AbstractThe main aim of the present paper is the study of the

DC/DC chopper interface for fuel Cell (FC) source to overcome the
drawback of current ripple. This goal can be achieved by the
reduction or elimination of the low harmonics frequency from the
output voltage, to fulfill this requirement the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) is used, where the SHE-PWM method is used
with a new presented objective function which has to be minimized.
Finding the global minimum of this function leads to the elimination
of the selected harmonics, whereas, keeping the average value of the
output voltage equals to the desired value or the reference value.

Keywords DC/Dc Chopper, Fuel cells, Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO).

I. INTRODUCTION
HE significant dependence of social, industrial and all other
kind of human activities on electrical power is growing
faster over the years. Therefore, The global demand for
electrical energy is becoming of great interests for the
consumer, the producer and mainly for the researchers. Fossil
fuel has been used to generate electricity for more than a
century. Whereas, the last conventional fossil energy supplies,
such as oil, coal and natural gas, are rapidly depleting ozone,
and they are considered as a major environmental pollution
sources due to the emission of NOx, CO2 and SO2 [1-3].
Much effort has been put into research on new energy sources
as an alternative to fossil fuels [4-5].
The trends towards new sources of sustainable power
generation devoid or with lesser emissions, among these
sources are the renewable energy recourses which can be
produced in a significant amount. Indeed it is recently already
in full swing, where, the implications of the sources in the
power electrical system infrastructure and services utilities
have not been fully explored yet. Actually with the appearance
of the new intelligent electrical infrastructure known as smart
grids, researches are focusing on harnessing several forms of
renewable energy sources, which are found distributed in
nature, these sources can be used simultaneously or separately
to be stored or transported. Fuel cell technology is one of the
future promising forms of the renewable energy sources. The
climatic and energy challenges were now clearly stated.

A. Kouzou .A (IEEE Member) and Khaldi B.S are with the Electrical
Department; Djelfa University, Algeria.
Phone: +213 7 72 46 28 81; e-mail: kouzouabdellah@ ieee.org.
Hatti. M is with C.R.N.B, Djelfa Algeria.
The use of hydrogen is one of the best ways which gives many
hopes. Fuel cells are an essential link in the chain of the use of
hydrogen. Thus, a lot of studies have been undertaken
throughout the world on fuel cells in many fields of physics.
Indeed, there are several different types of fuel cells which are
depending on the type of electrolyte materials used. Each fuel
cell type has its own characteristics [6-10]. The main aim of
the present paper is the study of the connection of a fuel cell
stack to a specific load via a DC/DC converter, where the
control strategy is the SHE-PWM using a new method based
on particle swarm optimization.

II. FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
Fuel cells, like batteries, convert the chemical energy in a fuel
directly to electricity via an electrochemical process. This
process is an electrochemical reaction between reactants such
as oxygen and hydrogen, although other fuels besides
hydrogen can be used [11]. The reaction produces water and
heat as byproducts. Some benefits of fuel cells are that they
are much more efficient than the internal combustion engine;
they produce more usable energy, and they do not produce
pollution. On the other side, fuel cells are not charged; instead
they are simply fed fuel and air, just like a combustion engine.
They potentially combine the best features of engine-driven
generators and batteries. Like a generator, they can operate for
as long as fuel is available. And, like batteries, they produce
electricity directly from this fuel via a very simple and
efficient electrochemical process. Since a single fuel cell is not
enough to power most devices, fuel cell manufacturers stack
them together in a series, this is why they are called fuel cell
stacks. It is important to note that with increased number of fuel
cells in the stack, higher output voltage is obtained. With
increased area of the electrodes, increased current is obtained.

III. FUEL CELL OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The thermodynamic potential E produced in the
hydrogen/Oxygen FC is defined via the Nernest equation
given by [8],[12-14]:
( )
* *
2 2
, ,
O H
P P T f E =
( ) E T E + =

15 . 298 10 85 . 0 229 . 1
3

Where:
Fuel Cell Current Ripple Minimization Using
PWM DC/DC Chopper Based on Particle
Swarm Optimization
Kouzou A, Hatti .M, Kaldi B.S
T


( ) ( )
(

+ =
* * 5
2 2
ln
2
1
ln 10 . 31 . 4
O H
P P T E
T is the cell temperature (K),
*
2
H
P and
*
2
O
P are the effective
partial pressure of Hydrogen and oxygen in atmospheres.

