EUFIRELAB EVR1-CT-2002-40028 D-10-02 http://www.eufirelab.

org

EUFIRELAB:
Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory, a wall-less Laboratory for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies in the Euro-Mediterranean Region

Deliverable D-10-02

Towards Methods for Managing the Wildland-Urban Interface (intermediate report)

David CABALLERO, Frdrique GIROUD, Claude PICARD, Gavriil XANTHOPOULOS July 2005

The views expressed are purely those of the writers and may not, in any circumstances, be regarded as stating an official position of the European Commission

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CONTENT LIST 1 2 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5 6 7 7.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................1 Terms and definitions .........................................................................................................................................3 Scales of the problem.........................................................................................................................................4 Global scale...................................................................................................................................................4 Regional scale ...............................................................................................................................................4 Local scale.....................................................................................................................................................5 Key actors in W-UI management .......................................................................................................................6 Territory Management ...................................................................................................................................6 Forest administration.....................................................................................................................................6 Forest ecosystems protection .......................................................................................................................6 Planning of the defence of ecosystems against fires ....................................................................................7 Risk of forest fire characterization .................................................................................................................7 Civil protection planning ................................................................................................................................7 Forest fire event, EMERGENCY development .............................................................................................7 Management requirements.................................................................................................................................8 Management at landscape level.........................................................................................................................9 WUI landscape components ..............................................................................................................................9 Single components characterization .............................................................................................................9 7.1.1 Houses .....................................................................................................................................................9 7.1.2 Roads .......................................................................................................................................................9 7.1.3 Fuels.........................................................................................................................................................9 7.1.4 Topography ..............................................................................................................................................9 Development of analysis methods for WUI environment characterization.......................................................10 Spatial analysis in WUI areas......................................................................................................................10 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................10 Examples.....................................................................................................................................................11

8 8.1 8.2 8.3 9 9.1 9.2

Management at house level .............................................................................................................................14 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................14 Results.........................................................................................................................................................14 9.2.1 General approach...................................................................................................................................14 9.2.2 The Direct Flame (Convection) Zone...................................................................................................15 9.2.3 The radiation zone ...............................................................................................................................15 9.2.4 The Firebrands Zone ...........................................................................................................................16 9.3 Application to house vulnerability assessment............................................................................................17 9.3.1 Vulnerability of structures to convection and radiation of flames...........................................................17 References .......................................................................................................................................................18

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EUFIRELAB 1 INTRODUCTION Most of the attention of natural resources protection management goes to the preservation of natural life, ensuring a sustainable and beneficial use for the society. Recently, there exists a growing demand for wildland as places where to live or to spend pleasant vacation periods. This phenomenon is more evident in the nearby of large urban agglomerations and cities. It is expected growing rates of occupation for the next years in wildland. This situation leads to consider a new scenario of natural resources planning and management, that is where urban areas mixes with wildland grounds. This specific situation is commonly known as Wildland-Urban Interface (W-UI). It is defined as the line, area, or zone where structures and other human developments meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels (United States Department of the Interior, 1995). Wildland fire experts believe that the threat of massive fire damage to human lives, private property, and natural resources is increasing (Fischer and Arno, 1988) and the reasons for this are: - 1. Human activity patterns have changed the landscapes over the past three decades. - 2. Natural resources are too valuable to let fires burn uncontrolled. - 3. Wildland fire fighting budgets are shrinking. - 4. More people are escaping the cities into the wildland. - 5. Wildland fire fighters are untrained and/or illequipped to fight structure fires. - 6. Climatic conditions such as drought are like a match to volatile fuels (Chuvieco et.al, 1994). W-UI areas present typical problems of cities management together with those found in wildland management. Besides, a specific set of problems arises as synergy and interaction between the two land uses. One of the most prominent problems found in W-UI areas is the occurrence of wildfires. People inhabiting urban areas and residences amid the forests are barely aware about the destruction potential of forest fires, until they have been stroked by previous experiences (Cortner et al., 1990). Forest fires is something that citizens are not used to, but something that they are exposed to when populating W-UI areas. Foreign people (immigrants and tourists) usually do not care about wildland-urban forest fire risk (Goldammer, 1992; Thomas 1994) It has been found that wildland-urban fire contingency is frequently associated to large fires and, in most of cases, to crown fires development (Alexander, 1988), as recent regrettable examples show (USA-Oakland Hill, 1991; Greece-Mt. Penteli, Athens 1995, 1998; Spain-Tarragona province 1994; South East France, 1995). In the other side, the presence of agglomerations of people, that frequently are tourists, do represent a potential risk itself in the probability of fire occurrence. Thus, urban areas are, frequently, sources of new wildland fires (Alczar 1998). Houses and structures are generally poorly protected against wildfires intensities and behaviour, as forest fires strike structures from the outside. The production of flying embers is particularly dangerous as they fall in roofs and ignite accumulated dead biomass. Post-fire effects, such as erosion, landslides and rainfall runoff, actually threaten structures. In some cases surface flow is multiplied several times because hydrophobic reaction of burned grounds. This entails great risk to structures placed downstream. Smoke is also a serious side effect in cities and towns near wildland where recurrent fires occur (Eftichidis, 1990). Power lines are also affected and can collapse power distribution. Sometimes, power lines are origin of new fires and they difficult aerial traffic of fighting forces. Protecting structures against fire in wildland is not an easy task, fire fighters must apply techniques to control forest fires, in such conditions all homes and structures can't be actively protected from fire. In case of active fire fighting, difficult decisions must be taken in the case that human lives, properties and wildland areas are at risk simultaneously (Goldammer 1992). Fire fighting techniques in structures are different from wildfire fighting. Specific dangerous situations are found in both cases (blow-out in forest fires and flash-over in buildings). This demands specific training, techniques and tools (Thomas, 1994). In W-UI areas, water supply is not always available in quantity as required for fighting purposes, as it happens in cities. Besides, access to structures in W-UI areas is difficult. Fighting forces spend too much time in accessing houses located in mid-slope in wildland (mountainous) areas. Frequently people has a one-way escape route

