PnT,GNANCY AND THE PLACENTA

By the end of this spread you should

be able to:
o describe the role of the

Pregnant female mammals have a placenta which provides remarkably close contact between a mother and her unborn infant. The placenta consists of a double layer of spongy vascular tissue formed in the lining of the uterus after the implantation of the embryo.

extraembryonic membranes

explain how the placenta forms

the functions of the placenta.

The extraembryonic membranes

,:

r discuss

lact oj lfte

During pregnancy, a hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is released from the placenta, accumulates in the bloodstream, and is released in the urine. Detection of this hormone in the urine is the basis of some home pregnancy test kits.
HCG is a glycoprotein. This means that specific monoclonal antibodies can be produced which bind with it (see spread 15.6). ln the test kit, these specific antibodies are immobilised on a urine dipstick and tagged with a blue latex. When the dipstick is dipped in urine, the hormone attaches onto a latex-tagged antibody. The HCG bound to the antibody moves up the strip and combines with anti-HCG antibodies (figure 1), producing a clearly visible result in the test window.

After implantation, the embryo produces fgur extryrembrygsc membranes (membranes outside the embryo): the arnnion, the yolk sac, the chorion, and the allantois (figure 2). The -anu:rion is the innermost membrane. It lines 19?yry w_hig_b qU:fqtrrldS- th-e e-mbryo. The cavity is filled with fluid (amniotic fluid) in which the embryo is suspended and cushioned against mechanical damage. The yo_Ifsac has no obvious function in humans and becomes b-Urie-{iU-t}-e-placenta. The c.bofiqr is the
embrane derived fr oq5qgp_! gb_le$ _qg[s ( spread | 2 .7 ) . Ilferms itoio ittE f"t"iiiai _.f ttt. placenta; the maternal side is "ffr derived from the highly vascularised uterine lining. Within three weeks of implan!{ion, the qlantois, a sac-like outgrowth from th" ffi6Soiii!-ut, fusei with chorionic villi (finger-like outgrowths of the chorion) in the uterine wall. The fused structure forms the embryo's part of the placenta. As an embryo grows, the allantois forms the umbilical cord, a tube which carries embryonic blood vessels to and from the chorionic villi. outermo st
m

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Circulation in the fetus

Blood flow through the umbilical cord and embryo is maintained by the pumping action of the embryo's heart. Howeve4 fetal circulation is distinctly different from that in a newborn baby because geggg1rs q4cbglge is carried out by the placenta, not the fetal lungs. Oxygenated fetal blood from the placenta is carried via the umbilical vein to the right atrium. Most of this blood is forced into the left side of the heart through a hole called the foramen ovale and through a special fetal vessel, the ductus arteriosus. At birth, the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus close so that blood can flou' through the lungs (spread 12.9).

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antibodies which can combine with

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The blood vessels of the allantochorion lie close to the maternal blood in the placenta. The endometrium (uterus lining) breaks dou'n in the region of the chorionic villi so the villi are bathed in maternal blood (figure 3). This allows ready exchange of substances but does not allow blood from the two individuals to mix. The separation of maternal and fetal blood is one of the most significant features of the placenta. Without it, the mother's immune system would reject the baby like any other foreign material. Although the allantochorion is also genetically distinct from the mother and should be rejected, it appears to be coated with molecules which prevent this from happening. The chorionic villi provide a vast surface area for
n ut_ri ti on

I present in dipstick (, n LcJ:,i!",tl_.,* '

. I urine of pregnant r\ I woman
HCG present

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placenta, for example, has more than 48 km of villi. -S*ubggrnggg slgslqhaqg_ed by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and ag-livg_grypgport. Substances absorbed into the ieiui-tio-m tfie moiGrt Ul,o;a i".l"d. o*yg"t, nutrients (including water), some bo1r]ggr"s, and certain aLtib_qjigs which give the fetus some resistance to disease. Fetal haemoglobin has a greater affinity for oxygen than maternal haemoglobin (figure 4), ensuring maximum efficiency of oxygen uptake. Carbon dioxide, urea, and other waste products are excreted into the maternal blood.
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Figure 1 lf HCG is in the urine, it forms a complex with the blue tagged antibodies present in the stick. The HCG-antibody complex rises up the stick and binds to anti-HCG antibodies in the test window, producing a visible blue
Ii

ne i nd icati ng preg na ncy.