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
Temprature K
E
r
n
e
s
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

V
5.5 atm
0.5 atm
1 atm

Fig. 1 The Ernest Voltage of the FC for different pressures versus
Temperatures variation.


20
40
60
80
100
120
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
T
em
p
era
tu
re K

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
o
f
H
2
a
n
d
O
2
a
t
m
E
r
n
e
s
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

V


Fig. 2 The Ernest Voltage of the FC versus Temperatures and
pressures variation.

The losses due to the activation of the fuel cell developed
from the semi-empirical analysis are depending basically on
five parameters:
( ) A I C C T f V
FC O H act
, , , ,
2 2
=
it is presented as:

( ) ( ) | |
FC O act
I T C T T V ln ln
4 3 2 1
2
+ + + =
Where [12]:

948 . 0
1
= ,
5
3
10 6 . 7

= ,
4
4
10 93 . 1

=
( ) ( )
2
ln 10 3 . 4 ln 0002 . 0 00286 . 0
5
2 H
C A + + =



The concentration of dissolved oxygen at the gas/liquid
interface can be defined by Henrys law expression; they are
presented as follow [7]:

|
.
|

\
|

=
T
H
H
e
P
C
498
6
*
10 08 . 5
2
2
,

|
.
|

\
|

=
T
O
O
e
P
C
498
6
*
10 08 . 5
2
2


The losses due to internal resistance of the fuel cell are
developed from semi-empirical analysis and depending
basically on six parameters:

( )
2 _ 2
, , , , ,
SO O H FC c ohm
A I R l T f V =
And they are presented as:


FC c ohm
I R l
A
A
V
(

+ =
2
1

Where:
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
5 .. 2 2
1
303
062 . 0 03 . 0 1 6 . 181
A
I T
A
I
A
FC FC


|
.
|

\
|

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
T
FC
SO O H
e
A
I
A A
303
18 . 4
2 _ 2 2
3 634 . 0

FC
I is the FC current, A is the membrane effective area. The
aforementioned constants values are depending on the physics
properties and operating process conditions.


0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Curent Density A/cm2
O
h
m
i
c

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

L
o
s
s
e
s
20 K
120
K

Fig. 3 The FC Ohmic voltage loses versus current density

The output voltage delivered to the load is then:

( )
2 _ 2
* *
, , , , , , , ,
2 2 2 2
SO O H FC c O H O H FC
A I R l P P C C T f V =
It is given by:


ohm act FC
V V E V =

is the hydration rate, a value of 7 is corresponding to a
quiet dry membrane, 14 for a well hydrated membrane,
22 for flooded membrane.
Figure 4 presents the variation of the FC output voltage versus the
current density for different temperature values; it is clear that
after the value of 2 A/m2 the voltage drops goes faster. In this
paper it is supposed that the voltage variation is kept within
reduced variation, this can be achieved by using the control of
different parameters on which the output voltage is depended.
While the aim of the presented DC/DC chopper interface is to
reduce the current ripple by reducing the harmonics content.
Figure 5 presents the output FC power versus the current density.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Current Density A/cm2
O
u
t
p
u
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e


V
120
20

Fig. 4. The FC output voltage versus current density

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Current Density A/cm2
O
u
t
p
u
t