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EUFIRELAB Forest fires in W-UI areas affect a variety of key actors, either as people suffering consequences or personnel implied in the prevention and fighting of wildfires. It has been identified the following key actors: Protection Agencies, homeowners, land owners, government and banks and insurance companies. All of them have a role in the planning and management of W-UI areas under fire threat. It is well known that techniques aimed at controlling forest fuels in or around urban areas are not regularly applied in time, place and quantity as required to protect structures from wild fire intensity that such fuels generate. Hence, the responsibility of fuel control practices and other passive defence techniques must be shared and co-ordinated between land managers and house owners. Within commuting distance of metropolitan areas, development point to erect relative expensive residences on medium-to large lots. House builders tend to leave as much native vegetation as possible to maintain and promote the rural effect that buyers seek. Also, building materials are commonly non fireresistant and access roads are narrow and forming dangerous cul-de-sac. Implication of developers and homeowners is critical, which is why population in W-UI places must be aware of actual forest fire risks and of its consequences in their areas. Wildland-urban fire protection must be planned at regional scale, but obviously it has to be implemented locally. Currently number of information systems are apply to, either, urban planning and forest and wildlands planning and management. This includes techniques of data capture using remote sensors, data geo-referencing, analysis and report. There exist a number of models to predict land uses changes, vegetation growth, forest fire progression and, also, detection and estimation of urban areas expansion. In light of the above, defence planning against forest fires in W-UI areas is a multi-faceted challenge which requires a co-ordinated effort in identifying, measuring, analysing and solving the different problems presented. Planning convergence of urban expansion and wildland management must rely on a common understanding of risks and to share the same data, operate co-ordinated planning procedures and accomplish common objectives. Besides, citizens must be aware of risks by easily accessing critical information throughout global networks. A methodology and a system offering a common platform to understand analyse W-UI areas and helping to take complex decisions about W-UI fire defence planning is clearly needed.

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EUFIRELAB 2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS In order to characterize the vulnerability of WUI areas, the term has to be defined first. A general definition used extensively in the field of disaster management is: Vulnerability is the degree of loss resulting from the occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon. The probability of occurrence of such a phenomenon is defined as hazard in this domain; it should be noted that hazard has a quite different, more specific, meaning in the field of forest fires (CINAR 1999). The Risk of disaster in WUI areas is conceptually no different than the risk of damage from other phenomena and can be determined as follows: Risk = Threat (or Hazard) x Vulnerability x Asset value WUI area planning, where risk mitigation is the main objective, is a classic case of risk management: Risk Management is the process of identifying, assessing, and reducing a risk(s) to an acceptable level (also called residual risk) and implementing the needed mechanisms to maintain that level of risk. (e.g. acceptable risk). This risk reduction may be done by defining and controlling threats and vulnerabilities, and even by affecting the value of assets. Hence, in WUI areas it is necessary to evaluate the threat posed by fire, the level of vulnerability and the asset values, through a careful spatial analysis, before producing suggestions or guidelines for measures that will bring risk down to acceptable levels The focus is set first on developing tools that will facilitate assessment of the vulnerability of individual homes and other structures in WUI areas. These tools will allow reclassification of structures in the study areas. Furthermore, they will provide one of the components needed to evaluate overall risk. It is quite obvious, that the approach of vulnerability estimation has to be quite general and macroscopic, as the classification of structures has to be done easily and effectively leading to an overall settlement vulnerability assessment. Further work, where hazards will also be evaluated, may produce more detailed evaluation procedures that will be useful for individual structure evaluation and vulnerability reduction measures determination.

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EUFIRELAB 3 SCALES OF THE PROBLEM In order to face the study of Wildland-Urban Interface and Rural Areas (W-UI/RA) in a systematic and complete way, it is required to consider several scales of work. For each one a different level of detail is required although the resulting information has to be coherent between consecutive scales. 3.1 GLOBAL SCALE Rural housing presents two basic patterns of distribution of houses: - one is little towns in which hoses are grouped but physically separated and - the other corresponds to isolated houses within or in the vicinity of the area in which the activity takes place (forestry, livestock, agriculture). In the other hand, modern houses serving as second or even first residence to urban-oriented citizens or foreign people, are built with better materials, most of them unburnable, and following ergonomic and safer designs. Houses are normally located in plots in which complementary recreational buildings are found. Together houses are normally surrounded by gardens in which large areas of green grass and ornamental shrubs and trees are found. In some cases plots are equipped with hydrant networks and other elements for forest fire fighting. As these two basic housing classes, namely rural and urban, present different conditions regarding the W-UI problem, it is required first to identify which are the basic patterns in every NUT3 unit of urban areas mixing with rural areas in Europe. 3.2 REGIONAL SCALE

The first analysis scale is Europe itself for which NUTS3 division is the analysis unit. The objective of work at this scale is to highlight where is expected to have W-UI episodes by layering the following basic information: - Territorial development - Rural areas - Historical fires - Forested areas and wildland Territorial development has to be characterised taking into account the type, growth rate and also the spatial relationship with rural settlements. Two basic classes of housing development are considered: - one is related to new buildings erected as second or even first residence for population in the vicinity of large urban areas - other is related to existing houses within or in the vicinity of rural areas. Population inhabiting the developed areas follow different occupation patterns according to the presented housing classes. Temporal, frequently seasonal, occupation is typical for citizens in the nearby of large urban areas. In many cases, permanent occupation is taking place in the housing areas along or in the nearby of main communication axis, such as highways radiating from large urban areas. In these cases citizens have the opportunity to travel to their work places in a short time (less than 30 minutes) from their residence in the wildland or forested areas. In the other hand, rural areas frequently present permanent houses occupation. Rural houses are normally old houses, build with rustic materials such as wood, stone, clay stone and more rarely iron. They are frequently occupied by old people, which have strong affective links with the building, the surroundings and the local area. These buildings are surrounded by yards in which vegetables are grown and rarely it is found complementary recreational elements, such as swimming pools, and gardening.

This scale is aiming at the identification of W-UI at province level (NUT3) taking into account a similar list of variables, with a net nearest area of 100 km2 and a resolution of 1 km2 . In the present project, six provinces have been selected as representative of W-UI for different patterns of rural-urban distribution, as mentioned above. The relevant information to carry out the study is: Knowledge of the following data about historical fires that have occurred in the province: recurrence of fires, initial causes, risk areas. Urban areas: the knowledge, localization and distribution of structures that give information about the potential risk of fire and the vulnerability of residences. Population and occupation: due to the fact that the majority of housing in the urban forest interface is used a second residences, it is necessary to know the occupation of these residence in each season; this will determine the measures of prevention, extinction and evacuation, as well as the risk or fire. Access ways of population: the localization of all the access ways to the urbanizations (highways, forestry paths, railways, etc,.) in addiction to being a possible focus of fire, favours or limits the attack measures against fires and evacuation of people. Land usage structure: the typology of land usage is fundamental in the potential evaluation of fire risk.

