Foundations of Individual Behavior Individual Behavior: Individual behavior is reflected in terms of productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover

in the organization. A foundation of behavior consists of the following three factors.

1). 2). 3). Biographical characteristics Ability Learning

Biographical characteristics are readily available to managers. Generally, they include data that are contained in an employees personnel file. The most important conclusions are that age seems to have no relationship to productivity; older workers and those with longer tenure are less likely to resign; and married employees have fewer absences, less turnover, and report higher job satisfaction than do unmarried employees. But what value can this information have for managers? The obvious answer is that it can help in making choices among job applicants.

Biographical characteristics. By biographical characteristics we mean personal characteristics, Such as age, gender, and (Tenure) length of service etc. Because of the difference in biographical characteristics of the employee i.e. age, gender and length of service (tenure), the individuals have difference in their behavior. Age How age affects the productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover of the employees. Age and productivity There is a widespread belief that job performance declines with the increase in age, regardless of the fact that whether it is true or not, a lot of people believe it. Older employees bring a number of qualities to work i.e. experience, commitment, judgment, strong work ethics etc. Researches conclude that organizations with older staff show better performance results as compared with the organizations having younger staff. Age and turnover Older employees are less likely to quit their job as compared with young people, because their longer tenure provides them with number of opportunities i.e. higher wage rates, longer paid vacations, and more attractive pension benefits. So we can say that turnover rate is lower in older employees and is higher in young employees. Younger employees when find more opportunities for their career growth they try to avail them.

Age and absenteeism There are two types of absences in organizations. 1. Avoidable absences 2. Unavoidable absences. The younger people have higher rate of avoidable absences but older employees have higher rate of unavoidable absences. The reason is that older people can become ill in crucial times of organizations because of poor health and longer recovery periods. Age and job satisfaction Job satisfaction increases as the employees get older in an organization. Gender How gender affects the productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover of an employee. Gender and productivity There are no consistent differences in problem solving skill, analytical skill, motivation, or learning skill between male and female employees. Both male and female are equal in productivity. Gender and turnover. Female workers have higher quit rate than men. The reason is that they have more home responsibilities. Gender and absenteeism The absence rate is higher in women in those cultures where the home and child care is primarily women womens responsibility. Otherwise s they have similar absence rate as compared with men. Gender and job satisfaction Females seem to be more satisfied with their jobs. The reason is that they have naturally got the quality of showing conformity with the rules and regulations of the organization. Tenure How the tenure of employee does affects the productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover of an employee. Tenure and productivity There is a positive relationship between length of service and productivity. The reason is the increased experience of the employee. Tenure and absenteeism.

Researches show that tenure and absenteeism are negatively related. Older employees have higher absence rate than younger employees. Tenure and job satisfaction The older employees have better understanding of job attitude, rules regulations and performance level of the organization. They have a favorable tendency towards job satisfaction. Tenure and turnover. The longer a person is in a job, the less likely he or she is to quit. Any way the employees previous behavior is the best predictor of his future behavior.
Ability directly influences an employees level of performance and satisfaction through the ability-job fit. Given managements desire to get a compatible fit, what can be done? First, an effective selection process will improve the fit. A job analysis will provide information about jobs currently being done and the abilities that individuals need to perform the jobs adequately. Applicants can then be tested, interviewed, and evaluated on the degree to which they possess the necessary abilities. Second, promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals already in the organizations employ should reflect the abilities of candidates. With new employees, care should be taken to assess critical abilities that incumbents will need in the job and to match those requirements with the organizations human resources. Third, the fit can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match an incumbents abilities. Often modifications can be made in the job that while not having a significant impact on the jobs basic activities, better adapts it to the specific talents of a given employee. Examples would be to change some of the equipment used or to reorganize tasks within a group of employees. A final alternative is to provide training for employees. This is applicable to both new workers and present job incumbents. Training can keep the abilities of incumbents current or provide new skills as times and conditions change.