The placenta presents a partial barrier to the passage of harmful substances from mother to infant. Some microorganisms cannot pass into the fetus. However, viruses (such as HIV), nicotine from cigarettes, addictive drugs (such as heroin), and alcohol can cross the placenta and harm the fetus.
advanced BIOLOGY

258

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REFRODUCTION'

Chorionic villus with fetal blood vessels

Umbilicalcord Blood-filled space

Chorion

Umbilical artery
(high carbon dioxide, low oxygen, low nutrients, high urea)
To fetus

Venule

Yolk sac

Amniotic fluid

Umbilical vein (low carbon dioxide, high oxygen, high nutrients, low urea)

(higher carbon dioxide, lower oxygen, lower nutrients, higher urea)

r
Amnion

Endometrium

Plug of mucus blocking

cervicalcanal

Figure

2 A fetus

at about ten weeks within the amniotic cavity.

Figure

The structure of part of the placenta.

In addition to being an exchange surface, the placenta also acts as a temporary endocrine organ, producing various hormones involved in the maintenance of pregnancy. These hormones include HCG, progesterone, and oestrogen.

Fetal

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haemoglobin. /,/

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After birth
The protection and nourishment given to the developing fetus during the long gestation period of mammals means that offspring can be born well developed. Some mammals are able to move around and find food relatively soon after birth: for example, 20 minutes after birth a giraffe can stand, and within hours begins to suckle. Giraffes start to feed on vegetation when two to three weeks old. Humans are exceptional in having a very long period of development between birth and independence (spread 12.10).

63 oc

Adult (maternal) haemoglobin

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List the extraem

Brnrs
By the end of this spread you should be able to:

. describe

the role of the placenta in maintaining pregnancy

o discuss how birth is initiated

Parturition, the act of giving birth, is one of the most dramatic and dangerous events in the life of an organism. Its timing is crucial: it must not be too early or the baby will not be developed sufficiently to begin life in the outside world; it must not be too late, or the baby will be too big to make a safe exit from its mother. The timing seems to be
determined by a complex interplay of fetal and maternal hormones. The placenta plays an important role in maintaining pregnancy and ensuring that pregnancy is not terminated too soon.

describe the main stages of birth.

Fact of life
The birth of a primate can be a lengthy process. A newborn primate usually emerges head first so that it can breathe before the process is complete.

The role of the placenta During the first few months of pregnancy, the placenta plays an increasingly important role in producing reproductive hormones. It secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (HcG), a peptide hormone which prolongs the activity of the corpus luteum until four months into the pregnancy. During this time, the corpus luteum is responsible for
maintaining pregnancy by producing oestrogens and progesterone.

without HcG, the corpus luteum atrophies (degenerates), inducing menstruation. The presence of HCG in the urine of a woman is the basis
of most pregnancy tests.
After the corpus luteum has degenerated, the placenta takes over the role of producing oestrogens and progesterone, preventing menstmation and ovulation. oestrogens also stimulate the growth of the mammary glands, increase the size of uterine muscle cells, and trigger the formation of receptors to the hormone oxytocin in the uterine muscles. Progesterone also stimulates the growth of the mammary glands, inhibits the contraction of uterine muscles, and inhibits the release of prolactin (a hormone that stimulates milk production; see spre'ad 12.10). Relaxin, another hormone released by the placenta, relzures the connective tissue in the bones of the peivic grrdle and enlarges the cervix in preparation for birth. As pregnancy nears its end, the amount of oestrogen relative to progesterone rises (figure 1). These changes help to initiate birth. A feu' days before birth, the baby usually shifts around in the womb so that its head is close to the cervix.
Hypothalamus stimulates the posterior pituitary to secrete oxytocin

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pituitary stimulates secretion of corticosteroids from adrenal glands

c c, o

corticosteroids
cause placenta to secrete

Prostaglandins from placenta stimulate uterine contractions

prostaglandins
Conception

Gestation

Lactation Pressure of fetus against cervix stimulates strctc*r ngceptons $rhictt send messages to the brain

Figure 1 Changes in hormone levels during pregnancy.