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EUFIRELAB Meteorology ( time/ spatial): the knowledge of the meteorological conditions will be determinate in making decisions about the prevention, propagation and extinction of fires, as well as, in the analysis of the potential risk of fire. Topography and soils (erosion): the information obtained from the digital land model is decisive in the analysis of the urban-forest interface problem; from this it will be possible to derive the slopes, orientations and other condition in fire propagation. 5.- Land use structure: Typology of land use, with surface and perimeter in each typology, differentiation between: - Urban and non urban areas - Non forest - Agricultural - Reservoir - Extractive Activities - Forest - Grass/ shrub - Shrub /wooded - Conifer / hardwood - Localization between different protect areas, in addition its typology (ZEPA, Natural park, National park, etc,.) - Localization of interesting places (Historical structures, ruins, etc,.) - Knowledge of fuel models, which contains surface and perimeter in each type. 6.-Meteorology (time/spatial) Localization of meteorological stations that are used. Station data, monthly: temperature, humidity, orientation, velocity and direction wind on a municipality level. 7.- Topography and soils (erosion) Knowledge of digital land model with a maximum distance between level curves of 20 meters. Typology of different soils. 3.3 LOCAL SCALE

The requirements for the regional analysis to the grid of 1km*1km will be the following: 1.- Historical fires The analysis of historical fires would be carried out with the next field, since 1986 to 2001: - Date and hour fire - Province of fire - Municipality where fire started - Fire cause - The beginning of fire besides to (highway, railway, etc,.) - Burned surface: forest surface, no forest surface. - Localization to origin point of fire, for these fires more extension than 100 ha. - Localization to municipality centres, for these fires less extension than 100 ha. 2.- Urban areas: Province that urban area belongs to Municipality that urban area belongs to Differentiation between urban area or non urban area, if the area is urban, would be differentiated between cluster (urban) or intermix 3.- Occupation and population: Province Municipality Knowledge of variability of population ( in percentage ), during the year in the municipality. Knowledge of residences number, differentiating between first and second residences. 4.- Access ways of population: Differentiation between typology way. Localization of access asphalted ways on province level. Localization of fighting resources. Localization of available water points.

The local scale is studying what is the problem of forest fires hitting a particular housing area, whether it is a cluster of houses forming a town, urbanization or a group of separated houses; with a net nearest area of 10 km2 and a resolution of 100 m2. Particular attention is paid to the study of the types of fires that potentially can develop and hit the first rank of houses. At this level will be defined the Second Data Inventory. This inventory identifies and creates a data catalogue or situations key of Wild Urban Interface on the Study Area. For design the catalogue database we should identify: Analyse the components. Frequent and significant situations Support Information Relative position of the Houses depending of the components.

The main objective in this level is to create a WUI/RA catalogue, and it is necessary first to identify components, which are significant in W-UI and their spatial relations.

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EUFIRELAB 4 KEY ACTORS IN W-UI MANAGEMENT

FOREST FIRE DEFENCE PLANNING LAND MANAGEMENT IMPACT FOREST MGMT. ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION FIRE RISK ASSESMENT EFFECT CIVIL PROTECTION PLANNING CONSEQUENCY

TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT

FOREST FIRE EMERGENCY

Time axis

Figure 4-1: Key actors in W-UI management In this chapter it is sought to identify the function that carries out each one of the key actors identified in the previous chapter. For doing this, it has been fixed a temporary axis in which it has been marked the fire event (emergency), and starting from this landmark in the time there have been defined other performances that take place before and after the same one. This group of actions and their temporary distribution gives rise to the identified elements as key actors maintain relationships among them that it is necessary to identify to know the reality of forest fires occurrence in the study area. As we can observe in the previous outline, theres a group of actions related with the forest fires occurrence which are distributed in THREE BIG TEMPORARY BLOCKS: - BEFORE the forest fire happens - Moment in which the forest fire is developed: EMERGENCY - LATER to the occurrence of the forest fire Inside each block theres a group of functions, in which identified key actors intervenes; likewise the relationships among the same ones are conditioned by the actions that have been analysed, and that are expressed as follows. 4.1 TERRITORY MANAGEMENT 4.2 FOREST ADMINISTRATION

Its only carried out from General Direction of Natural Environment, which has been called in different ways along the history and has gone assuming different competences. The forest administration sometimes enters in conflict of interest with the local authority, in topics related with the use of the floor. One of the most habitual conflicts in the areas of wildland urban interface is the recalification of forest floor to urbanizing floor inside the plans of urban ordination, because the city council receives great quantity of money for the sale of this floor. It is important to point out that in the Community of Madrid the effective legislation doesn't allow the use change from forest land to urbanizing land after the fire occurrence; therefore, we should part of the premise that this will be a fire cause, as erroneously has been considered in many occasions. 4.3 FOREST ECOSYSTEMS PROTECTION

The protection of spaces of great ecological, botanical and faunistic value is carried out by means of the creation of protected spaces, in which, among other things, some of the uses of the floor are restricted. These restrictions, in occasions, create conflicts among forest administration and farmers, cattlemen, hunters and even people that use forest ecosystem as a leisure area.

Its carried out by the state administration, and it will establish the uses of the territory in a general way. From regional and local administration there can be modified the uses of the territory by means of specific normative (spaces protection, floor recalification, forest/agricultural conversion). This possibility of changes of uses of the territory sometimes generates conflicts y/u opportunities among it interests that will condition the occurrence of the forest fires. D-10-02.doc

EUFIRELAB 4.4 PLANNING OF THE DEFENCE OF ECOSYSTEMS AGAINST FIRES 4.6 CIVIL PROTECTION PLANNING

Here the protection of all forest ecosystems is included, without exception, so that, in region of Madrid there are also included the urban areas located inside forest land. It is picked up both prevention planning (fuels, infrastructures, civic sensitisation, Wildland Urban Interface area) and Detection and Extinction planning. In the planning against fires in the Community of Madrid participate both the General Direction of Natural Environment and the General Direction of Civic Protection (Firemen), each entity in the competences that concern them. In certain occasions may have existed conflicts among both entities, and its no longer clear where the competences of one finish and the ones of the other begin (always as regards forest fires). 4.5 RISK OF FOREST FIRE CHARACTERIZATION

In this group there are included the collection of protection protocols that start by the entities of civic protection starting from the analysis of danger and risk of fires indexes. This planning has three levels, as defence against forest fires planning: Long term planning By means of it, the defence demand is analysed and the device is sized. Medium term planning It is the weekly planning; by means of it, the resources are distributed in function of meteorological prediction. Short term planning Its carried out daily, with meteorological real data and due-to-human cause risk data. It allows carrying out the characterization of the prospective risk situations, and the most important thing, the setting in march of the specific protocols of performance for each one of them. One of the problems that are presented in the urbanizations with more frequency is that, due to presence of second housings in many occasions, it is difficult to quantify housings occupation in wildland urban interface areas, because the population changes seasonally. 4.7 FOREST FIRE EVENT, EMERGENCY DEVELOPMENT

It is one of the points in which more interrelates the elements that have been identified as key actors. The forest administration is the entity that possesses the necessary technical knowledge for the elaboration of indexes that provide the levels of danger and risk of forest fire, in the areas of wildland urban interface. In the elaboration of these indexes, are analysed the different variables that intervene in the occurrence, consolidation and propagation forest fires. Some of these variables are obtained by observation or experimentation, like meteorology, wind, fuels moisture content, etc. There are other variables, which are values that don't change, like topography, fuels, historical pressure of fires, territory value, etc. There is other third group of variables which change daily, and which are the causation of fires. In this third group it is in the one that the socio-economic components intervene in great measure, since, in the province of Madrid 95% of the fires that take place are for due-to-human causes. It is necessary to know the use of the territory, on real time, to characterize the causation; in other words: agricultural or cattle works that are being carried out in forest area, people's affluence to leisure areas and natural spaces, quantification of vehicles traffic in communication roads. In this work, its necessary the collaboration of the different actors that intervene in the forest fires scenery, so that the results to be obtained with risk indexes represent in more grade the reality, and this way to be able to be used in defence resources planning and in the information to the citizens.

