BALANCE OF POWER by Henry Brougham Why is the concept of the BOP contradictory? 1.

At one time, they maintain that the idea of a political equilibrium is pregnant with every species of absurdity, and would produce, if acted upon in the affairs of nations, those very evils which the system is extolled for preventing. At another time, they tell us that the notion is simple and obvious; that the notion is simple and obvious but of the positions of men; that it is no refinement of modern state men, but has influenced the councils of princes and commonwealths in all ages of the world. Nowthe balance of power is an unintelligible jargon, invented to cover every scheme.

Many evils have owed only to an erroneous concept of its nature. Instead of looking at the BOP negatively, we should look at it constructively.

What are the proofs that we should look at it constructively, or what are the proofs of the positive effects of national jealousy? 1. 2. National jealousy created wars instead of conquests and changes of dominion. Many parts of the globe might have been deluged in blood, instead some of the sailors fighting harmlessly and some thousands of soldiers carrying on a scientific system of warfare. Last century (16th-17th) achievements in technology and politics

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Thus, the BOP is not about the Balance of Power but the interests of the men applying it to aggrandize their power.

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What were some clarifications/traditional or denominated conception of the BOP? 1. National jealousy has been denominated not a principle of policy but a national emotion. This national jealousy is regarded as awareness of states to other states. State-system is nothing more than a systematic indulgence of natural feelings.

What was the main reason the BOP failed? Because of the actual dereliction or abandonment of the BOP and not its inefficacy Example of wars cause by the BOP: Silesian usurpation, Seven Years War, Partition of Poland.

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What other factors exacerbated the problem? The BOP can be perpetuated by men; it is a natural result of conflict between the desire of conquest and the desire of security, refined on by ingenious men and spun into a regular theory. 1. 2. Unprincipled ambition of some princes Taint of disaffection in the people of some countries

What were the rebuttals to this denominated notion? 1. More regularly any system of government is established, the more will men of sober minds acquire weight of management of affairs and the longer the art of administering is practiced, prudence will gain ascendancy over passion. In other words, overtime, mankind will become more like a machine/less emotional. Mankind will more likely to be change by the system. Dictates of feelings not always amiable, often outrageous; men guided by passion but passions themselves are implanted for the wisest purposes. Instinct is the principle to which, more than reason, the preservation of life and the maintenance of order in the universe must be ascribed. Absence of a constant superintendence and control is certainly the cause of that instability of national power. (absence of world government) What has the caused the spread of the misinformation of the BOP? The works of Hume, Polybius and Demosthenes perpetuated traditional conception of the BOP.

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What were the features or elements of the BOP? 1. 2. 3. 4. Systematic form reduces principles of national conduct Perpetual attention to foreign affairs Constant watchfulness in all parts of the system Subjection of national passions and antipathies. Unceasing care which it dictates of nations most remotely situated

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Then what according to Brougham is the main problem?

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General union of all European powers What did he said about war and warfare? What are the changes?

What would then be the grand feature of the BOP? Universal

The arts of peace acquired ascendancy and other fame beside that of martial deeds was sought after. War became an object of dread.

What were the consequences of these changes? Where did the BOP arise from? 1. 2. From the progress of science 1. Discovery made at the end of the fifteenth century by the Italian politicians in consequence of the invasion of Charles VII. <from the political Italian city-states> Changes in the occupations and characters of men, there was a separation of the military from the civil professions The intrusting of small class in each community with the defence of the rest (What were its consequences then? The European powers have formed a species of general law, which supersedes, in most instances, an appeal to the sword, by tendering such an appeal fatal to any power and the division of labour.) The adoption of standing armies One of the most important improvements in the art of government

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What then was Broughams rebuttal? But to the progress of society, which planted the whole states of Europe in the same relative situation in which the states of Italy were at that period, and taught them not to wait for an actual invasion. 3. 4. How was national intercourse promoted? 1. 2. Consolidated into one system of provincial government under the empire of Rome Reduced by a people whose character and manners were never effaced by the most rapid conquests or most remote emigrations. They were formed into divisions under constitutions of the same nature, peculiarity calculated to preserve the uniformity of customs Commercial intercourse, which produces perpetual connection Great federacy, acknowledging, indeed, no common chief, obeying one system of international law It is from these natural sources and not suddenly from any occurrences in the 15th century

What happen in the later 18th century? The French revolution which brought about the nation army.

