source of allband interference includes microwave oven. A spectrum analyzer can detect this kind of problem.
When all-band interference is present, it is advisable to change to a different technology such as 802.11a, which uses the 5 GHz UNII bands. However, changing devices can be very costly. The alternative solution is to find out the source of the all-band interference and remove it from the space.
Weather Severely adverse weather conditions can affect the performance of a wireless LAN. The common weather occurrences such as rain, hail, snow and fog do not have severe impact on wireless LANs. However, extreme occurrences of wind, fog and smog can cause degradation or even downtime of your wireless LAN.
Wind does not affect radio waves or RF signal, but can affect the positioning and mounting of outdoor antennas. A strong wind can easily move the antennas and cause a complete degradation of signal between two antennas. It is important to secure the antennas and cables in locations where hurricanes or tornadoes occur frequently.
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Beam arrives at the receiver No wind
Beam misses the receiver Wind moves the antenna
Figure 54. Antenna Wind Loading in a Point-to-Point Network
When very thick fog or smog settles, the air within this fog becomes very still and begins to separate into layers. The fog itself does not cause the diffraction of RF signals. The stratification of the air within the fog does. When the RF signal goes through these layers, it will bend.
Lightning can strike the wireless LAN component such as antenna or any object nearby. If the wireless LAN devices are not protected by a lightning arrestor, the lightning strikes of the nearby object can damage the internal components. Lightning can also affects wireless LANs when it charges the air through the RF waves after striking an object that is located in between the transmitter and receiver.
Adjacent Channel and Co-Channel Interference Adjacent channels are channels within the RF bands that are being used side-by-side. For example, channel 1 is adjacent to channel 2, which is adjacent to channel 3 and so on. These adjacent channels, which are 22 MHz each, overlap each other with the center frequencies only 5 MHz apart. Adjacent channel interference happens when two or more access points
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using overlapping channels are located near to each other and their coverage cells physically overlap. Adjacent channel interference can severely degrade throughput in a wireless LAN.
It is important to take notice of adjacent channel interference when there are co-located access points in the same area. A spectrum analyzer can be used to find the problem of adjacent channel interference. It can identify the channels that overlap each other. Adjacent Channel Interference
Channel 1 Channel 3
Figure 55. Adjacent Channel Interference
It is important to move access points on adjacent channels far away from each other and make sure that the coverage cells do not overlap. Alternatively, use non-over-lapping channels such as channel 1 and 11.
Co-channel interference will have the same effects as adjacent channel interference. It is due to two access points of the same channel overlap each other.
Co-Channel Interference
Channel 1
Channel 1
Channel 1
Figure 56. Co-channel Interference in a Network
It is best to configure a co-location DSSS system with channel 1 and 11. If it is necessary to use channel 1, 6 and 11, the access points should be placed
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far apart for minimum interference. This is very common in real-world applications.
Channel reuse is applied in applications where seamless roaming is required. It is the side-by-side locating of non-overlapping cells to form a mesh of coverage where no cell with the same channel touches each other.
Channel 1 Channel 6
Channel 1
Channel 11
Channel 11 Channel 1
Figure 57. Channel Reuse
f.
Range Considerations When positioning wireless LAN hardware, the communication range of the devices must be taken into consideration. There are three things that will affect the RF link. They are transmission power, antenna type and location, and environment. The maximum communication range of a wireless LAN link is where the link begins to become unstable but not totally lost. Transmission Power A higher output power will transmit signal to a greater distance and hence a greater range.
Antenna Type The antenna can focus the RF energy into a tighter beam to transmit farther. When it transmits in all directions, the range of communication is reduced.
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Environment The range of wireless LAN can be decreased in a noisy or unstable environment. When the packet error rate is high, the coverage area will be reduced.
Site Survey
A site survey is also sometimes known as facilities analysis. It is a map to a successful implementation of a wireless network. A site survey is very important to obtain useful information that is very helpful for long term. If there is no proper site survey, the installed wireless LAN may not work properly even though thousands of dollars are spent on it.
