Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
/R method:
source tables for Example 20.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 20.9 Graphical results of the GR&R study
X/R method:
X and R
control charts by operators (appraisers) for Example 20.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table 20.1 Attribute agreement analysisdata for Example 20.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 20.10 Minitab session window output for Example 20.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 20.11 Graphical results of the attribute agreement analysis for Example 20.4. . . . . 115
Table 20.2 Attribute gage studydata for Example 20.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 20.12 Graphical results of the attribute gage analysis for Example 20.5. . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 21.1 Commonly used symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 21.1 Dot plot for a simple population of three numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 21.2 Sampling distribution of the mean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 21.2 Dot plot of the sample means from Table 21.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 21.3 Example of a histogram from a large non- normal looking population. . . . . . 124
Figure 21.4 Examples of the impact of the CLT when sampling from various
populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 21.5 Example of a data set as illustrated by a frequency distribution,
a dot plot, and a histogram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Table 21.3 Summary of descriptive measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 21.6 Example of a cumulative frequency distribution in table and graph
form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 21.4 A comparison of various graphical methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 21.7 Stem-and-leaf diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 21.8 Box plot with key points labeled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xvi 11/20/08 6:14:13 PM
lis oi Ficukis axn Taniis xvii
Figure 21.9 Examples of box plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 21.10 Example of a multiple box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 21.11 Example of a run chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 21.5 Data for scatter diagrams shown in Figure 21.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 21.12 Examples of scatter diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 21.13 Example of the use of normal probability graph paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 21.14 Example of a normal probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 22.1 Venn diagram illustrating the probability of event A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22.2 Venn diagram illustrating the complementary rule of probability. . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22.3 Venn diagram illustrating the addition rule of probability with
independent events A and B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 22.4 Venn diagram illustrating the general version of the addition rule
of probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 22.1 Example of a contingency table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 22.2 Contingency table for Examples 22.422.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 22.3 Summary of the rules of probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Table 22.4 Summary of formulas, means, and variances of commonly used
distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 22.5 Standard normal distribution for Example 22.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 22.6 Standard normal distribution for Example 22.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 22.7 Poisson distribution with mean = 4.2 for Example 22.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Figure 22.8 Binomial distribution with n = 6 and p = 0.1428 for Example 22.17. . . . . . . . 155
Figure 22.9 Example of a chi- square distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . 156
Figure 22.10 Example of a t distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 22.11 Example of an F distribution with various degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 22.5 Summary of formulas, means, and variances of other distributions. . . . . . . . 159
Figure 22.12 Hypergeometric distribution for Example 22.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 22.13 Exponential distribution for Example 22.19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 22.14 Lognormal distribution for Example 22.20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Figure 22.15 Example of a Weibull function for various values of the shape
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Table 23.1 Cable diameter data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 23.1 Example of a process capability analysis using the data given in
Table 23.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 23.2 Methods of determining the standard deviation for use in process
capability indices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Table 23.3 Binomial probabilities for Example 23.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Part VI
Figure 24.1 Examples of different types of correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Table 24.1 Data for Example 24.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 24.2 Graphical depiction of regression concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Figure 24.3 Scatter diagram developed from the data given in Table 24.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xvii 11/20/08 6:14:13 PM
xviii List of Figures and Tables
Figure 24.4 Scatter diagram from Figure 24.3 with two proposed lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 24.2 Computed values for the proposed lines in Figure 24.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 24.3 Computed values for the proposed lines given in Figure 24.4 with
residual values added. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 24.4 Residual values for the least squares regression line from
Example 24.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Table 24.5 Census data for Examples 24.10 and 24.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 24.5 Example of a principal components analysis using the data given
in Table 24.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 24.6 Scree plot for Examples 24.10 and 24.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 24.7 Example of a factor analysis using the data given in Table 24.5. . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 24.6 Salmon data for Example 24.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 24.8 Example of a discriminant analysis using the data given in
Table 24.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Table 24.7 Plastic film data for Example 24.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 24.9 Example of MANOVA using the data given in Table 24.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 24.10 Stainless steel casting with critical ID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Figure 24.11 Data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Table 24.8 Casting data for Example 24.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 24.12 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 24.13 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.8 with the means of each factor
connected by lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 24.9 Casting data for Example 24.14 with precision parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 24.14 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.9 with the means of each factor
connected by lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 24.15 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Table 24.10 Casting data for Example 24.14 after pressure wash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 24.16 Multi-vari chart of data from Table 24.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Table 24.11 Resting pulse data for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 24.17 Minitab session window output for the binary logistic regression based
on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 24.18 Delta chi- square versus probability analysis for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . 222
Figure 24.19 Delta chi- square versus leverage analysis for Example 24.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Table 24.12 Favorite subject data for Example 24.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Figure 24.20 Minitab session window output for the nominal logistic regression
based on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Table 24.13 Toxicity data for Example 24.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 24.21 Minitab session window output for the ordinal logistic regression based