At this time several actors intervene, and each one of them develops a role, which sometimes are complementary, and, however, other times conflicts are created among the different actors. It is very habitual that in the moment of the fire occurrence, when this fire threatens urban areas near forestland, confusion may be created in certain aspects: As at the moment it doesnt still exist a methodology implemented for the characterization of the risk the WUI areas are subjected to, it is tended to the complete evacuation of these areas without knowing exactly when necessary or not, so that other more effective attack works (which would assure the protection of these areas) are exposed. It is also very difficult to plan rescue works, motivated mainly for: The lack of urban planning when housings were built provokes that the access net and escape roads don't allow the evacuation of people in a sure way in a short period of time. When it is carrying out the evacuation and/or rescue, it happens with certain frequency that there are people that are not willing to abandon their housings, what supposes a danger for the correct development of other extinction operations (means that cannot act, operations that cannot be carried out if they put in danger to people, etc.) 7

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EUFIRELAB 5 MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS It is necessary to justify the budgets that politicians take charge of assigning to the work of forest fires: it is necessary to give them solutions, tools, applications that justify the need of those departures. As well, it is necessary a scientific and technical justification that is used as support in political decisions, in the event of catastrophes like forest fires. It is necessary to begin to consider the wildlandurban area, not only a point of danger but also a point of help to the firemen for the extinction. The protection of this interface area consumes many means: since it is not possible to dedicate means to each house of each urbanization inside interface area, it is worthwhile the gradual installation of slight means of defence. An idea is that firemen vehicles provides with water to slight motor-pumps of owners and use them together with them. It is necessary to imply the population in the integral fight against fires; if not, we won't be able to protect the mount against a fire and we will limit ourselves to protect the houses. Up to now, each partner has established a study area: it is necessary a wide database for each area, but it is fundamental a common methodology. This methodology should assist the following topics. Situation before fire Vegetation: state before fire. Historical meteorology. Characteristic of constructions before fire and, mainly of gardens, because they can be both cause and receiver of fire. Population description: to know age pyramids and if they are aware of the risk they run living where they live. Precise description of fire Propagation models. Report of actions and decisions taken by firemen, problems that arose, particular cases, accessibility and multitude of data that allow us to make an exhaustive documentation of the fire to evaluate the work of firemen, to learn from errors and to dedicate or not more means in the future. To pick up any fact though it seems rare: for example, in the marries of to fire inside wildlandurban area, many swimming-pools could be used as points of water for helicopters, but many of them are inaccessible due to the vegetation, or because of the presence of awnings or parasols, etc. After fire To take notes of what has burned, both in the mount and in the houses. To model the fire behaviour according to materialsfuels. To pick up, in definitive, data of the catastrophe.

Considering these problems, it is imposed the necessity of the correct administration of these areas. This labour should be supported with old and modern tools that are, with the most current investigation but without forgetting the experience acquired in fires. It must be a multi-discipline work, and not trying to invent something new, but using what its already known and making it operative as soon as possible. As for the implication of the population, it is considered necessary to elaborate informative documents of the type what to make in the event of fire" for each proprietor, and simple panels of evacuation and information since there will be new inhabitants that are not aware of the danger that bears to live in these places.

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EUFIRELAB 6 MANAGEMENT AT LANDSCAPE LEVEL The management strategies at landscape level (local level) is strongly based in the definition of methodologies to study and characterise specific components of wildland-urban areas, including elements of bio-geophysical environment, socioeconomic medium, land-uses, administrative division and fuels. The characterization of these typical elements and their mapping will provide useful supports for the elaboration of strategic management planning of wildland-urban interface environments. A key issue to realize a proper fire risk management of wildland-urban interface areas is the acquisition of geographically referenced data layers of all relevant WUI components, in order to analyse properly them and from which to derive useful information and meaningful maps. 7 WUI LANDSCAPE COMPONENTS Wildland-urban interface landscape is characterized by a number of components that have to be identified, described and mapped in order to obtain useful information for the elaboration of integrated forest fire defence planning. To reach this task, each component of the landscape has been analysed in detail. The description of components and their characterization is proposed in the following paragraphs. 7.1 7.1.1 SINGLE COMPONENTS CHARACTERIZATION Houses

All individual houses have to be identified and manually digitised from orthophotos, thus obtaining a basic GIS data layer, with whom a first set of analysis was carried on, resulting in the definition of initial derived variables. 7.1.2 Roads Roads in the study area have to be identified and manually digitised from orthophotos. They have to be characterized according to different road types. 7.1.3 Fuels Fuels have to be described in detail, with a particular focus on vegetation inside the settlement itself and on a buffer of 500 m around the settlement boundaries. In these areas fuels have to be divided into two categories (surface fuels and aerial fuels). Data on fuels should be collected through field surveys and results were reported in a GIS data layer, available for further elaborations. Fuels have then to be analysed according to their spatial arrangement in the proximity of houses. 7.1.4 Topography Topography has to be characterized through digital maps describing elevation, slope and aspects spatial distribution.

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EUFIRELAB 8 DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYSIS METHODS FOR WUI ENVIRONMENT CHARACTERIZATION

8.1

SPATIAL ANALYSIS IN WUI AREAS

8.2

METHODOLOGY

Wildland-urban interface (WUI) environments can be described as composite systems where various structures (most notably private homes) and other human constructions meet or are intermingled with forest, wildland and other vegetation fuels. These composite systems are since the last decades more and more threatened by forest fires, thus creating a new, worrying phenomenon: the wildlandurban interface fire (Pyne et al. 1996). These kinds of fires and their related issues are nowadays the challenge for wildfire researchers and managers. The WUI in the European environment, and more specifically in the Mediterranean area, is therefore a very complex spatial context with many interrelated social, natural resource and wildfire issues (Vlez, 2000). Information generated through Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis is increasingly becoming crucial for land-use planning and policymaking in areas of this structural complexity. GIS technology is widely recognized to be essential for natural resources management activities, especially in those areas, like wildland-urban interface ones, where landscapes are experiencing rapid changes (Greenberg and Bradley, 1997). GIS can provide useful tools for WUI management, through their capability of handling in an integrated environment multi-source and multi-resolution spatial data (Burrough and McDonnel, 1998). For example, fire management activities specifically oriented to the protection of WUI environments require a definition of WUI boundaries within a certain zone in order to enhance future zoning, control of residential development, fuel management and planning. Spatial data (e.g. digital maps, orthophotos, very high resolution satellite images) processed with a GIS platform and its spatial analysis capabilities; allow performing preliminary analyses to support this task.