P
o
w
e
r

W
120
20

Fig. 5. The FC output power versus current desnity

IV. DC/DC CONVERTER AS A VOLTAGE INTERFACE FOR FUEL
CELL
The fuel cell currently knows a new important interest at the
industrial level than on research one. Industrialists of various
sectors (electronics, cellular phones, vehicle, power
generation, heating ...etc) invest in the development of this
promising technology. However, because of the variation of
the output voltage versus the power or current absorbed Fig.4,
a static converter have to be used to step-up; the voltage to a
DC bus with fixed voltage. Moreover in order minimize the
constraints of the fuel cell stack, a small current ripple have to
be guaranteed. This current undulation is generates generally
under 1% of the nominal current [4-6].
Several factors make the DC/DC converter design
challenging. First, the cost and efficiency requirements are
mutually exclusive. Secondly, the low voltage and therefore
high current input creates another challenge. The high input
current requires the use of large, high-current semiconductors.
These large semiconductors are costly and can force the
converter beyond the cost requirement. The high current also
leads to high conduction loss and switching loss in the
semiconductors and therefore reduces the efficiency. Finally,
the large boost factor requirement presents a unique challenge
to the DC/DC converter design. In industrial application,
nowadays, the PWM DC/DC Choppers are commonly used as
DC voltage transformation circuit to overcome the major
disadvantages presented by different DC voltage controllers
and to improve the output voltage delivered to the load. On
the other hand, the DC/DC Chopper topologies, provide direct
DC/DC Fig .1.. It is clear that the increase of the output
voltage of these converters above the supplying input voltage
is possible without the use of an electromagnetic transformer.
The main advantages and functions which can be achieved by
these converters are:
The conversion of a DC input voltage VS into a DC
output voltage
Decreasing the AC voltage ripple on the DC output
voltage below the required level;
Protecting the supplied system and the input source
from electromagnetic interference (EMI); and
Ensuring the satisfaction of various international and
national safety standards.












Fig .6. Principal of the DC/DC choppers

I. PWM DC/DC CHOPPER OUTPUT VOLTAGE CONTROL
The output voltage of the proposed PWM DC/DC chopper
presents a set of k rectangular slots during one period T as
it is presented in Fig .6. It is obvious that the period can be
divided to 12 unequal sub-periods
i
T , each sub-period has its
duty cycle
i
D .The firing angles for conduction are:

DC source
Rectifier, Battery,
Fuel cell, PV..etc
DC
Voltage
Regulated
DC
Voltage
L
o
a
d

DC/DC
Chopper PWM
Control
moy ref V V e =
ref
V moy ref V V e =
E
Source



k k k
, , , ,......... ,
2 4 3 1

And the firing angles for extinction are:

1 3 4 2
, , ,......... ,
k k







Fig .7. The form of the output voltage with 24 = k .

The output voltage as it is shown in Fig.6. It is presented by
rectangular slots, the widths of these slots depends primarily
on the distribution of firing angle of the used semiconductor
switch. The number of angles is assumed to be even and equal
to the number k . The output voltage can be presented by the
Fourier series as follow:
( ) ( ) ( )

=
+ + =
n
h
h h s
h B h A A V
1
0
sin cos (1)
smoy
V A =
0

h : the number of the harmonic order, n : the number of the
whole contained harmonics, theoretically = n , where:
( ) ( ) ( )

=
2
1
1 2 2
sin sin
2
k
i
i i h
h h
T h
E
A (4)
( ) ( ) ( )

=
2
1
1 2 2
cos cos
2
k
i
i i h
h h
T h
E
B (5)
T is the period of chopping.

| | k i
i
L L 1 2 0 = (6)
Subject to the constraints:

c c
B A (7)
Where:

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
L
L
L
M M M L M M M
L
L
L
c
A

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
2
0
0
0
0
0
M
c
B

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

k
k
k

1
2
1
1
1
M


On the other hand the average value of the output voltage is:
( )

=

=
2 /
1
1 2 2
k
i
i i moy
T
E
V (9)
The effective output voltage of the sinusoidal components is:
( )

=
+ =
1
2 2
h
h h heff
B A V (10)
And the effective output voltage is:
( )

=
+ + =
1
2 2 2
h
h h moy seff
B A V V (11)
The aim of the present work is to find out the optimized vector
of the firing angles, for which the low harmonics components
are limited to low level or eliminated, on the other side the
obtained average value is equal or closer the reference or
desired output voltage. To fulfil these requirements an
objective function which has to be minimized is defined as:
( )
2 2
1 2 1
, ,....... ,
heff k k
V e F + =

(12)
Where:

moy ref
V V e = (13)
It can be written as:
( ) ( )
2
2
2
1
1 2 2 1
,...,
sheff
n
i
i i ref n
V
T
E
V F + =

=


| |

=
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
h
h h sheff
T T
h T
E
V
1
2
2
2
1
2 2
1 2
(14)
Where:
( ) ( ) ( )