A site survey is a process with several tasks in which the surveyor can find out the RF behavior, coverage, interference and hardware location. Its primary objective is to ensure the wireless LAN clients have continual strong RF signal strength even if they are on mobile. Wireless clients should not assume they are connected in a wireless LAN.
Site surveying involves analyzing a site from a RF perspective to discover the kind of RF coverage needed in order to meet the customers requirement. During the site survey, the surveyor will need to ask questions. These questions allow the surveyor to gather as much information as possible to make the best recommendation on hardware, installation and configuration of a wireless LAN. It will also include finding the best positioning for the hardware. An organized and accurate documentation will result in a better design and installation process.
A proper site survey provides detailed specifications that will address coverage, interference sources, equipment placement, power considerations and wiring requirements. The documentation serves a guide for network design and for installation of the wireless communication infrastructure.
Without a site survey, there is no knowledge on the customers needs, and there will be areas without RF coverage. It is also not possible to estimate the cost of the wireless implementation.
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Preparing for a Site Survey The planning of a wireless LAN involves collection of information and making decisions. There are many basic questions that need to be answered before the actual work of the site survey. These questions are mostly open-ended so that the surveyor can obtain more information. These are some topics that need to be touched on before performing a site survey. a. Facilities Analysis The most basic question is what type of facilities is required by the customers? This question has a big impact on the entire site survey. The coverage area, number of users, security requirements, bandwidth requirements, and budget are to be determined.
b. Existing Networks The surveyor needs to find out if there is any existing wired or wireless network in place. If there is an existing infrastructure, the contents need to be known. The common information about the existing infrastructure include network operating systems, number of current users, current wireless LAN protocols and security measures, location of the wired LAN connections and naming convention of the infrastructure devices.
It is also necessary to obtain the current detailed network diagram from the network administrator. If there is an existing wireless LAN in place, the site survey will be more difficult, especially if it is not properly installed. There may be a need to disable existing wireless LAN in order to perform the site survey. There may also be a need to upgrade existing wired infrastructure to enhance the throughput and security of the wireless LAN.
c. Area Usage & Towers The surveyor needs to know whether the wireless LAN is meant for indoor, outdoor or both. For outdoor set up, it is necessary to find out whether there are frequent weather changes, such as hurricanes or tornadoes in the area. There are many possible situations and potential obstacles to install and maintain outdoor wireless LAN devices. If there are many obstacles such as trees that block the direct signal path of the outdoor wireless link, it may be necessary to build a tower on top of the building. This will require a structural engineer and permit to install. Water-proofing enclosure for the bridges or access points will be required and radomes may be considered for protecting outdoor antennas.
Outdoor wireless connections are vulnerable to security attacks. There should be documents that show how far the outdoor wireless LAN can be safely extended without significant chance of intrusion. It is necessary to check if there are other wireless LAN signals nearby so as to ensure there is no interference.
For indoor wireless LAN implementation, the documents will show the floor layout, firewalls, building structure and wiring closets.
d. Purpose & Business Requirements The purpose of having a wireless LAN and the business requirement must first be considered before conducting a site survey. This information can be obtained via interviews with the network users and management of the organization to find out what is expected to be done for the wireless LAN and what applications are going to be used. If installation is only for a few wireless LAN clients, there is no necessity to implement a high-speed 802.11a network in an organization. The wrong recommendation can affect the business goals of the organization.
e. Bandwidth & Roaming Requirements The bandwidth and roaming requirement will determine what type of wireless LAN technology should be implemented. The necessary speed, range and throughput per user must be determined so that a site survey can be performed to meet the needs of the users. Each department may have different usage and requirement of wireless LAN in their area.
It is necessary to understand the number of users in a given area so that the throughput for each user can be calculated. The surveyor will also need to determine the technology to use, such as 802.11b or 802.11a.
There are different types of data transmission. High bandwidth applications such as voice or video will require greater throughput. Analyzing and documenting these application requirements before the site survey allows the surveyor to make more informed decisions when testing the coverage area.
The figure below shows the survey diagram for different bandwidth requirements.