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When did European Law come about? 20th century

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THE BALANCE OF POWER H. Butterfield

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What did Brougham said about Britain? Britain is different. It is to her armies that every nation, insular or continental, must look for her sure and natural defence. Britain should be recognised as a naval power. Britain held the European balance.

The BOP was a kind of terrestrial counterpart of the Newtonian system of astronomy.

According to Polybius, it is never right to help a power acquire a predominance that will render it irresistible

We can say that in his thesis he is demanding that there shall be distribution of power. But according to Butterfield, power should be dispersed but this would not apply to people who didnt have the idea of the BOP. It is not a question of predominance but about the awareness of the BOP.

a. b.

To remain neutral when others are at war is a good thing for a state that is powerful Neutrality is dangerous however for a power that is weak, it merely results in finding yourself ultimately at somebody elses mercy Neutrality is most dangerous of all if it is the result of irresolution and this is where opinion tends to be divided (in the case of the republics)

The discovery that the ancient writers had never called attention to this defect. What defect? The writers never mentioned that the Romans had never known of it, but the Greeks possessed it. The idea of the BOP did not only exist in Ancient World, but did not take its rise even from the modern study of ancient history. It seems to come from the modern worlds reflection on its own experience. (When was this modern world? 1650s >the existence of nation-states through the Westphalian settlement) 2.

c.

If you make alliance with either of the belligerents your fears are at least reduced to one for all you have to worry about is the possible victory of the other party.

According to Butterfield, Guicciardini is archaic in handling their problem because of the following: What was Machiavellis concern? The tragedy of foreign invasion. He insisted on the importance of following the example of classical antiquity. 1. 2. They are so constricted in regard to time and in regard to place They are thinking of an ad hoc decision at the outbreak of a war without reference to diplomatic action in its continuity and its long-term aspects. They fail to consider the overall international scene, the general disposition of forces in the world. They were fixated in the domestic scene.

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What was this classical antiquity? States should follow a military strategy. States should have the basic military requirements to ward off invaders.

[Question is missing, still trying to figure it out, sorry guys.] 1. And, though it is important to note that they were not sincere in their friendship with one another, their system did achieve the object they had in view. National jealousy and awareness

What are Machiavellis arguments?

1. 2.
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What ought a state to do when its neighbours are at war, and one or other of these neighbours is going to increase its strength as a result of the warremaining or not remaining neutral What he is really sure about, really insistent about, is that both parties will hate or despise the neighbours who has merely remained neutral A prince ought never to make common cause with one or more powerful than himself with the object of injuring another unless necessity forces him to it ( necessity such as threatening the balance)

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What was lacking? We miss the notion of a general field of forces, the idea of what we call a state-system God has set up a contrary to keep it humble.

Francis Bacon > keeping due sentinel What concepts did Guicciardini pointed out? 1. Neutrality What did Guicciardini said about neutrality? Example: Florence had shown the greatest diligence in watching every turn of events however small.

When was the earliest manifestation of BOP? 1. 2. 1640s > Despatches of Mazarin The war of the Spanish Succession was a remarkable example of the way in which the policies of European states came to be affected by the doctrine of Balance

Why? Because it reminded people of dark Wars of Religion How? Had no regard for Protestants; a century of Religious anything goes. Why did it made us remember? Because of the notion of universality

What did the theorists say about the BOP of the 18th century? Fnelon, Duke of Burgundy, provided arguments for the BOP: 1. If once Power was allowed to rise to a position of predominance, you would not be able to count on its good behaviour, however, moderately it had neither to behaved you can expect it to remain moderate for more than a single reign. In other words, Power is predominant and we should not trust other states. What is in a state that we should fear for? Power 2. A nation which at one time has been helping to check an aggressor will in the very course of those proceedings move imperceptibly into a career of conquest. In other words, it demands more and more securities against the old aggressor, and, suddenly, when you turn around, you see that it has been moving towards universal dominion itself. He regarded that BOP should be regarded as an overruling law 2. What did Butterfield said about the BOP? 1. The BOP not only became a diplomatic objective but was exalted into being the very highest of such objectives You were supposed now to aim at the preservation of the international order, the maintenance of the BOP. It operated because it involved a more enlightened view of your own interestsit was a case of limiting your short-term objects for the sake of your long-term advantage