Spatial analysis can be defined as a set of methods whose results change when the locations of the objects being analysed change (Longley et al., 2001). According to the same authors these methods can be summarized in the following items: - Queries and reasoning - Measurements - Transformations - Descriptive summaries - Optimisation techniques - Hypothesis testing Some of the spatial analysis methods tested in GIS environment can be applied for the study and understanding of European Wildland-Urban Interface environments and their relationship to wildfires risk and behaviour, providing useful elements to guide planning and fire fighting activities. The following paragraph describes briefly the required basic data layers. Spatial data and basic GIS data layer The first step is the mapping of all relevant basic and derived variables to generate data layers useful for future analyses. The nature of the phenomenon under consideration requires the analysis to be typically performed at local scale; therefore the basic data layers were built from large scale maps (i.e. 1:10.000 to 1:25.000). The sources of spatial data are quite heterogeneous: - very-high resolution satellite images (Ikonos) - aerial photos and orthophotos - conventional maps (in many cases already provided in digital format) - field work The geographical data considered are: those typically needed to characterize the fire environment (e.g. topography, vegetation) and - those related to urban development (e.g. houses, roads). Both raster and vector data structures are used and the obtained data layers are the following: - Raster layers: DEM (Digital Elevation Model); slope; aspect. - Vector layers: land cover and vegetation (polygons); fuel models/types (polygons); road network (lines); houses (polygons); defence resources location (points). -

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EUFIRELAB 8.3 EXAMPLES In addition, the fractions of the areas covered by the different fuel types are calculated. The results are summarized by settlement type; some of the summary statistics that describe the surrounding environment of each settlement type are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Note that fuel types have been grouped by the dominant component of the fuel complexes (herbs, shrubs or trees). Tab. 2 Topographic features of buffer area summarized per settlement type. Settlement Average Minimum Maximum type elevation slope slope A B C 509 453 418 6,5% 4,3% 1,1% 39,7% 36,3% 41,6% Average Slope 19,3% 15,3% 12,3%

As an example, a set of analyses performed in the Italian province of Piemonte is presented. The aim is to identifying and typifying settlements, providing a first description of the surrounding environment and of fire suppression preparedness. The selected area is characterized by small urban settlements, presenting both situations of classical interface and intermixes. Actually, an entire set of conditions, ranging from the densely inhabited village with boundaries facing wildland and forests until the isolated houses are represented. Therefore the objective is to identify and classify the different situations according to the degree of urbanization within the wildland area, and therefore the general wildland-urban mixing conditions for the different settlements, being clear the usefulness of such a characterization from a fire management point of view. To achieve this, density analysis techniques are applied to the house layer of the database, and then considering different thresholds to the derived house density layer and identify in this way settlement boundaries. Settlement types are then characterized by computing the number of houses in each polygon discriminated, performing a spatial join between the settlements and the houses layers. Figure 8-1 presents the results. In the presented case, a total number of 177 settlements were identified in the study area, classified into three classes (Tab. 1). Tab. 1 Settlements found in the analysis Settlement # settlements in Average # houses type the study area per settlement A B C 61 91 25 3,7 12,8 91,0

Tab. 3 Area covered by fuel types in the buffer of 250 m surrounding the settlements. Settlement type A B C Herbs 79% 80% 69% Shrubs 13% 9% 19% Trees 4% 4% 5% Urban or bare soil 4% 7% 7%

The presence of specific fuel types, as well as the topographic arrangement of the area, provides useful indications about the fire hazard and risk conditions around the settlements, but also about the possibility and strategies for fire fighting resources. In addition to such key features, from a fire suppression point of view, it is important to know the accessibility of the settlements to be protected, as well as the relative location of fighting resources (fire stations) and water supplies. A road density map such as the one shown in Fig. 4 can provide useful information on the accessibility of the sites. Much more informative is the map derived from the network analysis that allows to classify each settlement according to the time needed to reach it: - either from the nearest fire station (Figure 8-4) - or from the nearest water supply (Figure 8-5). .

To characterize the environment surrounding each settlement, a buffer of 250 m overlays over the DEM, slope and fuel types data layers (Figure 8-2). From the overlay results, elevation and slope statistics of the settlements surroundings (buffer of 250 m) are computed.

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EUFIRELAB

65 130

260

390

520 Meters

65 130

260

390

520 Meters

Figure 8-1: House density map (left) and classification of settlement types according to house density and number of houses (right). A grey scale orthophoto map is shown in the background.

Figure 8-2: Buffer of 250 m around a settlement, overlaid on the fuel type map.

Figure 8-3: Road density map D-10-02.doc 12

EUFIRELAB

Figure 8-4: Distance of the settlements from the nearest Fire Station (dark stars). Background: DEM.

Figure 8-5: Distance of the settlements from the nearest water supply. Background: DEM

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EUFIRELAB 9 MANAGEMENT AT HOUSE LEVEL Settlements in the Mediterranean region are mostly compound of individual lots including one or more buildings. After looking at the landscape level, an assessment of house vulnerability is required to assess the needs of risk management and potential losses associated to such risks. 9.1 METHODOLOGY

9.2

RESULTS

The two lines of information collection led to the development of a rationale in how to approach the challenge of evaluating the vulnerability of structures and identifying their weak (to fire) elements. 9.2.1 General approach In view of all the works and information presented earlier, the following methodology is developed for assessing structure vulnerability in Mediterranean WUI areas: If there is no fire, then there is no problem. So it is rational to start looking to the potential fire as the central agent that creates the problem by bringing structures or parts of structures to ignition. Three main cases can be recognized: - Flames/direct convection is reaching/touching the house. Radiation and embers also act, but the flame contact is by far the main issue. - Flames do not reach the house but radiation is enough to ignite flammable materials externally of the house or internally, as a result of the combination of flame size & radiation output on one hand and flammability of materials on the other. Embers are also a concern, probably of equal importance given the proximity of the flames to the structure (hence the high number of freshly lit embers reaching the structure) but the weak points may be different for them. - Radiation is not a problem, since it is too weak to lead to ignition, mainly because there is a significant distance (roughly >30 m) between the intense flames and the structure. Embers are the only concern. Subsequently, there are three zones of danger around each WUI house meaning the zone where these heat transfer mechanisms may result in house destruction: - direct flame zone - radiation zone, and - embers zone. By approaching the house/lot from the point of view of a zone around it, in a general settlement-level analysis we can more easily develop spatial analysis techniques for analysing the settlement for fire vulnerability.