=

=
2
1
2
1 2 2
2
1
sin sin
k
i
i i h
h h T
( ) ( ) ( )

=

=
2
1
2
1 2 2
2
2
cos cos
k
i
i i h
h h T (15)
Finally this function can be presented as:
( ) ( ) ( )
k b k a k
f f F ,..., ,.., ,...,
1 1 1
+ = (16)
Where:
( ) ( )
2
2 /
1
1 2 2 1
..,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=

k
i
i i ref k a
T
E
V f (17)
( )

= (
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
n
h
bh k b
f
h T
E
f
1
2 2
1
1 2
2 ,.., (18)
And: ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

=

2 /
1
1 2 2
cos
2
k
i
i i bh
h h
k n
f (19)

II. THE PSO ALGORITHM
In this paper an efficient optimization method is used, known
as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)[8-20]. The global
optimization is investigated, i.e. finding the global minimum.
But finding the global minimum was a great problem for this
method and others. In a PSO, a search space is defined,
through which a swarm of individuals presenting active
particles fly toward a defined goal. All particles are
considered to be an eventual solution that can achieve the
optimization of the objective function. The position of a
particle is influenced by the best position visited by itself (i.e.

13

14

23

24

One Chopping period

s
V
saverg
V


its own experience) and the position of the best particle in its
neighbourhood (i.e. the experience of neighbouring particles).
When the neighbourhood of a particle is the entire swarm, the
best position in the neighbourhood is referred to as the global
best particle, and the resulting algorithm is referred to as a
gbest PSO. The performance of each particle (i.e. how close
the particle is from the global optimum) is measured using a
fitness function that varies depending on the optimization
problem.
Each particle in the swarm is represented by the following
characteristics:
i
x : The current position of the particle;
i
v : The current velocity of the particle;
i
y : The personal best position of the particle.
y : The neighborhood best position of the particle.
The personal best position of particle i is the best position
(i.e. the one resulting in the best fitness value) visited by
particle i so far. Let F denote the objective function. Then
the personal best of a particle at time step t is updated as:

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ +
+
= +
t y F t x F if t x
t y F t x F if t y
t y
i i i
i i i
i
p 1 1
1
1 (20)
For the gbest model, the best particle is determined from the
entire swarm by selecting the best personal best position. If
the position of the global best particle is denoted by the
vector y , then:
{ }
s s
y y y y y y , ,.... , ,
1 2 1 0
= (21)
Where:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { } t y F t y F y ..., min
0
=
Where: s denotes the size of the swarm.
The velocity update step is specified for each dimension j :
{ }
d
N j ,...... 1
hence,
j i
v
,
represents the
th
j element of the velocity vector of
the
th
i particle. Thus the velocity of particle i is updated
using the following equation:

( )
2 2 1 1 , ,
+ + = C C t v v
j i j i
(22)
Where: ( ) ( ) ( ) t x t y r
j i j i j , , , 1 1
= (23)
( ) ( ) ( ) t x t y r
j i
j
n
j , , 2 2
= (24)
is the inertia weight,
1
C and
2
C are the acceleration
constants, and
j
r
, 1
,
j
r
, 2
are random coefficients distributed
as: | | 1 , 0
, 2 , 1

j j
r and r (25)
The position of particle i ,
i
x is then updated using the
following equation:
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 + + = + t v t x t x
i i i
(26)
This process is repeated until a specified number of iterations
is exceeded, or velocity updates are close to zero. The quality
of particles is measured using a fitness function which reflects
the optimality of a particular solution.
III. RESULTS
In this paper the applied parameters used with the PSO have
the following values:
9 . 0
max
= , 4 . 0
min
= , 49 . 1
2 1
= = C C
The input DC voltage is taken 50 V, the control coefficient of
the output voltage is taken 7 . 0 = r and the number of
variables is depending on the requested harmonics to be
eliminated. The first objective function is presented in Fig .8,
where the swarm size is 200 over 500 iterations and the
number of variable is varying between 10 and 50. The second
objective function is presented in Fig .11. for the same given
swarm sizes and over 1000 iterations, the number of variables
is varying between 60 and 100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Iterations
O
b
j
e
c
t
i
v
e

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
10
20
33
40
50
Number of variables

Fig .8. Objective function variation versus iterations for
different variables number with swarm size of 100.