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They realized, what the 20th century forgot sometimes, that there are only 2 alternatives: [1] either a distribution of power to produce equilibrium or [2] surrender to a single universal empire like that of ancient Rome. They found it necessary to vindicate the idea of Europe divided into separate states of only moderate size achieving greater richness through the variety of its local manifestation

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What were the natures of BOP in the 18th century? 1. The BOP was a systemthe only systemwhich in a world so much at the mercy of force made it possible for a considerable number of smaller states to remain in existence at all. Granted such European order, it was not at all necessarynor was it possiblethat the various states should be equal in power. The rectification of the balance might normally be brought about by the reshuffling of alliances Tended to the preservation of the status quo, putting brake on territorial changes Operated to preserve freedom rather than peace (choice between universal empire and the distribution of power) If a state is becoming too powerful, it is legitimate to set out to weaken it even before it has made any aggressor move;

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Why is the 1650s a starting point of the BOP emerged as something formal? Because of the Treaty of Westphalia which brought about the operationalising factors of BOP and the nation states.

There was a school of writers in Hanover who tended to regard Great Britain as the standing supporter and guardian of the BOP.

The BOP of the 18th Century? It was a prevalent historical force.

The French had a different point of view, and they argued that England was an offensive intrudershe really belonged outside the alliance system. Europe but showed no respect for the principle of the rest of the world. They also complained about any government who allied with Russia: and they affected to think of Russia as rather an Asiatic power that ought to be excluded by general assent.

What are the problems of the BOP? 1. Using it in rigidity a. To acquire power rather than redistribution

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It wasnt either advance in social sciences French produced more original inventions such as the Jacquard loom and better ships The Germans possessed institutions of technical training The French revolution created that unique and impressive body , the Ecol Polytchnique English education was a joke in poor taste. Oxford and Cambridge are the only universities. They were intellectually null. They had no system of primary education. Then who attempted? The Dissenters. Technical innovations of the Industrial Revolution practically made themselves

i. We went on fighting the old aggressor for too long and thereby made it more for a new aggressor to emerge ii. iii. 2. The English loved the Prussians too much Speaking as if it was the constitution of Europe

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Regarded as a precept or law rather than an injunction

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION by Eric Hobsbawm

But the right conditions were viewed present in Britain. What are the conditions for the IR to flourish? 1. For practical purposes the uniquely revolutionary British solution of the agrarian problem had already been found

Industrial revolution a period of economic expansion

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What was this solution? Commercial minded landlords. How could they be the solution? They can imposed rules and lessen conflicts. And, he would appropriate products.

Why was the British point of analysis a capricious one?

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It was not noticeable. It is only in the 1830s that literature and the arts began to be overtly haunted by the rise of the capitalist society. It was only in 1840s that the people were writing about it. It was not only in the 1840s the proletariat began to emerge even before they used the word It is a process. Process takes time

Agriculture was already prepared to carry out its three fundamental functions in an era of industrialisation: (Agriculture system was organized to provide for other dimensions of the state) a. To increase production and productivity, so as to feed a rapidly rising nonagricultural population b. To provide a large and rising surplus of potential recruits for towns and industries c. To provide a mechanism for the accumulation of capital to be used in more modern sectors of the economy.

What 2 factors led to the revolution of industries? 1. 2. Social revolutions Industrial/economic

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A considerable volume of social overhead capital (tax) was already being created, notably in shipping, port facilities, and the improvement of roads and waterways. Politics were already geared to profit. Means to say, the government were emerging up to programs that are business related. Special historical context

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5. What are the proofs that British advance was not due to scientific or technological superiority? 1. France was more advance in natural sciences

What are the problems encountered by the pioneers? 1. British technique could be imitated.

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British skill and capital could be imported.