In the aim of producing management rules, a set of quantitative guidelines, specifying structure and environment variables have to be identified and measured. The three main heat transfer mechanisms involved (convection, radiation, firebrands) are evaluated and combined with structure characteristics, which grouped together categorize structures into vulnerability levels. The procedure aims at the estimation of a vegetation safety distance around each structure depending on expected fire characteristics and on possible estimates of vulnerability level of structure. Categorizing each structure into a vulnerability level and comparing the actual vegetation clearance around it from the required one for that vulnerability level, results in an evaluation of the risk factor for each structure. This approach should be coupled with the settlement analysis through GIS for management purposes. The methodology for the identification of structure elements related to house destruction is twofold: On one hand, information was obtained from the literature (state of the art, deliverable 10-2). Once collected it was evaluated and was synthesized in order to improve the understanding of what makes a structure vulnerable. On the other hand, it is required to perform observations visiting the sites of important WUI fires. In this case, and more specifically, the teams of TECNOMA P008, and CEREN P017 visited and documented WUI fires in Spain and France respectively. These field visits and the resulting observations, photos and measurements provided important material. A number of reports were developed for the best documented of these case studies.

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EUFIRELAB The width and shape of each zone is a function of Fire characteristics as dictated by vegetation, weather and topography (e.g. slope makes the zone non-circular) House characteristics as characterized by the existence of burnable main exterior components (walls, roof, decks) and burnable materials (nonvegetation) around the house (development of secondary flaming) House characteristics that function as weak points for a fire entering the house (e.g. large windows, types of glass). Flammability of materials inside the house (curtains, rags, wooden floors, etc.). The above points can be addressed grossly at a first approach here, but should be looked more in detail within the WP5 of WARM project (fire behaviour work package). Duration of flame exposure mainly depends on the characteristics of the fuels (diameter, packing, live or dead and their condition.). In a heat-transfer-to-ignition problem, normally this duration should be compared to the endurance of the building materials. However, research work has shown that the effect of direct flame contact on burnable materials is nearly immediate ignition and high probability of complete destruction. The durations required for ignition when thin natural fuels are exposed to temperatures in excess of 550600oC are very short (Xanthopoulos 1990, Xanthopoulos and Wakimoto 1993), in the order of a few seconds. Such temperature exposures are common when flames encounter structures. Even lesser exposure duration may be needed for flammable materials (e.g. nylon curtains). On the other hand, sustained ignition may not take place when short weak flames reach thick less flammable materials (e.g. the thick logs of the external walls of a log house exposed to flames from a weak grass fire). If a house is mainly made externally of non-burnable materials then we must focus on its weak points, which are important compared to the flame characteristics. Windows breakage can lead to exposure of the materials inside the house, constitutes a special case. 9.2.3 The radiation zone The size of this zone depends on the size of the flames and on the characteristics of heat transfer. Distance of vegetation from the house is also very important here. The comparison of radiation received vs flammability of materials is very complex and delicate and generalizations are needed. This is justified because small flame-to-structure distance inaccuracies create significant differences for received radiation. Furthermore, exposure times needed for ignition are generally too long when: - the amount of heat received is not too great (distance between flame and structure is not too short) and - only heavier forest fuel complexes, that include some thicker fuels, are expected to maintain flames for this long. It should be mentioned that in regard to the width of this zone, this is expected to be relatively little wider than the direct flame zone.

For these types of heat transfer, the size of zones must be defined. Obviously, the size of zones depends on the characteristics of the house that determine its vulnerability. Hence, there is a need to classify houses and other structures according to their vulnerability. A general approach of how the zones can be quantified is presented first below. 9.2.2 The Direct Flame (Convection) Zone In determining this zone for structure vulnerability assessment, it is necessary to consider worst-case scenarios. Hence, the distance of the zone around the external walls of the house depends directly on maximum flame lengths predicted for the existing type of vegetation under the most adverse conditions. Topography, mainly slope, plays a role in the final shape of the zone due to its effect on flame length. Flame lengths may be estimated for certain types of fuels (mainly surface fuels) from existing models (e.g. BEHAVE). However, information on flame lengths of crown fires is not readily available. Forest fire flame temperatures reported in literature vary somewhat, as they are a function of measurement instrumentation, fuel moisture content, etc. However, it is generally agreed that they range between 870 - 1200oC (Van Wagner 1963, Xanthopoulos 1990, Mendes-Lopes et al. 2003). Inclination of the flames due to wind-caused deflection and the effect of slope in bringing a structure in touch with the flames, are two more factors that must be considered. The first factor is mainly a thermodynamics problem and there have been some works trying to tackle the problem (e.g. Nelson 1980, Nelson and Adkins 1986, Weise and Biging 1996). The second is mainly a geometry problem, directly associated with the results of the first. Furthermore, there may be more than one flame length to be taken into consideration. An example is a structure at a given distance from forest trees, which however has shrubs or grass reaching next to it. D-10-02.doc

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EUFIRELAB For example, in Figure 8-1, the worst-case approach of Cohen in SIAM model, which was proven too conservative in field experiments, shows that a separation distance of 30 m is needed to avoid ignition of wood from 20 m long flames, assuming a flaming duration of 90 s. In our view, this 90 sec duration would not be possible for the maximum length of the flame because the contribution to the flame of the fine crown fuels would be short-lived, probably in the order of 40 s or even less. (remembering the tR.= 756/ (Anderson 1969), where is the surface area-to-volume-ratio (cm2/cm3) used in BEHAVE, which for pine needles with =50 gives the tR.= 756/50 = 15,12 s, and also taking into consideration that all the fine fuels along the crown do not ignite at once). If a lesser duration is selected in Figure 8-1, then the estimated distance would drop quickly, probably to less than 20 m. This is not much larger than the distance for flame contact that would be calculated for a 20 m flame length, given the inclination of the flame. These comments are consistent with the findings of Cohen during the International Crown Fire Modelling Experiment who found that the crown fire burning duration at the downwind plot edge lasted for about 50 (Cohen 2004) or 65 seconds (Cohen 2000a). The weak points of a structure for radiation may be different from the weak points for convection. Certain flammable items that require relatively little heat to ignite, such as nylon curtains, may ignite easily through radiation even at a distance, although the flames do not touch them. One situation that requires special evaluation about that is when the flame front moves around a structure. The main impact of convection is on the side of the structure receiving the fire front, usually on the upwind or down slope side (the two factors mainly driving the fire). The flame contact zone may be quite limited on the sides of the structure, as the flames there do not tilt towards the structure but parallel to it. However, the radiation emitted from the flames could still be considerable, igniting flammable structure elements there. 9.2.4 The Firebrands Zone