To achieve the elimination of the selected harmonics, the
following condition has to be taken into consideration:
|
.
|

\
|
1
2
k
h (27)
h is the number selected harmonics to be eliminated. It is
clear that in Fig.9 the harmonics eliminated is equal to 24,
where 50 = k . In the same way, Fig.12 presents the case
where 100 = k , the harmonics eliminated are equal to 49. It is
clear that the results are very acceptable.
Fig .9. The harmonics after elimination with 50 variables

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Harmonics
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

V


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1
2
3
4
5
0
5
10
15
20
I
ter
a
tio
n
s
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
s

x
1
0
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e














Fig .10. The harmonics after elimination with 100 variables.


Fig .11 . The harmonics after elimination for different
variables number.



Fig .12 . the harmonics after elimination for different
variables number.




Fig .13 . Objective function variation versus iterations for
different variables number with swarm size of 200.


The objective function with PSO goes quickly to the global
minimum. But it is important to clarify that the good choice of
the initial population can make the PSO to converge faster to
the global minimum, for this reason some works used the
normal cloud method to find the best initial populations. In
this paper for the presented case, the choice of the initial
population is made by a simple instruction:
( ) rand j
k
t x
j i
+

= 1
2
) (
0 ,

(23)
In Fig .10 and Fig.11 the harmonics included in the output
voltage are presented for the harmonics order less than 100. it
is clear that with an increased number of variables the
elimination of harmonics is better. The important harmonics
are the lower (<33), where a low pass filter can be used to
damp the high harmonics easily and with low cost. The results
obtained proves that the used PWM can improve drastically
the quality of the output voltage of a DC/DC choppers, it is a
promising solution as there is a great development of the high
frequency power electronics switches. On the other side the
use of the PSO allows a good elimination of lower frequency
harmonics included in the output voltage with a reduced
calculation time and very easy software implementation.


IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper the use of the PSO algorithm for the
improvement of the output voltage of the DC/DC Chopper
was tested for different swarm sizes (100 and 200) with a
number of iterations (500 and 1000). The objective function
as it is presented in this paper was implemented, with varying
number of variables. To show the flexibility of this algorithm,
the objective functions is tested for the elimination of (1st to
24th) and (1st to 49th), the results demonstrate that this
algorithm can be used for the needed number of harmonics
components to be eliminated, whereas the low frequency
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Harmonics
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

V
0
20
40
60
80
100
60
70
80
90
100
0
5
10
15
20
H
a
rm
o
n
ic
s
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
V
a
r
ia
b
l
e
s
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e


V
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Iterations
O
b
j
e
c
t
i
v
e

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
60
70
80
90
100
Number of variables


harmonics are the important to be eliminated, on the other side
the high frequency components can be cancelled with an
adequate filter in the output side. Results are presented in the
variable: gbest which represents the global best vector
solutions for
i
that gives the global best minimum fgbest
for the presented objective function. Fig 10 and Fig .13 show
the evolution of the objective function used for the elimination
of different harmonics with different number of variables.
This approach gives good results for finding the global
minimum however the degree of the objective function, the
PSO presents a very flexible way for the design of the DC/DC
choppers controller to be implemented in real time utilization.