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2 Mbps data rate
5 Mbps data rate
Figure 58. Survey Diagram at Different Data Rate
f. Available Resources The surveyor will need to find out from the network manager the project budget and the time allocated for the project. He will need to find out whether there are administrators who are trained on the wireless networks. The surveyor may request for a blueprint of the layout of the building or facility schematics. The diagram will show where the walls, network closets, power outlets, and other facilities are located.
g. Security Requirements
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In some scenarios, data security is very important. It is necessary to explain the pros and cons of different wireless security methods. The surveyor needs to find out what the existing security policies are and how to incorporate wireless LAN into it without violating the rules.
Site Survey Equipment Different wireless LAN equipment and tools are required for a site survey. For simple indoor cases, at least one access point, a variety of antennas, cables and connectors, a laptop computer with wireless card, and site survey utility software will be needed.
The access point used during the site survey should have variable output power and external antenna connectors. This variable output power allows easy sizing of coverage cells during the site survey.
Most of the wireless modules or PC cards will be packaged with site survey utility software. Most of them offer a link speed indicator and signal strength meter. They provide general indications of coverage. To perform a quality site survey, signal strength, noise floor, signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio and link speed are recorded. With quality site surveying software, site survey measurements can be efficiently completed with accuracy.
While walking around the intended coverage area, attention needs to be taken particularly to the SNR measurement. This is because this measurement shows the strength of the RF signal versus the background noise. This is a good indicator of whether the wireless client is connected or not. There is no hard and fast rule for this measurement. In general, SNR measurement of 22 dB or more is a viable RF link.
The signal strength indicator is useful to find out whether there is an obstacle blocking the RF signal or whether the access point has enough power. The SNR measurement allows the surveyor to know if the link is clear for considerable viability. The noise level is for determining RF interference that is causing problem to the link. All these three measurements are useful in designing and troubleshooting a wireless LAN.
If the wireless card is able to change the power output during the site survey, it allows the surveyor to test for near/far or hidden node problems. The link speed
monitor utility software is used to measure the wireless link speed. It is useful in determining the size or shape of the cells at a certain required throughput.
The laptop computer is normally used by the site surveyor for checking the signal strength and coverage while roaming around the facility. Some surveyors use PDA due to its battery life and physical size. It is much lighter than laptop computer. Simple screen-capture software can be beneficial because the screenshots can be saved and presented as part of the site survey report. The surveyor will make hard copy documentation of all the findings and hence a lot of paper will be needed.
Outdoor site surveys are generally taking more time, effort and equipment than indoor site surveys. They are more complex and involved calculations and configuration. Equipment such as antennas, amplifiers, connectors and cables will be needed. With the knowledge of the characteristics of the wireless link such as distance, link speed, and power output in advanced, the type of antenna to use can then be determined. A pair of walkie talkies for communication between two persons at different end of the wireless link will make the outdoor site surveys more efficient.
A spectrum analyzer is used to determine if there are any other sources of background interference, such as narrowband interference.
After using a spectrum analysis, a protocol analyzer can be used to find other wireless LANs that are present in the same area. It can pick up any packets transmitted by the nearby wireless LANs and provide detailed information on the channels in use, distance, signal strength, etc.
Conducting a Site Survey While conducting a RF site survey, 10% of the time is on surveying and 90% on walking. A pair of comfortable shoes is needed when performing the site surveys. The site survey is normally conducted with general tasks of recording non-RF related information first.
For indoor surveys, most of the information is located and recorded on a copy of the facilities blueprint or drawing. This information will include AC power outlets, grounding points, and wired network connectivity points. Equipment needed for conducting the survey will include ladders for mounting access points. Things to be
taken notice of include potential RF obstructions such as fire doors, metal blinds, metal mesh windows, and the potential RF interference sources such as microwave ovens, elevator motors, and 2.4 GHz cordless phones.
For outdoor surveys, a lot more paper will be needed. The survey will include a sketch on the obstructions such as trees, buildings, lakes, etc between link sites, and the visual and RF line of sight between transmitter and receiver. The calculation on the link distance will also be needed. Weather hazards such as wind, rain, snow and lightning need to be taken into consideration.