As seen earlier, the distances at which firebrands travel are quite long, often exceeding 1000 m. They may even cause home ignitions at such distances as described by Cohen. At such a distance, of course, the probability of firebrands is very low. However, and in view of the Australian study (Ahern and Chladil 1999), there is some non-negligible probability for firebrands at 250-m distance from the firebrand producing vegetation edge. A 500-m distance could then be a reasonable cut-off number: in a zone of 500-m from tall trees the houses may be exposed to significant number of firebrands and should be evaluated for this type of threat. A lesser zone, probably about 200-m should be considered as having a significant probability of being exposed to firebrands from tall (>1,5 m tall) shrubs in case of fire. The analysis of this risk is quite different from the analyses for radiation and convection. Firebrands may start a fire directly, falling on flammable building materials or may start a secondary fire next or on the building if dead vegetation is present (e.g. grasses around a structure, needles and/or leaves on the roof, etc.). Obviously, flat surfaces of a structure are the important ones here: The roof, the balconies and the decks. The type of roof material (stone, clay-tile, synthetic, metal, wooden shingles), the use of tar paper under that material, the types of gutter being used (metal, clay, PVC..) are the main points to be considered. Also, presence of ventilation openings (wall, eave, roof) without an adequate wire-mesh cover (0.6 cm) can be included here. The material decks and balconies are made of is important. It may be non-burnable (e.g. cement), wooden or even composite. The condition of wood (sound or rotten) is of extreme importance about firebrands, as rotten wood requires very little energy to ignite. Flammable materials under decks (it is quite common to stock firewood there) are also another major consideration. Some revealing observations of the progress of fire within a settlement were made by Xanthopoulos and Caballero at the Encinar del Alberche WUI fire in Spain (2003), where the fire moved more than 200 m within the settlement igniting vegetative fences consisting of pruned Cupressus arizonica trees. Xanthopoulos and Maheras made similar observations at the Vasilika fire in Salamina (2003), where the fire jumped a 600 m length (main jump) between two parts of a settlement and exhibited numerous shorter jumps within the settlement.

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EUFIRELAB 9.3 APPLICATION TO HOUSE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT The following simple categorization of structure vulnerability is proposed: - The vulnerability of structures mainly depends on the burning properties of the materials they are made of or that they include, and which are exposed to the fire. - Materials inside a home such as nylon curtains, plastics, cloths, rugs etc. are generally much more flammable than wood. They can ignite at lower temperatures so much lesser duration of radiation could bring them to ignition. Flame contact would ignite them immediately. A home exposing its inside materials to radiative or convective heat are categorized at the highest vulnerability level (VL=1). A home with such flammable materials externally (e.g. tents) is also categorized as VL=1. - Wood as a solid material (logs, wooden siding), except when rotten, must reach high temperatures (320 oC) in order to ignite. This means ignition by radiation from a moving forest fire is quite difficult at some distance from the flames as it requires a very long duration. The vulnerability level is much less (VL=2). - Non-burnable materials on the outer shell (walls, roof) of a house classify it as VL=3. - A house with large window openings may pass from VL=2 or even VL=3 to VL=1 when the potential exists for window breakage (mainly single-paned windows). The literature review in conjunction with the categorization above, leads, as a first approach, to the development of the following table on the minimum safety zone around a structure of given vulnerability category as a function of the expected worst-case flame length (FL) (Table 4). The distance in regard to convection refers to the width of a zone on the side of the structure facing the approaching fire, while in regard to radiation it also refers to the sides of the structure parallel to the movement of the fire. Table 4. Basic estimates of minimum safety zone around a structure of a given vulnerability category as a function of the expected worst-case flame length (FL).

The rationale above leads to the conclusion that vulnerability of structures to firebrands is quite different from that due to the convection and radiation of the flames. Hence, they will be treated separately. It should be noted that as is evident from the literature cited a structure is as vulnerable to any one of the heat transfer methods as its weakest point is. This means that even if a structure is not subjected to convection and radiation, it may be vulnerable to firebrands because it has weak points to that method of ignition. 9.3.1 Vulnerability of structures to convection and radiation of flames

As stated by Cohen (2004), home ignition is a local process. In the context of WUI fires, the structures become the fuel that ignites. Combustion requires a sufficiency of fuel, heat and oxygen. Assuming oxygen is always available, the requirement for ignition and combustion is that there is enough heat available to ignite the particular fuel (structure) given its flammability properties. Combining the values for ignition of spruce wood from table 2, which show that : - continuous exposure at 30 kW m-2 leads to ignition in 60 s while - 40 kW m-2 leads to ignition in 30 s, with the observation of Cohen (2000a) that the crown fire flames at the edge of the experimental plots lasted for about 50 sec, it can be deduced that the heating received by the wooden walls that did not ignite was less than 40 kW m-2. Actually, as seen in Figure 8-2, which documents the heat flux for one of the crown fire experiments, the heat flux received by the wooden wall that scorched but did not ignite reached 46 kW m-2 but only for a few seconds.

Structure Vulnerability Level (Vl) VL=1 VL=2 VL=3

Convection 1.5 * FL 2/3 * FL 1/4 * FL

Radiation 2 * FL 1/2 * FL 1/4 * FL

These are estimates for flat or near-flat topography. Additional calculations are needed to consider slope.