Figurc

Hormonal control of uterine contractions.

260

Ectvanced BIOLOGY

There are a number of different hypotheses to explain the initiation of birth. All involve the hormone olytocin causing uterine muscles to contract. Figure 2 summarises one hlrpothesis. It suggests that the fetal pituitary glattd secretes adrenocorticotrophic horrnone (ACTH) which stimulates fetal adrenal glands to secrete corticosteroids. The steroids pass into blood sinuses in the placenta and cause maternal cells to produce substances called prostaglandins. These neurosecretory substances act as local hormones and are thought to cause the muscles of the uterus to contract. At the same time, pressure of the fetal head against the cervix stimulates stretch receptors. The receptors send information'to the mother's brain, causing the release of oxytocin. This hormone is known to cause uterine muscles to contract, but only if the muscles have specific ox.Wocin receptors. Oxytocin receptors form in the muscles during the later stages of pregnancy in response to high levels of oestrogen. The levels of prostaglandins and oxytocin build up during labour. The uterine contractions are weak at first but gradually increase in frequency and intensiry causing labour pains. The physical and emotional stresses associated with labour stimulate the release of more oxytocin and prostaglandins, creating a positive feedback mechanism. Eventually, the contractions are so strong that they push the baby out of the uterus.

lnitiation of birth

The babv positions itself belore birth so that its had rests closo to th6 csrvix

Bladder

{compressedl (pushedinto
Front of pelvis

Mucus plug

The baby passes into the vagina and amniotic

The process of birth In humans, birth occurs in three main

stages (figUre 3). First, the cervix expands so that the baby's head can pass into the vagina. The expansion pushes out the plug of mucus in the cervix, and amniotic fluid is usually released from the uterus. During the second stage, called delivery, the uterine contractions are strong and very close together. The baby usually adopts a face-down position and is pushed through the vagina and out of the mothers body. In the third stage, further uterine contractions push the umbilical cord and placenta (afterbirth) out of the mother's body.

The babv is pushed out of the mother's body

When a baby is born, it leaves the watery environment of the uterus where a.ll its needs were met by its mother and enters a hostile world where it must start to fend for itself. One of the first things it must do is

convert to breathing air. In the uterus, a fetus obtains oxygen from its placenta. Its lungs do not work and they receive only a little oxygen (spread 12.8). At birth, the placenta stops functioning and its blood supply is cut off. This triggers a rapid alteration in the circulation, ensuring that blood is diverted to the lungs as they inflate with air for the first time. An increase in blood pressure in the left atrium causes a flap of tissue to be pressed against the foramen ovale so that blood no longer flows directly from the right to the left side of the heart. A few hours later the ductus arteriosus closes. From then on, all the blood from the right ventricle flows to the lungs.
The first breath of the baby is usually accompanied by cryrng. The crying does not indicate distress but is a reflex action which ensures that the lungs can be fully inflated and that the baby establishes regular breathing.

The placenta and umbilical cord are expelled from the body Placenta becoming detached from uterus wall

Umbilical cord

Figure

3
,

Bitth of a human babY.

O,urcr cHEcK
I
List three hormones during pregnancy.

. Ui tftt pfu""tb secreted : :j .'.

..Food for

thought

Most mammalian mothers, herbivores as well as carnivores, eat the afterbifih. E*plain w'hat the afterbirth consists of and suggest reasons for eating it.

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