The next task is gathering and recording data on the RF coverage patterns, coverage gaps, data rate capabilities, and other RF-criteria. a. Range & Coverage Patterns It starts by placing an access point in a logical location. This location may not be the final location. This access point may be moved many times before the proper location is found. Generally, the starting point is the center of the area when using omni-directional antennas. When using semi-directional antennas, it will start from one end of the intended coverage area. However, it does not matter where the starting point is. More importantly, the surveyor will need to walk slowly with the laptop, wireless module and site survey utility software running. While walking, the surveyor will record data rates, signal strength, noise floor and signal-to-noise ration (SNR) for every area in the room. Walking too fast may cause dead spots or potential interference to be missed.
New Coverage Area
Initial Coverage Area
Figure 59. Access Point Coverage Testing
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When the best locations for the access points are determined, mark the location with a bright-colored and easily removable tape. It is optional to take a digital picture on the location as part of the site survey report. Make sure that the orientation of the antennas is also taken note of.
For outdoor coverage areas, the survey is expected to cover farther walking distance and include more records. In outdoor implementation of access points, there are a limited number of places where you can mount the access points. Therefore, there are lesser time for moving access points. There are potentially much more interference or blockage to a wireless LAN signal outdoors than indoors.
b.
Data Rate Boundaries It is necessary to record the data rate boundaries or sometimes known as concentric zones around the access points. For example, for 802.11b, the recorded data rates will be decreased from 11 Mbps to 5.5 Mbps to 2 Mbps to 1 Mbps. These boundaries will have the slower data rate areas further from the access point than the higher data rates.
11 Mbps 1 Mbps 2 Mbps 5.5 Mbps
Figure 60. Data Rate Boundaries
c.
Documentation When the copy of the facility blueprint is marked with circles, dead spots, data rates, and signal strength measurements in key spots, another location will be selected and the whole process will be repeated. There will be multiple copies
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of the facility blueprint or floor plan after completing all the locations. A summary will be created indicating the range and coverage of the access point from various locations. The results will then be compared to choose the best possible location. Site surveying is a very time-consuming task.
d.
Throughput Tests & Capacity Planning Another measurement that can be performed by the site surveyor is to test throughput from the various points. The coverage and data rate documentation will reflect the users experience on the wireless LAN. Throughput test such as file transfers to and from an FTP server will provide a thorough view of what the user may experience. The test is normally performed with the existing wired infrastructure connectivity.
Planning for the user capacity is very important. The network administrator will need to provide the number of users and application using the wireless LAN in a given area.
e.
Interference Sources The site surveyor will need to determine any existing wireless LANs in use within or around the facility. It is best to disable existing radios. The surveyor may conduct the site survey outside operating hours.
The site surveyor needs to know whether there is any potential wireless implementation in the near future. This will affect the current implementation and the site survey that is being performed.
Other sources of interference include microwave ovens, 2.4 GHz cordless phones or radiology. Such potential interference sources need to be documented in the survey report. There may be a need to move or replace these devices.
The surveyor needs to take note of the signal loss from some of the common obstructions. The table below shows the approximate signal loss. Obstruction Open Space Additional Loss (dB) 0 Effective Range 100%
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Window (non-metallic tint) Window (metallic tint) Light wall (dry wall) Medium wall (wood) Heavy wall (6 solid core) Very heavy wall (12 solid core) Floor / Ceiling (solid core) Floor / Ceiling (heavy solid core)
3 5-8 5-8 10 15-20 20-25 15-20 20-25
70 50 50 30 15 10 15 10
Record the interference source, its location and its effect and potential effect on wireless LAN coverage, range, and throughput. Taking pictures of the interference sources that are permanent, such as lakes and buildings, will serve as a visual reference to the client. Pictures of the potential sources of interference, such as young tree or future building sites, will help the client to make decision in future.
f.
