DESIGN OF OFFSHORE PIPELINES Mechanical Design

Presentation Reference Number Here

PIPELINE MECHANICAL DESIGN

Topics
Pipeline Design Code compliance Design to resist internal pressure Longitudinal, bending & combined stresses Design to resist external pressure Buckling Fittings Riser Design Types of riser Pipeline to riser tie-ins Riser and expansion spool modelling Load conditions & combinations Fatigue Riser supports

Code Compliance
DnV OS F101: Rules for Submarine Pipelines AS 2885 : Pipelines - Gas and Liquid Petroleum ANSI/ASME B31.4 : ASME Code for Pressure Piping Systems (Liquid Petroleum Transportation) ANSI/ASME B31.8 : ASME Code for Pressure Piping Systems (Gas Transmission & Distribution) BS 8010 : Code of Practice for Pipelines Part 3 API RP1111 : Recommended Practice for Design, Construction, Operation & Maintenance of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines

Types of Loads
functional loads (actions resulting from the operation of the pipeline); e.g. internal and external pressure, invariant loads. environmental loads (normal actions from the natural environment); e.g. hydrodynamic forces from currents and waves variable forces. accidental loads (infrequent actions due to natural hazards or third party influence); e.g. dropped objects, fishing interaction. installation loads (actions incurred during construction of the pipeline); e.g. pipelay stresses.

ASD vs LRFD
ASD = Allowable Stress Design generally based on limiting stresses in a pipeline to less than a prescribed limit. LRFD = Load and Resistance Factor Design determine loads on pipeline and factor, and ability of pipeline to resist those loads without failing and factor. Factors dependant on risk and confidence of load / resistance prediction.

Limit States
Serviceability Limit State ovalisation/ ratcheting limit state accumulated plastic strain and strain ageing large displacements damage due to, or loss of, weight coating. Ultimate Limit State bursting limit state ovalisation/ratcheting limit state (if causing total failure) local buckling limit state (pipe wall buckling limit state) global buckling limit state (normally for load-controlled condition) Fatigue unstable fracture and plastic collapse limit state Accidental Impact.

Risk Approach OS F101

Pressure Containment
In essence, all variations on Barlows formula Diameter based on hydraulic analysis Minimum external pressure Safety factor based on code Maximum internal pressure

Pressure Containment
Additional Considerations Material grade Wall thickness tolerance corrosion allowance temperature derating factors

Pipeline Stress Simple Approach

Pipeline stress considered biaxial
hoop stress around circumference (as used for wall thickness sizing longitudinal stress along axis

Longitudinal Pipeline Stresses

Pressure Temperature Bending Residual tension (difficult to quantify and often ignored)

Longitudinal Stress
Pressure Stress
Two effects dependent on pipeline axial restraint Full axial restraint gives poissons effect of hoop stress Completely unrestrained gives end cap effect

Poissons effect
Hoop stress creates circumferential (lateral) strain Poissons ratio = lateral strain/longitudinal strain = 0.3 for steel lf restrained pipe cannot contract - tensile stress developed Poissons longitudinal stress = 0.3 x Hoop Stress

Pressure Stress
Endcap Pressure Stress
unrestrained (near expansion spool) pressure differential acting over internal CSA or equivalent pipe end (hence end cap) longitudinal tensile stress = 0.5 x Hoop Stress

Temperature Stress
Dependent upon axial pipeline restraint Stresses developed when expansion or contraction are prevented 3 cases : unrestrained, partially restrained, fully restrained
unrestrained - no stress due to temperature partially restrained - equilibrium between expansion and friction restraint (section of pipe which expands) fully restrained when friction force = fully restrained force ie no movement

Temperature Stress
Longitudinal stress is as follows :

e.g 6-inch x 14.3mm wt 60 degrees above ambient results in a stress of 145 N/mm2 full restraint force = 1017 kN or 100 tonnes to prevent expansion this restraining force would be required Generally better to avoid restraining pipe if possible

Bending Stress
Lay radius curvature Resting on irregular seabed Spanning (includes environmental loads) Bending within elastic range, formulae as follows :

Bending is tensile and compressive about neutral axis - important to remember when calculating combined stress ie 2 possible values of longitudinal stress

Combined Stresses
Von Mises ( maximum distortion energy theory) design factor for combined equivalent pipeline stress can be as high as 0.96 for functional and environmental loads Von Mises Stress, given by:

LC and DC Conditions
Load controlled - additional load results in additional displacement e.g. cantilever. Displacement controlled curvature is imposed on the pipe rather than a load e.g. pipe on a reel. Considers non-linear material properties.

Local Buckling
LRFD equivalent to combined stress limit approach. Alternatives for load and displacement controlled conditions. Alternatives also for internal or external overpressure. Highly dependant on bending load. More likely during installation when no internal pressure. For thick wall pipes, strains in excess of yield may be demonstrated to be acceptable in displacement controlled situations.

Collapse and Propagation

Two other buckling scenarios to consider : collapse - water depth where collapse can occur with negligible bending load. propagation - water depth where a previously initiated buckle would propagate to. Pipelines always sized for collapse (Bluestream). Buckle propagation can be prevented by buckle arrestors (thicker section of pipe) at regular spacing (e.g. 200m).
Collapse pressure (pressure required to collapse a pipeline) Is greater than Initiation pressure (pressure required to start a propagating buckle from a given buckle) Is greater than Propagating pressure (pressure required to continue a propagating buckle).