Why was the cotton industry the first industry to be revolutionized? 1. These employed for fewer people Their power to transform was much smaller It dominated the movements of the economy

What were British advantages? 1. They possessed an economy strong enough and a state aggressive enough to capture the markets of its competitors. They possessed an industry admirably suited to pioneering industrial revolution under capitalist conditions. They had and economic conjuncture: a. b. The cotton industry Colonial expansion

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What are the problems of the CI? 1. Decline in the British international income Serious consequences were social: misery and discontent (proofs: it made the revolution of 1848)

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What are the nature of CI and CE? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. By product of overseas trade Substitute (Fustian) Slavery and cotton production Sub-continent (no government and coloured skin) Latin American came to depend virtually entirely on British imports (Europe as well became dependent on British imports) Why were the great financiers unpopular? They felt antagonised because they are playing the same game. They envy them (They is referring to small businessmen and former who were aware of the financier) What are the types of people affected? Small and inadaptable businessmen, petty bourgeoisie, special sections of the economy

What were the several consequences of CI? 1. New inventions such as the spinning jenny, the water frame, the mule in spinning and a power loom in weaving. Because of the demand they needed better machines Industries created advantages

What was the fundamental motive force? Profit.

What are the three most obvious flaws? 1. 2. Trade cycle of boom and slump Tendency of the rate of profit to decline The shortage of profitable investment opportunities

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What are the advantages? 1. 2. Supply can be expanded by drastic procedures Domestic or putting-out system was much efficient; easy to use and cheap. Workers work at their homes and rented tools if they dont have one.

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What was the overall mood in the in the half of the 19th century? (System of the CI) 1. Overspeculation

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Overanalyse Misperceived

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Iron Steel Coal Rubber

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The industry benefitted from immense advantages? Narrowing margin of profit > getting smaller at the same time pressure

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*These were essential raw materials for mass production

What problems did the IR brought about? 1. IR and competition brought about constant and dramatic fall in the price of the finished article but not in several of the costs of production (Prices go down but Wages do not) After 1815, the general atmosphere of prices was one of deflation and not inflation that is to say profits. So far from enjoying extra boost, suffered from a slight lag.

What are the constraints of the iron and steel production? 1. 2. How to situate a vast/massive market within the responsibility of businessmen Those who lock up their money in the very heavy investments required even by quite modest iron works, before it is visibly there, are more likely to be speculators, adventurers and dreamers than sound businessmen.

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Metallurgy > the demand was great in military What are the solutions? 1. 2. Cut cost Substitution for cheaper machine tenders for those dearer skilled workers Whats the negative effect? >quality of the product is sacrificed 3. Competition of the machine and workers 3. What did Hobsbawm said about the coal manufacturers? 1. It wasnt large enough to make Britain into an outstandingly large to make Britain into and outstandingly producers of iron. Coal had the advantage of being not just a major source of industrial power but also a major form of fuel. It was not as massive as CI but it had provided for the innovation for railway. >They required efficient means of transporting the great quantities of coal from coal face to shaft especially from pithead to the point of shipment. What is direct wage cutting? Lay off/recession The first two phases of the IR: Corn Laws > were characterised by heavy protective tariffs What did the Landlords do? Raise taxes; heavy protective tariffs 2. What is the next phase of Industrial development in construction of basic capital goods? 1. Existence of the comfortable and rich classes who accumulated income so fast and in such vast quantities as to exceed all available possibilities of spending investment The middle classes were savers rather than spenders. They were virtually untaxed. So they needed a sponge large enough to absorb their massive money. >>foreign investment.

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Why did the English investors lent readily? Because during this time, it was Britain who was industrialising henceforth, there was more money to invest.

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Strategies such as pay labour little >factories usually employed women because they are tractable Sub-contract

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What are the 2 other factors led to the analysis of why there was industrialisation? 1. The first and perhaps most crucial factor had to be mobilized and redeployed was labour. Labour> sharp decline in agriculture population a. b. Lands they work probably be industrialised

Other advantages of industrialisation? 1. 2. 3. No shortage of investible capital Technique of trade and finance Commitment of government policy to business

In industry, less tiring

How did labour emerge as a factor? 1. 2. 3. Liquidation of medieval communal cultivation with its open field and common pasture Self-sufficient peasant farming Old fashioned uncommercial attitude towards land. (subsistence farming) What did Rothenberg say about the notion of wars? 1. 2. 3. They cannot explain causation of conflict They are used near arbitrary They do not have solid plans (shallow) THE ORIGINS, CAUSES AND EXTENSION OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON by Gunther Rothenberg

Labour came from where? Non-industrial sector. What drove them to industrial to non-industrial? Because of hardship >economic and social 2. There was a disasterthe Irish hunger phenomenon