Wired Data Connectivity & AC Power Requirements Some of the best positions are constrained to where the AC power sources and the network connectivity exist. If the preferred access point locations have very good and valid reason, the client may consider installing new AC power sources and new network connectivity point. The client may choose to use Power-over-Ethernet (PoE).
g.
Outdoor Antenna Placement It is necessary to record the outdoor antenna placement, location and availability of potential mounting and grounding points. The lightning arrestors used by outdoor antennas require proper grounding. Therefore the antennas need to be mounted on special mounting materials.
h.
Spot Checks After the wireless LAN is installed, it may not work exactly as it has been planned. Spot-checking by the site surveyor after the installation is completed is helpful to avoid troubleshooting after the actual implementation. Items that should be checked include coverage in perimeter areas, overlapping coverage
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for seamless roaming and co-channel or adjacent channel interference in all areas.
Site Survey Reporting After studying the clients facility thoroughly, all the data necessary to prepare a proper report for the client will be available. This report will be the map for implementing the wireless LAN and for future documentation reference by the network administrator. Re-visiting the site may be necessary to gather more data or to confirm the initial findings.
The following are the main sections of the documentation in the site survey for the clients. a. Purpose and Business Requirement This site survey will include all the contact information for the site survey company and the client company. Both companies will have a copy of the report.
Restating the customers requirements and providing details on how these wireless LAN requirements can be met will show the client what types of coverage and wireless connectivity they have requested. The report will also include an application analysis that the surveyor has tested with the clients application to assure that the proper implementation of the new wireless LAN will provide appropriate coverage and connectivity for the wireless clients.
b.
Methodology It will include all the methodology that is used for conducting the site survey. It has information on what was done, how it was done, and why it was done.
c.
RF Coverage Detailed RF coverage patterns and ranges that specify the requirement are reported. The concentric circle drawing on the floor plan or blueprint will also be included.
d.
Throughput
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Detailed bandwidth and throughput findings that show the location where it is likely to be greatest or least using drawing on the blueprint will be included. Screenshots of the actual numeric measurements are also recorded.
e.
Interference Detailed RF interference and obstruction findings are reported. It will include pictures about each source of interference. There are suggestions for removing RF interference sources and explanation on how the RF interference sources will affect the wireless LAN.
f.
Problem Areas Discuss with possible solutions to the RF problems found and documented. It will include the recommendations of technologies and equipment that can best serve the customers needs.
g.
Drawings Provide Visio, CAD or other types of drawings and graphical illustrations of how the network should be configured. All the site survey findings can be documented using words and pictures.
h.
Hardware Placement & Configuration Information This section will include the name of each device, the physical location of each access point and bridge, the mounting method, the channels used and the output power that each access point delivers.
i.
Additional Reporting Examples of additional information are interference findings, equipment types needed, equipment placement suggestions, etc. Other suggestions such as security solutions may be added as an optional service, which is normally charged separately.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is the only method for security during the early years for IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN. As its popularity increased, it attracted the attention of cryptographic community to detect cracks in WEP. Although WEP is not a complete security solution, it is nonetheless better than no security at all. It can still
serve as a barrier for some attacks and especially unprotected networks. Most attacks require a large amount of transmitted data and for home users, the number of packets sent is relatively small, therefore, WEP still provides a fairly safe option.
WEP has been designed with the intention of making it difficult to break in. The objectives of WEP is stated by IEEE 802.11. It has to be reasonably strong: The security relies on the difficulty of discovering the secret key through a brute-force attack. It is related to the length of the secret key and the frequency of changing the keys. WEP allows the changing of key and the frequent changing of the Initialization Vector (IV).
It has to be self-synchronizing: WEP is self-synchronized for each message. It is important because the data is assumed to be delivered. Each packet is separately encrypted.
It has to be efficient: The WEP algorithm has to be efficient and may be implemented in either hardware or software.
It may be exportable: The product is designed with WEP and is able to be exported to other countries.
It is optional: It is the users choice to use WEP.