on data given in Table 24.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 25.1 Four outcomes associated with statistical hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Table 25.1 Sample size formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Table 25.2 Confidence intervals for means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Table 25.3 Confidence intervals for variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Table 25.4 Confidence intervals for proportions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xviii 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
lis oi Ficukis axn Taniis xix
Table 25.5 Hypothesis tests for means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 25.6 Hypothesis tests for variances or ratios of variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Table 25.7 Hypothesis tests for proportions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 25.2 Hypothesis test flowchart (part 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure 25.3 Hypothesis test flowchart (part 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Figure 25.4 Hypothesis test flowchart (part 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Table 25.8 Example of a one-way ANOVA source table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 25.9 Moisture content data for Example 25.12.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 25.10 Completed one-way ANOVA source table for the data given in
Table 25.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 25.11 Example of a two-way ANOVA source table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 25.12 Historical data of defect types along with current data from a
randomly selected week for Example 25.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Table 25.13 Goodness-of-fit table for Example 25.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Table 25.14 The general form of a two-way contingency table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 25.15 Observed frequencies of defectives for Example 25.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 25.16 Computation of the expected frequencies for Example 25.14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Table 25.17 Comparison of parametric and non-parametric hypothesis tests. . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 25.18 Common non-parametric hypothesis tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 25.19 Data for Moods Median test in Example 25.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 25.20 Computation of the expected frequencies for Example 25.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 25.21 Data for Levenes test for Example 25.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Table 25.22 Levenes test for Example 25.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 25.23 Levenes test for Example 25.16 (continued). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 25.24 Levenes test for Example 25.16 (continued). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 25.25 Levenes test for Example 25.16 (continued). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 25.26 Data for Kruskal-Wallis test for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Table 25.27 Determining ranks for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Table 25.28 Kruskal-Wallis test for Example 25.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 25.29 Data for Mann-Whitney test for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Table 25.30 Determining ranks for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Table 25.31 Mann-Whitney test for Example 25.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 26.1 Example of a PFMEA form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Figure 26.2 Example of a DFMEA form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Figure 27.1 Example of a blank cause- and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 27.2 Example of a cause- and-effect diagram after a few brainstorming
steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure 27.3 Example of a Pareto chart for defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Table 27.1 Cost to correct each defect type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 27.4 Example of a Pareto chart for defects weighted by the cost to correct. . . . . . 288
Figure 27.5 Basic FTA symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Figure 27.6 Example of stoppage of agitation in a tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xix 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
xx List of Figures and Tables
Part VII
Table 28.1 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet for Example 28.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table 28.2 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet with data entered for
Example 28.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table 28.3 A 2
3
full factorial data collection sheet with run averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Figure 28.1 Graph of the main effects for the data given in Table 28.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Table 28.4 A 2
3
full factorial design using the + and format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Table 28.5 A 2
3
full factorial design showing interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 28.2 Graph of the interaction effects for the data given in Table 28.3. . . . . . . . . . . 305
Table 28.6 Half fraction of 2
3
(also called a 2
31
design). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Table 28.7 Half fraction of 2
3
with completed interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Table 28.8 A 2
4
full factorial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table 28.9 A 2
41
fractional factorial design with interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table 28.10 Statistical models for common experimental designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Table 28.11 Examples of source tables for the models given in Table 28.10. . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Table 28.12 Sums of squares for the models given in Table 28.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Table 28.13 Examples of Latin squares from each main class up to order 5. . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Table 28.14 Latin square analysis for Example 28.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Table 28.15 Completed Latin square source table for Example 28.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Table 28.16 A 2
41
fractional factorial for Example 28.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Table 28.17 Session window from Minitab for the data given in Table 28.16. . . . . . . . . . . 321
Table 28.18 Minitab main effects plot for the analysis given in Table 28.17. . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Table 28.19 Minitab interaction effects plot for the analysis given in Table 28.17. . . . . . . 324
Table 28.20 Minitab analysis of residuals for the data given in Table 28.16. . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Table 28.21 Relevant tables for two-way full factorial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Table 28.22 Data for a 2
2
full factorial experiment with three replicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Table 28.23 Session window results for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Table 28.24 Main effects plot for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 28.25 Interaction plot for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 28.26 Residual plots for the data given in Table 28.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 32.1 The Drum- Buffer-Rope subordinate step analogyno rope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 32.2 The Drum- Buffer-Rope subordinate step analogywith rope. . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 32.3 The interdependence of throughput, inventory, and operating expense
measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Figure 33.1 Example of a ranking matrix with criteria weights shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Table 34.1 Data for Example 34.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Table 34.2 Data for Example 34.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Figure 34.1 SWOT analysis for Example 34.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 34.2 PEST analysis for Example 34.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Part VIII
Figure 35.1 Function of SPC tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 35.2 Conveyor belt in chocolate- making process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
H1325_Kubiak_BOOK.indb xx 11/20/08 6:14:14 PM
lis oi Ficukis axn Taniis xxi
Figure 35.3 Conveyor belt in chocolate- making process with rational subgroup
choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Table 35.1 Data for Examples 35.1 and 35.2X
R and X