Abilities An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. We all are not equal in abilities, but it does not mean that we are inferior or superiors to others inherently. We have strengths and weaknesses in terms of abilities that make us relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities. Types of Abilities There are two types of abilities. 1. Mental (intellectual) abilities 2. Physical abilities Mental or Intellectual abilities: are those needed to perform mental activities i.e. thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Types of intellectual abilities.

(i). Number aptitude. The ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. For example accountants (ii). Verbal comprehension. The ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other. For example any manager following the policies of organization. (iii). Perceptual speed The ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately. For example investigator identifying clues to support a charge. (iv). Inductive reasoning. The abilities to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem. For example market researcher forecasting demand for a product in the next time period. (v). Spatial visualization The ability to imagine that how an object would look like if its position in space were changed. For example interior decorator decorating an office. (vi). Memory. The ability to retain and recall past experiences. For example sales person remembering the names of the customers. 2. Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, manual labor, strength, and similar activities. There are Nine Physical Abilities which are categorized into three parts. Strength Factors. 1. Dynamic strength, 2. Trunk strength, 3. Static strength, 4. Explosive strength. Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility, 6. Dynamic flexibility Other Factors 7. Body Coordination, 8. Balance, 9. StaminaStrength Strength Factors. 1. Dynamic strength: Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly over time. 2. Trunk strength: Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (abdominal muscles) 3. Static strength: Ability to exert force against external objects. 4. Explosive strength: Ability to expand a maximum of energy in one or a series of acts.

Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility: Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible. 6. Dynamic flexibility: Ability to make rapid, repeatedly flexing movements. Other Factors 7. Body coordination: Ability to coordinate the actions of different parts of the body. 8. Balance: Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance. 9. Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort in the works requiring prolonged efforts overtime. The Ability-Job Fit It is the responsibility of the management to first understand what types of abilities their job demands, for which they are hiring an individual as well as the employees abilities and to decide whether the candidate is fit for the announced job or not. Make different demands on people and people differ in abilities. Employee performance is enhanced when there is high ability-job fit. E.g. airline pilots require strong visualization, executives needs verbal abilities. Learning: Any observable change in behavior is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place. What we want to do, of course, is ascertain if learning concepts provide us with any insights that would allow us to explain and predict behavior. Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying behavior. By identifying and rewarding performance-enhancing behaviors, management increases the likelihood that they will be repeated. Our knowledge about learning further suggests that reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment. Although punishment eliminates undesired behavior more quickly than negative reinforcement does, punished behavior tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed. Punishment may produce unpleasant side effects such as lower morale and higher absenteeism or turnover. In addition, the recipients of punishment tend to become resentful of the punisher. Managers, therefore, are advised to use reinforcement rather than punishment. Finally, managers should expect that employees will look to them as models. Managers who are constantly late to work, or take two hours for lunch, or help themselves to company office supplies for personal use should expect employees to read the message they are sending and model their behavior accordingly Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Involves change Is relatively permanent Is acquired through experience

Learning occurs all the time. We can say that learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, and responds as a result of experience in manner different from the way he formally behaved. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning (training) in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Grew out of experiments to teach dogs. When dog was given food by ringing a bell,after repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to come for food when the bell rang. Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by reinforcement or lack of reinforcement. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner Skinners research on operants conditioning expanded our knowledge. Beliefs of Operant Conditioning are: Behavior is learned. People are likely to engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so. E.g. your class participation marks. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. Social Learning. Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. Learning by observing is an extension of operant conditioning; it also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning. E.g. much of what we have learned comes from watching models, parents, teachers, peers and TV etc. Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. Some Key Concepts of social learning theory are as under. Attention processes Retention processes Motor reproduction processes. Reinforcement processes

Attention processes People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influence by the models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us or similar to us. Retention processes A models influence will depend upon how longer we remember the models actions. Motor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. Reinforcement processes Individuals will be motivated to show the modeled behavior if incentives or rewards are provided.