IEEE 802.11 (1999) defined two levels of security: open and shared key. Open security means no security. As for shared key, it means that both ends of the wireless link must know the matching key value. The key is a shared secret between the trusted parties.
Authentication Phase in WEP When a wireless station wants to join an access point, it must prove its identification first. The phase is known as authentication.
The purpose of authentication is for each party to prove that he is who he claims to be. To the access point, if a device can prove that it is trusted, the devices MAC address is true. Hence, it will let this device to join. However, in WEP, no secret token is exchanged upon authentication, so there is no way to know whether
subsequent messages coming from the trusted device may be from an impostor. WEP has been dropped from the Wi-Fi specification despite it is still in the IEEE 802.11 standard.
For open authentication, the mobile device sends one message requesting authentication and the access point replies with a success message. For shared authentication, four messages are exchanged. The mobile device requests authentication, then the access point sends a challenge message. The mobile device responds to the challenge with the secret key to prove its identification. If the proof is accepted successfully, the access point will then send the message.
Authentication (Request) Authentication (Success)
Open Authentication
Authentication (Request) Authentication (Challenge) Authentication (Response) Authentication (Success)
Shared Authentication
Figure 61. WEP Authentication
If the access point is operating in open mode, it will always accept the authentication request and responds with an authentication success message. Proprietary screening methods with MAC address lists are provided in most access points. The authentication is refused unless the mobile devices MAC address is found in the list. This, however, does not protect against MAC address forgery. It only provides basic protection against very simple attacks using an off-the shelf Wi-Fi card or against accidental connection to another persons network.
Shared key authentication is used to prove to an access point that the mobile device knows the secret key. When the mobile device requests authentication, the access point will send a challenge text. The mobile device will encrypt this challenge text with the secret key using WEP and sends it back to the access point. The access point will check whether the result is encrypted with the correct key. This, however, does not prove to the mobile device that the access point knows the key.
The benefit of authentication exchange is that it prevents mobile stations to join the network unless they know the WEP key.
Encryption Phase in WEP In a network with wireless LAN, data from the operating system or driver needs to pass to the IEEE 802.11 MAC service layer. A packet of data called MAC service Data unit (MSDU) arrives at the wireless LAN with instructions to send out. This MSDU will eventually pop out of the MAC service layer on the destination device and pass to the operating system or driver for delivery to the target application. Before it is transmitted, the MSDU is broken into smaller pieces and this process is called fragmentation. Each fragment is processed for WEP encryption. A MAC header is added to the front and a checksum is added to the end.
The encryption process treats the data as a block of unformatted bytes. The first step of encryption is to add some bytes called the Integrity Check Value (ICV). ICV is to prevent anyone from tampering with the message in transit. In both encrypted and decrypted messages, a check is made to detect whether any of the bits has been corrupted during transmission. All the bytes in the messages are combined in a result called the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). This 4-byte value is added to the end of the message before transmission. If one bit in the message is corrupted, the receiving device will show that the CRC value does not match and will reject the message. CRC will detect accidental errors but it does not provide protection against intentional errors. This is because an attacker can simply re-compute the CRC value after altering the message, which will ensure that it matches again.
ICV is similar to CRC except that it is computed and added on before encryption. The conventional CRC is added after encryption. Since ICV is encrypted, no attacker can re-compute it when he attempts to modify the message. ICV is computed by
combining all the data bytes to create a four-byte checksum. It is then added to the end.
Compute Checksum
DATA
ICV
Encrypt Figure 62. Adding the ICV
After the ICV is appended, the frame is ready for encryption. The system will select an IV value first and append it to the secret WEP key. It will then initiate the RC4 encryption engine. Finally, it will pass each byte from the combined data and ICV block into the encryption engine. For each byte going in, there is an encrypted byte coming out until all the bytes are processed. This is called Stream Cipher.
In order for the receiver to know how to decrypt the message, the key number and IV value must be placed in front of the message. Not Encrypted
IV
Key ID
DATA & ICV
Encrypt Figure 63. Adding the IV and KeyID bits
The MAC header is attached and the CRC value placed at the end to detect transmission errors.