What are the two constraints? 1. 2. 3. 4. Right qualification of skills They had to work in a manner suited to industry They avoided nepotism Responsive to monetary incentive

Why does causation seen through competition for power appear to be possible or workable concept? 1. It embraces wide range of causation not only encompassing the traditional view that war drives primarily from the primacy of external affairs but also applying more recent emphasis on the role of economic interests, domestic pressure groups and ideology. The competition view is comprehensive (domestic and internal)

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The period of 1700s to 1790s is called the limited wars .What is a limited war? It maybe exclusive to 2 adversaries and limited means such as limited weapons. What according to Hobsbawm, the solution to these constraints? 1. 2. Master-and-servant code (Draconian cruel, old, harsh) 5 features of a limited war: Imposition of fines

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Limited means for limited objective (objective was to secure a favourable negotiating position)

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Fighting was done by standing armies National antagonism was absent or muted (oppositions by the public) The enlightened monarchs, loosely conforming to an expected utility principle decided on war and peace calculating their interest Enlightenment had not been peaceful (There were more than 16 wars that occurred) How was the international situation in 1789? War was unthinkable because: 1. French foreign policy was looking toward peace and not war. The other great continental powers, Austria, Prussia, and Russia all were preoccupied with internal affairs and mutually suspicious of each other over plans further to divide Poland. Britain, the traditional rival, was resolved on a policy of peace

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2. Why were wars limited? Wars were limited because of the caution of princes combined with the relatively undeveloped potential for intense mass warfare including a restricted agricultural, financial industrial and manpower base.

When did the full-blown revolution come about? 1790-1799

What led to the abandoning of limited wars? 1. Enormously increased population The enlarged man power base coincided with the early industrial revolution which had greatly increased output iron and entered the first stages of mass production, capable of supplying albeit with some difficulties, arms and equipments for much expanded military establishments Financial means were provided by an expansion of overseas trade in France and Britain and by improved means of administration and location elsewhere French reformers had divided field armies into self-contained divisions able to operate independently, and these formations became standard in the revolutionary armies. Movements was aided by new-all-weather roads connecting major centres of western and central Europe and by improvements in cartography Coordinating large autonomous formations required more sophisticated staff work The non-objective ideological base for mass-based popular warfare appeared.

>The most serious difference existed between France and Britain. They had been locked in to a Second Hundred Years War since 1688. Its last round ended in1783.

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What are the two sources or long term causes of the war? 1. The revolution had begun to clash with the established European interests and was being perceived as a threat to the international order Relations between France and the European courts further deteriorated during the winter of 1791/92

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What are the 6 sources for the outbreaks of war? 1. The French National Assembly had abrogated the rights of certain German princes in the Alsace, arguing that all contracts between princes were void. In 11 January 1792, the crown council decided that Austria should insist on the restoration of the princely privileges in Alsace, the disbanding of the 3 French Armies being concentrated along the eastern frontier and the restoration of royal rights 2. 3. The FNA augment their strength The declaration of Pillintz had alarmed the assembly and was presented in the press as a direct threat. It provided ammunition for the war party in the new Legislative assembly. In the declaration of Pillintz, the two monarchs (Leopold II and Frederick William II) stated that restoration of the

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Jacques de Guibert claimed that standing armies made the people unwilling to fight and that, because such forces are costly and hard to replace, monarchs hesitated to risk them in battle as to engage in prolonged wars. Ultimately, of course, a national citizen army came into existence when France introduced universal conscription on 1792-93 Although the components for a major war and a new style of warfare were in place in 1798, the international situation did not make an outbreak of war inevitable.

monarchy in France was in the common interest of all European power.

1. Peace remained impossible because the convention continued expansionist policies abroad. 2. Directory had no program for making peace

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Louis Xvi sent an ultimatum to Leopold II, demanding formal assurance that he intended to keep the peace and would renounce all agreements aimed against France. If no satisfactory response was received by March 1, a state of war deemed to exist. (27e Fevrier)

3. The directory feared renewed social unrest if the troops returned to France How long did the Napoleonic wars last? 15 years > from 1799 to 1814

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Matters of Misperception. Both sides underestimated their adversaries and were overconfident. Example: In Austria and Prussia, senior soldiers believed that recent experience showed that revolutionary armies had low combat values. For their part, the French assumed that they were military superior. Revolutionary armies would fight better than the hirelings of the despots. The Girondins thought that Austria would stand alone and that Britain attempted to enlist Prussian support against Austria clearly then, for all ideological rhetoric of both sides, the ideological factor was not foremost in causing war. 6. On March 1, 1972, Leopold II died and was succeeded by his more combative brother Francis II.