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EUFIRELAB 10 REFERENCES Albini, F. A. 1979. Spot fire distance from burning trees - a predictive model. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT 56. 73 p. Albini, F. A. 1981. Spot fire distance from isolated sources - extensions of a predictive model. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note INT 309. 9 p. Albini, F. A. 1983. Potential spotting distance from wind-driven surface fires. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper INT 309. 27 p. Alexander, M. E., B. J. Stocks, B. M. Wotton, M. D. Flannigan, J. B. Todd, B. W. Butler, and R. A. Lanoville. 1998. The international crown fire modelling experiment: an overview and progress report. Pp. 20-23. In Proceedings of the second symposium on fire and forest meteorology. January 12-14, 1998, Phoenix, AZ. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society. Anonymous. Your forest home. ... Protect it from fire Anonymous. Could your Montana home survive a wildfire? Ahern, A., and M. Chladil. 1999. How far do bushfires penetrate urban areas? In proceedings of the Australian Bushfire Conference Bushfire 99, July 1999, Albury, Australia. Anderson, H. E. 1969. Heat transfer and fire spread. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-69. 20 p. Andrews, P. L. and Chase, C. H. (1989). BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system BURN subsystem, part 2. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-260. 93 p.Ahern, A., and M. Chladil. 1999. How far do bushfires penetrate urban areas? In proceedings of the Australian Bushfire Conference Bushfire 99, July 1999, Albury, Australia. Ashe, B. S. W., and P. J. Rew. 2003. Effects of flashfires on building occupants. Research Report 084 for the Health and Safety Executive, Sudbury, Sufolk, United Kingdom. 56 p. Babrauskas, V. 1998. Glass breakage in Fires. The Fire Place (Washington Chapter IAAI Newsletter), 15-18 (Feb/Mar 1998). Reprinted in: Hotline (Missouri Chapter IAAI Newsletter) 14, 18-21 (Summer 1998). Available in updated form (2003) on the Internet site of Fire Science and Technology Inc.: http://www.doctorfire.com/glass.html. Babrauskas, V. 2001. Ignition of Wood: A review of the State of the Art. Pp71-88. In proceedings of the Interflam 2001. Interscience Communications Ltd. London. Bachmann, A., and B. Allgower. 1998. Framework for wildfire risk analysis. pp. 2177-2190. In proceedings of the 3rd Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research. November 16-20, Luso-Coimbra, Portugal. Domingos Xavier Viegas, editor. Published by ADAI, Coimbra, Portugal. 2718 p. Bachmann, A., and B. Allgower. 2001. A consistent wildland fire risk terminology is needed. Fire Management Today. 61(4): 28-33. Bovio, G. and A. Camia. 1997. Fire danger rating and land features in Winter-Spring seasons of Northwestern Italy. Report of Minerve Project, ECDGXII. 19 p. Bovio G. and A. Camia. 1998. Operational Scenarios of Forest Fires in Italy. In Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research, November 16-20, 1998, Coimbra, Portugal. Domingos Xavier Viegas, Univ. of Coimbra, Portugal. Bovio G., A. Camia and R. Marzano. 2002. Incendi boschivi in interfaccia urbano-foresta: metodi di indagine a scale regionale e locale. Linea Ecologica, 2: 34-41. Butler, B., W., and J. D. Cohen. 1998. Firefighter safety zones: A theoretical model based on radiative heating. Int. J. Wildland Fire. 8(2):73-77. Burrough P.A. and R. A. McDonnell. 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Spatial Information Systems and Geostatistics. Oxford University Press. 333 p. Butler, B., W., and J. D. Cohen. 2000. Field verificationof a firefighter safety zone model. pp. 5461. In proceedings of the 2000 International Wildfire Safety Summit. Butler, B., and J. Forthofer. 2002. Get into the zone. Wildfire. 11(5): 16-22. California Department of Forestry. 1980. Fire Safety Guides For Residential Development in California. California Department of Forestry. 36 p. Camia A., R. Marzano and G. Bovio. 2002. Preliminary analysis of wildland-urban interface fire prone areas in Italy. In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research, November 18-23, 2002, Coimbra, Portugal. Domingos Xavier Viegas, Univ. of Coimbra, Portugal. CINAR, S. A. 1999. The DELFI vocabulary of forest fire terms. CINAR S.A., Athens, Greece. Chase, C. H. 1984. Spotting distance from wind-driven surface fires - extensions of equations for pocket calculators. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note INT 346. 21 p.

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EUFIRELAB Cohen, J.D. 1995. Structure ignition assessment model (SIAM). pp. 85-92..In proceedings of the Biswell symposium: Fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems. February 15-17, 1994. Walnut Creek, CA. Weise, D. R.; Martin, R. E., technical coordinators USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech Rep. PSW-GTR-158. Cohen, J. D. 1999. Reducing the Wildland fire treat to homes: Where and how much? 191p. Cohen, J. D. 2000a. Preventing disaster: home ignitability in the wildland-urban interface. Journal of Forestry 98(3): 15-21. Cohen, J. D. 2000b. Emerging Knowledge about Wildland-Urban Interface Home Ignition Potential. Source: http://www.gov.ns.ca/natr/protection/wildfire /presentations/fires2000.htm Cohen, J. D. 2000c. A brief summary of my Los Alamos fire destruction examination. Wildfire 9(4): 16-18. Cohen, J. D., R. A. Chase, S. L. LeVan, and H. C. Tran. 1991. A model for assessing potential structure ignitions in the wildland/urban interface. pp 50-57. In proceedings of the 11th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, April 16-19, 1991, Missoula, Montana. Andrews, P.L., and D. F. Potts, editors. Society of American Foresters, Bethesda, MD, USA. 616 p. Cohen, J. D., and P. Wilson. 1995. Current results from the Structure Ignition Assessment model (SIAM) Research. Pp. 120-132. In proceedings of the symposium on Fire Management in the Wildland/Urban Interface: Sharing Solutions, October 2-5, 1994, Kananaskis Village, Alberta, Canada. Partners in Protection, Edmonton, AB. Cohen, J., and J. Saveland. 1997. Structure Ignition Assessment Can Help Reduce Fire Damages in the W-UI. Fire Management Notes 57(4): 19-23. Cohen, J. D., and B. W. Butler. 1998. Modeling potential ignitions from flame radiation exposure with implications for wildland/urban interface fire management. Pp. 81-86. In: Proceedings of the 13th conference on fire and forest meteorology, vol. 1., October 27-31, 1996, Lorne, Victoria, Australia. Fairfield, WA: International Association of Wildland Fire. Colin, P.Y., C. Lampin-Cabaret, E. Delboulb, N. Coste, J. Marcillat, J.C. Pereira, F. Binggeli, A. Gaulier, H. Botelho, C. Loureiro, G. Loddo, E. Ditana, M. Guijarro, C. Hernando, C. Dez, E. Martnez, J. Madrigal, J. A. Vega, P. Gorostiaga, D. Alexandrian, and A. Dimitrakopoulos. 2002. SALTUS program Spot fires. Knowledge and modelling. In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research. November 18-23, 2002. Luso-Coimbra, Portugal. D.G. Viegas, Editor. Millpress Science Publishers, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. (on CD) Coulter, B. J. 1980. Wildfire Safety Guidelines For Rural Homeowners. Colorado State For. Serv., Colorado State Univ., CO, USA. 23 p. D-10-02.doc Dennis, F. C. 1983. Fuelbreak guidelines for forested subdivisions. Colorado State For. Serv. 16 p. De Jong, L. 2003. Improving fire hazard assessment in South Lake Tahoe. CA. Fire Management Today. 63(2): 35-40. United States Department of Agriculture. Wildfire is the enemy of your forest home. Gettle, G., and C. L. Rice. 2002. Criteria for determining the safe separation between structures and wildlands. 9 p. In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research. November 18-23, 2002. LusoCoimbra, Portugal. D. X. Viegas (ed.). Millpress, Roterdam. (on CD). Great Lakes Forest Fire Compact, 1992. Wildfire: Are you and your home prepared? 19p. Greenberg, J. D. and G. A. Bradley. 1997. Analyzing the urban-wildland interface with GIS: two case studies. J. of Forestry 95(10):1822. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1986. Cabin owner's guide to fire prevention. Kailidis, 1981. Directions for the protection of homes from forest, brush and grass fires (in Greek). 17p. LeVan, S.L.; Cohen, J.; Chase, R.; Davis, J.; Malinauskas, V.; King, H. 1990. Assessing the fire hazard of structures in the wildland-urban interface. Paper presented at XIX IUFRO World Congress, Montreal, CA, August 1990. Longley, P. A., M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire and D.W. 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