In the receive process, the receiver notes that the WEP bit is set and it needs to read and store the IV value. It will read the key ID to select the correct WEP key. It will append the IV value and initialize the RC4 encryption engine. There is no difference between the encryption and decryption processes. After the encryption engine is
initialized, the data is run through one byte at a time to reveal the original message. It then computes the ICV and verifies that the value matches with the received message before the data portion is passed on for further processing.
==Reference Only== RC4 Encryption Algorithm An encryption algorithm is a set of operations that is applied to plaintext to generate ciphertext. It is only helpful when there is also a corresponding decryption algorithm. RC4 is the encryption algorithm used by WEP. For RC4, the same algorithm is used for both encryption and decryption. The strength of an algorithm is measured by how difficult it is to crack the ciphertext. RC4 is simple to implement and is considered quite strong if it is used in the right way.
The basic idea behind RC4 encryption is to generate a pseudorandom sequence of bytes called the key stream that is then combined with the data using an exclusive OR (XOR) operation.
RC4 has the following properties: For encryption: Plaintext Random = Ciphertext For decryption: Ciphertext Random = Plaintext
To the attacker, it looks random. But to both ends of the link, they can generate the same random value for each byte processed. It is called pseudorandom. You can calculate the next byte in the sequence only if you know the key used to generate the stream. If one does not know the key, it will look random. XOR operation will hide the plaintext values. XOR is an easy operation for a computer. The challenge is to generate a good pseudorandom number stream. You need one pseudorandom byte for each byte of message to be encrypted. RC4 generates such a stream.
There are two phases in RC4: key setup and pseudorandom generation. The first phase, the key setup algorithm, establishes a 256-byte array with a permutation of the number 0 to 255. That means all the numbers are present in the array but the order is mixed up. The permutation in the array is called S-box. The next phase in RC4 is the pseudorandom generation phase. This phase involves more swapping of bytes in the S-box and generates one pseudorandom byte per iteration called R.
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To generate the ciphertext, each byte of the plaintext is XORed with a value of R produced by the RC4 algorithm. The whole process is done using byte length additions and swaps. ==End of Reference==
Theoretically, RC4 cannot be considered as a complete secure encryption system because it generates a pseudorandom key stream, which is not truly random.
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)

The insecurity of wireless LAN is a key concern for most organizations. The demand for wireless LAN is high and encourages organizations to use third-party or proprietary solutions to secure their wireless network.
The next generation of wireless security after WEP is IEEE 802.11i. It defines a better wireless network in terms of a robust security network (RSN). WPA is a security solution that is based on the current capabilities of existing Wi-Fi products found in the market. WPA uses existing and well-known standards and protocols to overcome the weaknesses of WEP.
WEP does not provide any access control to the wireless network. WPA overcomes this problem by specifying mandatory protocols for secure wireless network. The mandatory protocols are IEEE 802.1x, Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) and Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service (RADIUS).
IEEE 802.1x The main purpose of 802.1x is to control access when the user joins the corporate network. There are three main components. Supplicant, the client device who wants to use the network resource Authenticator, it controls the access to the network Authentication server, it contains information regarding the validity and authenticity of the user joining the network. It makes decision whether the user is allowed to the network. It can be a simple process inside the access point.
Originally, 802.1x is designed to work with wired LAN. It controls the access so that not everyone who plug into the wired network can use the network resources. In wireless LAN, each connection request from a client is considered at an access to
the LAN with an invisible wire. The authenticator is the access point that performs access control when each connection request is treated as an unauthenticated connection until further approval by the authentication server.
Wireless Device RADIO MAC
Authenticator
Network Access
Wireless Device
Authenticator
Access Point
Figure 64. Logical IEEE 802.1x Ports in an Access Point
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) EAP was originally designed for point-to-point protocol (PPP). It is used for establishing and finalizing the authentication process. EAP can carry out different authentication protocols such as Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Tunnel Transport Layer Security (TTLS). The benefit of EAP is that it does not depend on a specific authentication scheme and can be easily used to encapsulate any other authentication methods.