Buckling & Collapse

Pipeline Fittings
Typical pipe fittings :
Flanges Bends Tees Wye piece

Flanges
Subsea use high integrity ring type joints (RTJ) Pipelines usually use standard ASME/ANSI B16.5 Wellhead equipment use standard API For subsea use swivel ring and possibly misalignment flanges required Subsea flanges are critical link - if leakage occurs very expensive to rectify Code does not allow for external moment loads ie if design pressure = flange allowable pressure no moment capacity exists. Often need to go up a class to cater for moments. Bolting normally performed using accurate hydraulic tensioning tool. Bolt load critical - too little and leakage may occur too much and flange overstress/distortion problems. Many compact flange and other connector designs available.

Flanges, Cont

Bends
Elbows generally to ANSI/ASME 16.9 Pipelines usually require pigging - elbows not suitable Bend radius = 3D or 5D Utilise bends at expansion loops between pipeline and facility Ability to deform and flatten - curved pipe is more flexible & has higher bending stresses Addressed by flexibility & stress intensification factors (SIF) - ANSI B31.3 Flexibility and SIF depends on pipe id. & wt and bend radius - can be very significant

Tees
Tees Standard branch tees to ANSI B16.9 Barred tees for pigging implications Flexibility and SIF implications as per bends (ANSI B31.3) - can have high stress at branch connections Not suitable for inspection pigs increase flowline flexibility (future tie-ins) Valve skid & protection structure required etc. CAPEX implications may be high for hot-tap tees reduced if installed in the mainline during pipelay

Wye Pieces
Wye Pieces Allows pigging of mainline and branch - correct geometry is critical Typically a symmetrical branch arrangement with 30 degrees between branches Large radius of curvature (greater than 3D) between branch and main line Non standard items ie no standard specifications Complex 3D geometry - pipe codes not applicable Design to pressure vessel code using 3 dimensional solid model finite element techniques

Wye Pieces
Wyes Design in accordance with pressure vessel code Typically BS 5500 or ANSI/ASME VIII Complexity due to code break at interface with pipe Pressure vessel codes deal with discontinuity's and stress concentrations - pipeline codes inadequate in this respect.

Pipeline Expansion Analysis

Expansion Governed by
Temperature Pressure Pipe weight Friction (coefficient assumed conservatively low, say 0.3, in analysis)

Expansion loops generally provided at hot end of pipeline to allow for expansion.

Pipeline Expansion Movement

RISER MECHANICAL DESIGN

Risers
Risers connect topsides facility with pipeline expansion spool (where required). Pipeline to riser tie-ins:
deal with pipeline expansion. allow practical pipeline approaches. Generally a rigid steel L or Z spool. some smaller diameter flowlines use flexible pipe.

Analysis of Tie-in Spool & Riser

Computer model used for accurate assessment Tie-in spool and riser should be modelled as one item from pipeline end to top of riser Pipeline expansion applied to spoolpiece end Dropped object protection may be required (concrete mattresses) consider in computer model

Riser Design
Major location requirements (Routing)
pipeline approach topside layout minimise number of risers (weak link) locate for least exposure to potential damage (e.g. preferably inboard at water level and away from boat landing) locate as far as practical from living quarters provide access for inspection & maintenance gas risers have location preference over oil risers installation philosophy - pre-installed or retrofitted

Specific Design Loading Conditions

Basic Loads for load combinations
loads imposed on riser via supports from platform loads due to interaction with topsides piping loads due to interaction with pipeline loads due to weight and buoyancy effects loads due to environmental conditions loads due to pressure of contents loads due to thermal effects loads during transient operation - slugging, pigging. Loads from vortex shedding (fatigue)

Typical Load Combinations

Refer to codes for guidance Analysis performed using computer models LC1- functional loads only LC2- maximum storm and functional loads as they occur during storm LC3- as LC2 with loads during installation and/ or test LC4- wave loading for fatigue life evaluation may include vortex shedding induced vibrations LC5- accidental loading (may be in conjunction with other loads, generally higher allowable stress)

Riser Fatigue
Riser should be analysed to determine fatigue life. Variations in stress level may occur due to :
load cycles wind & wave action platform movements vortex induced vibration fatigue life should be 3.3 times design life or, if inspection is not possible, 10 times design life

Riser Guide & Clamp Design

provide support and transfer riser load to platform critical to the safe working of the system guides allow axial movement through the support clamps restrain laterally and axially deadload clamp used to support weight of riser dimensional control critical for retrofitted risers designed in accordance with structural codes similar load cases and combinations to risers

FREE-SPANNING

Introduction
Spans arise from rough seabed or scour Long lengths may cause unacceptable pipe loads at support locations, particularly for hard seabed conditions Fatigue from movement under environmental and operating loads Snagging by trawlers/anchors Buckling from inline and pressure loads (can be beneficial if self limiting)

Prediction of Spanning
From route survey - prediction of pipeline profile on seabed Packages available to predict pipe loads Span acceptance limits for VIV calculated separately After installation / during operation Surveys

Route Preparation
Pre-sweeping - capping the height of sandwaves
use of hydraulic tools is effective

Blasting rock peaks

interbedded calcarenite is energy absorbent difficult to shatter more than a few layers at a time

Pre-lay supports
Wide enough to allow for pipelay tolerance Can provide issues following lay for trenching etc.

Route Preparation cont.

Predumping of rock in rough areas controlled rock dumping in rough areas stability issue must still be addressed Pretrenching - normally in shore approaches cutter suction dredge or backhoe most common weather sensitive and depth dependent

Pre-sweeping

Span Rectification Post-lay

Supports
Grout bag: should be tailor made, coat sack types tend not to last Scour around grout bag type supports may undermine them Adjustable mechanical: for rocky areas - long term performance

Span Rectification
Spans in sand waves can be remedied by fluidisation Spans caused by scour
Best to jet or lower by some other means

Rock Dumping
Use graded rock to cover the span May be necessary to support span first to reduce stresses