What did Rothenberg said about the causations of the Napoleonic Wars?

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The protection or extension of political power was the most significant systemic factor, a factor that encompasses both the pressure generated by external and long-standing rivalries among major states, as well as considerations of maintaining domestic control 2. The conjunction of objective factors such as the rise in population and the increase in agricultural and industrial production 3. Expansionist surge of the revolution Treaties impose were unreasonable

Constitutional Royalists >the Feuillants were the largest factionthey were divided allowing the Girondin minority (middle class republicans) aiming to destroy the monarchy to dominate.

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In Paris, however, in March 1792, Louis XVI, partly to avoid pressures and to repair his reputation, which had been damaged by accusations that he was treacherously in contact with Austria, appointed the Hawkish (realist) Girondin ministryheaded by Charles Franois Dumouriez, an opportunistic soldier who had gained rapid promotion since 1789 by associating himself at the right time with dominating faction.

The real causes of the continuing conflict, the Napoleonic wars, were to be found in his policies. His ultimate aim was: 1. To establish the kingdom of Poland as a barrier against the Muscovite barbarians 2. 3. Divide Austria Establish client states in Italy Declare Hungary independent Break up Prussia Form independent republics in England, Ireland, control Egypt Drive the Turks out of Europe And liberate the Balkan nations

On February 1, France declared war against the First Coalition (Britain, the United Province and Spain)

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It was power rather than ideology (the main issue of war)

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Why was peace unattainable?

Other factors: 1. Ideological difference creates antagonisms but they do not necessary lead to war. 2. Nationalism was used to mobilize support for war.

According to Clark, the authors are surely correct in perceiving the essence of the concert to lie in the mode of Great Power management of the international system.

Taking the 19th and 20th century international relations as a whole it is evident that the tradition of conference or parliamentary diplomacy is a growing one. The informal COE gave way to the League of Nations and that in its turn gave place to the much stronger UN.

3. There are no evidence showing that states entering war are expecting to loss 4. The will of an individual led these to wars The significance of the Concert derives from two interrelated ideas: 1. The formal assertion of the unique privileges and responsibilities of the Great powers in the maintenance of the international order FROM BALANCE TO CONCERT, 1815-1854 by Ian Clark 2. It was made necessary by the first one that if the special managerial role of the Great Powers was to be recognised, it would be necessary to order more formally the relationships between the powers themselves. What this was a formalisation of hierarchy as an explicit element within the international order

The two views: 1. According to the former, and optimistic view, the diplomatic modes developed by statesmen can influence the degree of peace and stability in the international system 2. According to the latter, and the pessimistic view, diplomatic innovations like the concert are most possible when least necessary because the international environment is any case benign and least sustainable when most needed.

Two facets of the Concert system: 1. Elrod has observed that the concert of diplomacy actively cultivated the conception of the great powers as a unique and special peer group. 2. Medlicott comments that Gladstone did not seem to distinguish between the concert as a means of preserving the peace of Europe by preventing war between the great power themselves.

Two main perplexing themes in modern international history: 1. The development of international organisation, the construction of an institutional framework within which independent sovereign states might interact: its focus is upon diplomatic machinery. (Utopian impulse) 2. The other is assertion of a special managerial role for the Great powers in the shaping of international order. Its focus is upon diplomatic norms. (Realist impulse) It is evident in the historical parallels in terms of which commentators explain the concert, it being depicted as the historical precursor of the League of Nations and of the United Nations. The authors of this work argue at one point that the Munich Conference of September 1938 can be describe as the last great meeting of the Old COE

What did Clark said about Claude? 1. What he fails to stress is that although the development of modern international organisations has coincided with the notion of Great Power tutelage, there was no necessary nexus between them and the history of the former should not be equated with the history of the latter 2. The evolution of the Great Power norms of behaviour has been a discrete development 3. We can imagine Great Power adherence to these norms outside an organisational setting just as we can imagine international organisations that would not embody these norms