REFERENCES
[1] Burak Ozpineci, ,Leon M. Tolbert1, Gui-Jia Su1, Zhong Du . Optimum
Fuel Cell Utilization with Multilevel DC-DC Converter. Annual
Meeting, IEEE 2004 pp: 51- 59.
[2] C.A. Forbes, J.F. Pierre , The solid fuel cell future, IEEE Spectrum,
30(10), Oct. 1993, pp. 40 44
[3] D.J. Hall, R.G. Colclaser, Transient modeling and simulation of a
tubular solid oxide fuel cell IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
14(3) , Sept. 1999, pp. 749 753
[4] Kyle Sternberg, Hongwei Gao, "A New DC/DC Converter for Solid
Oxide Fuel Cell Powered Residential Systems", IEEE 2008.
[5] M. Harfman-Todorovic, L. Palma, M. Chellappan, P. Enjeti; "Design
Considerations for Fuel Cell Powered UPS", IEEE 2008
[6] B. Huang*, I. Sadli, J.-P. Martin, B. Davat, " Design of a High Power,
High Step-Up Non-isolated DC-DC Converter for Fuel Cell
applications", IEEE 2006.
[7] J. Larminie, A. Dicks, "Fuel Cell Systems Explained", second ed.,
JohnWiley& Sons, 2003.
[8] Mehdi Soltani, and S. M. T. Bathaee, " A New Dynamic Model
Considering Effects of Temperature, Pressure and Internal Resistance for
PEM Fuel Cell Power Modules", DRPT2008 6-9 April 2008 Nanjing
China
[9] M. Uzunoglu, M. S. Alam, "Dynamic Modeling, Design, and
Simulation of a Combined PEM Fuel Cell and Ultracapacitor System for
Stand-Alone Residential Applications" IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion,
VOL.21, NO. 3, pp. 767-775 Sep. 2006
[10] M.Hatti, M.Tioursi and W. Nouibat, " Neural Network Approach for
Semi-Empirical Modelling ofPEM Fuel-Cell", IEEE ISIE 2006, July 9-
12, 2006, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
[11] R. F. Mann, J. C. Amphlett, M. A. Hooper, H. M. Jensen, B. A. Peppley
et P. R. Roberge, Development and application of a generalized
steady-state electrochemical model for a pem fuel cell , Journal of
Power Sources, vol. 86, pp. 173180, 2000.
[12] Guillaume Fontes, " Modelisation et caracterisation de la pile PEM
pour letude des interactions avec les convertisseurs statiques" Doctorat
thesis, ENSEEIHT, Toulouse . 2005.
[13] T. E. Springer, T. A. Zawodinski et S. Gottesfeld, Polymer electrolyte
fuel cell model , Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 138, no 8,
pp. 23342342, 1991.
[14] Kennedy.J and Eberhart .R,Particale Swarm Optimization,
Proceedings., IEEE International Conference on. 1995 Vol: 4 ,Pages:
1942-1948 vol.4.
[15] Eberhart.R,A New Optimizer Using Particle Swarm Theory, MHS
'95., Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Micro
Machine and Human Science, 1995. Pages: 39-43.
[16] Kennedy J. The particle swarm: social adaptation of knowledge, IEEE
International Conference on Evolutionary Computation, 1997. Pages:
303-308.
[17] Shi Y.; Eberhart R., A modified particle swarm optimizer, IEEEWorld
Congress on Computational Intelligence., 1998. Pages: 69-73.
[18] Shi Y.; Eberhart R.C., Empirical study of particle swarm optimization,
CEC 99. Proceedings of the Evolutionary Computation, 1999.
[19] Eberhart, R.C.; Shi, Y. Comparing inertia weights and constriction
factors in particle swarm optimization , Proceedings of the 2000
Congress on Evolutionary Computation, Pages: 84-88 vol.1.
[20] Xiaohui Hu; Eberhart R. Multiobjective optimization using dynamic
neighborhood particle swarm optimization, CEC '02. Proceedings of the
2002 Congress on Evolutionary Computation, 2002. Pages: 1677-1681.
vol.2.
[21] Eberhart R.C.; Yuhui Shi, Tracking and optimizing dynamic systems
with particle swarms, Proceedings of the 2001 Congress on
Evolutionary Computation, Pages: 94-100 vol. 1.
[22] Kennedy and Eberhart 2001. Swarm Intelligence, San Francisco:
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
[23] Mahamed G. H. OmranParticle Swarm Optimization Methods for
Pattern Recognition and Image Processing, PhD thesis, University of
Pretoria, 2004.
[24] Abebe Geletu, Solving Optimization Problems using the Matlab
Optimization Toolbox - a Tutorial, December 13, 2007.
[25] Xiaolan Wu,; Bo Cheng,; Jianbo Cao,; Binggang Cao, Particle swarm
optimization with normal cloud mutation, 7th World Congress on
Intelligent Control and Automation , 2008 Pages: 2828-2832.
[26] Jianping Wen; Xiaolan Wu; Kuo Jiang; Binggang Cao, Particle swarm
algorithm based on normal cloud, IEEE Congress on Evolutionary
Computation (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence)
2008 Pages: 1492-1496.