EAP specifies four types of messages that can be used for communication purpose. Request: messages from the access point to the wireless clients Response: messages from the clients to the access point Success: message from the access point when the network access is granted Failure: message from the access point when the network access is denied.
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Start Request Identity Response Identity Response Identity Request 1 Response 1 Request 1
Response 1
Request n
Request n Response n Response n Success Success
Figure 65. EAP Message Flow
The authenticator will first respond with an EAP-Request-Identity message. The supplicant must respond with an EAP-Response-Identity message. Having obtained the identity of the supplicant, the authenticator needs to contact the authentication server to find out whether the supplicant is to be allowed in. The authentication server will verify that the supplicant really corresponds to the identity it has given.
During the authentication process, the authenticator takes a quick look at each EAP message that is passed between the supplicant and authentication server. It must wait until the authentication server indicates whether the supplicant has been accepted or rejected.
EAP over LAN (EAPOL) The specification of EAP does not specify how EAP messages are transported from one place to another within the network. Therefore, the IEEE 802.1x defines an EAP over LAN protocol called EAPOL. EAPOL provides description on how the EAPOL can be transported over Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).
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Authentication Server
Authenticator
Supplicant
EAPOL has five types of messages. Start: This is used to search and initiate the authentication process. Start messages are sent to the multicast MAC address to see if there is any respond from the access point. Key: This is used by the access point to send the encryption keys to the client once the client has obtain the authorization to access the network. Packet: EAP messages that are going back and forward are encapsulated in this type of EAPOL message. Logoff: This is sent to the access point when the client wishes to disconnect from the wireless network. Encapsulated-ASF-Alert: This is not used in WPA or RSN.
Encapsulation of EAP message is performed with EAPOL from the user to the access point and by RADIUS from the access point to the authentication server.
Like EAP, the RADIUS protocol was not originally designed for wireless network. It was designed for dial-in access. The RADIUS protocol is a set of functionality compatible with different types of authentication server. The four basic message types are Request, Challenge, Accept, and Reject.
Security Layers In the context of wireless LAN security, three layers are clearly identified. They are Wireless LAN Layer, Access Control Layer and Authentication Layer. Robust Security Network (RSN) solution can fit into existing security architectures and leverage on existing standards.
The Wireless LAN Layer is the worker. It deals with raw communications, advertises capabilities and accepts applications to join the network. It is also responsible for encrypting and decrypting the data once the security context is established.
The Access Control Layer is the middle manager. It manages the security context. It will stop any data passing to or from anyone who does not have a current security context established. When authentication occurs and the security context is established, the status will change. The access control layer communicates with the authentication layer to know when to open the security context.
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The Authentication Layer makes policy decisions and accepts proofs of identity. It approves the application for someone who wants to join the network. It has ability to manage the user database. It solves the key management problems of WEP and makes it easier to integrate wireless LAN with the overall security management system.
Authentication Server
Authentication Client
Authentication Layer
Corporate Network
Operating System
Access Control Layer

Authenticator (Access Control) Supplicant
Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN Layer
Access Point
Mobile Device
Figure 66. Relationships of Security Layers
Summary of Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN is a flexible data communication system implemented as an extension or alternative to a wired LAN. It uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive data over the air without physical cabling. Wireless LAN combines data connectivity with user mobility using simple configuration.
Antennas are used to convert high radio frequency signals on the cable into propagated waves in the air. It is important for the network managers to understand the antenna design to correctly design and administrate the network.
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A site survey is needed to successfully implement a wireless network. It is a process to discover the type of RF coverage to meet the customers requirement and to ensure that the wireless LAN clients have continual strong RF signals strength when they are mobile.
It is a challenge to implement a secure wireless LAN. WEP was the only security method during the early years for wireless LAN. Although it is not a foolproof security method, it is still better than no security at all. The next generation of wireless security is WPA. It is designed to overcome the weaknesses of WEP. It involves IEEE 802.1x, EAP and RADIUS.
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Introduction to Wireless LAN (WLAN)

Applications of Wireless LANs

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