What was the nature of the equilibrium? Why did people commit that fallacy of the COE? 1. At first sight, the COE seems to derive its historical lineage from what was one of the most salient examples of the BOP doctrine in practice. The wars had seen a succession of alliances and coalitions in which the European powers combined to thwart the pretensions of revolutionary and Napoleonic France 2. Moreover, the principle of the balance that had guided the European powers in their efforts to check French preponderance was visibly carried into the territorial settlement itself. (example: Treaties >Aixla-chapelle) It was a coalition rather than alliances. Proofs: 1. As Gulick has expressed it, this coalition equilibrium or Concert became the institutional adjustment of the European state system to the new multiple balance and the inadequacy of the older system of alliance balance 2. Schroeders idea that there was a further modification of balance doctrine after 1815 in practice, if not in intention

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Many analysts have drawn attention to the principle, hallowed in the BOP doctrine that the deviant states should be restored to their former standing in international society. Since France had challenged Europe and attempted to establish predominance, measures were taken to prevent a recurrence of this development. At least two of the powers were to play critical roles in the preservation of the BOP created by the settlement: 1. Britain whom a European balance was an essential precondition of her commercial and imperial expansion

Hinsley said that the BOP is not the efficient way.

>In consequence, the essence of the COE was to add an extra embellishment onto the operation of the balance system

How did the congress work? >This is the very essence of Kissingers notion of a legitimate international order which every great power would have an interest in seeking to sustain it. >legitimised by a Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle

Two main principles if the concert of Europe: 2. The other power was the Habsburg Empire which served as a bulwark against France and Russia, but also against the new revisionist force of Prussian nationalism

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That the Great Powers had a common responsibility for maintaining the territorial status quo of the treaties of 1815 and for solving the international problems that arose in Europe 2. That when the status quo had to be modified or a problem had been settled, changes should be made without their formal and common consent. COEs peculiar characteristic>formal and common consent

Is there a sufficient reason to believe that the BOP resembled the COE? Yes. It was more than the BOP. Why? >The emergence of the European concert is closely related to, but not identical with, two developments within the BOP theory itself. 1. The first of these relates to the process by means of which balance is achieved 2. The second pertains to type of equilibrium that is sought

Here there were divisions from the very beginning, divisions that were to become increasingly conspicuous the more the powers tried to use the congress mechanism in practice. All the powers shared a feeling that it was duty of the major states of Europe to ensure that international order prevailed on the continent. Unfortunately, they did not share a common conception of what constituted international order

PROOF: For Britain, separated by water from continental Europe and with major interests lying outside Europe itself, the main preoccupation in the post war years was in preserving the territorial settlement of 1815 and the territorial balance of power that this settlement had set out to achieve. Mettrenichs was concerned with the domestic upheavals. He was concerned with dynastic rights. He was opposed to revolutions, to constitutionalism, on two main grounds: 1. Because they represented a threat to international order

2. Agreements and compromises are achieved regarding the international legal status of the maritime passage of the Bosphorus.

It will then be argued that as a diplomatic instrument having a significant effect on European, international relations, the concert lasted until the mid 1850s

What were several occurrences that would justify it died in 1850s? (The Crimean War) 1. 2. Territorial settlement of Vienna was drastically revised This was done unilaterally and by war It was not sanctioned by an international conference or congress.

2. Because they represented an immediate threat to the Habsburg Empire itself

Two broad reasons why diplomacy by congress or by conference achieved the success that it did at this period: 1. There was no major and urgent issue to be resolved between any two of the major powers 2. That the Great powers were cautious in the post-1815 period, and refrained from pressing their mutual differences to the point of conflict, can be partially explained by the internal condition of the major powers, and of Austrians in particular.

3.

How do we know that there are territorial adjustments? Unifications of Italy and Germany

The accounts of the Crimean war fall into two distinct categories: 1. Those that see the war as a product of Concerts performance (Hinsley)

What does that mean that the COE did a premature death in 1822? >Because of the Congress of Verona

2.

Those that see it as evidence of the Concerts breakdown (Elrod)

But according to Clark, this would be a misreading of the situation. Though the congress as an international diplomatic instrument disappeared from the scene for over 30 years, [1] the powers did not abandon the practice of legitimising changes to the international order through the mechanism of international procedures which usually took form in international conferences and [2] there were still motives of modifying the BOP.

PROOF: 1. Separation of Belgium was achieved with common consent