1. Define Volcano. Discuss The formation and Products of volcano.

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from below the surface. Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate hypothesis" volcanism.[1] Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core-mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth. 2. Describe Darcys law. Although Darcy's law (an expression of conservation of momentum) was determined experimentally by Darcy, it has since been derived from the NavierStokes equations via homogenization. It is analogous to Fourier's law in the field of heat conduction, Ohm's law in the field of electrical networks, or Fick's law in diffusion theory. One application of Darcy's law is to water flow through an aquifer; Darcy's law along with the equation of conservation of mass are equivalent to the groundwater flow equation, one of the basic relationships of hydrogeology. Darcy's law is also used to describe oil, water, and gas flows through petroleum reservoirs.

[edit] Description

Diagram showing definitions and directions for Darcy's law.

Darcy's law is a simple proportional relationship between the instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium, the viscosity of the fluid and the pressure drop over a given distance.

The total discharge, Q (units of volume per time, e.g., m3/s) is equal to the product of the permeability of the medium, k (m2), the cross-sectional area to flow, A (units of area, e.g., m2), and the pressure drop (Pb - Pa), all divided by the viscosity, (Pa.s) and the length the pressure drop is taking place over. The negative sign is needed because fluids flows from high pressure to low pressure. So if the change in pressure is negative (where Pa > Pb) then the flow will be in the positive 'x' direction. Dividing both sides of the equation by the area and using more general notation leads to

where q is the flux (discharge per unit area, with units of length per time, m/s) and is the pressure gradient vector (Pa/m). This value of flux, often referred to as the Darcy flux, is not the velocity which the water traveling through the pores is experiencing. The pore velocity (v) is related to the Darcy flux (q) by the porosity (n). The flux is divided by porosity to account for the fact that only a fraction of the total formation volume is available for flow. The pore velocity would be the velocity a conservative tracer would experience if carried by the fluid through the formation.

Darcy's law is a simple mathematical statement which neatly summarizes several familiar properties that groundwater flowing in aquifers exhibits, including:

if there is no pressure gradient over a distance, no flow occurs (these are hydrostatic conditions), if there is a pressure gradient, flow will occur from high pressure towards low pressure (opposite the direction of increasing gradient - hence the negative sign in Darcy's law), the greater the pressure gradient (through the same formation material), the greater the discharge rate, and the discharge rate of fluid will often be different through different formation materials (or even through the same material, in a different direction) even if the same pressure gradient exists in both cases.

A graphical illustration of the use of the steady-state groundwater flow equation (based on Darcy's law and the conservation of mass) is in the construction of flownets, to quantify the amount of groundwater flowing under a dam. Darcy's law is only valid for slow, viscous flow; fortunately, most groundwater flow cases fall in this category. Typically any flow with a Reynolds number less than one is clearly laminar, and it would be valid to apply Darcy's law. Experimental tests have shown that flow regimes with Reynolds numbers up to 10 may still be Darcian, as in the case of groundwater flow. The Reynolds number (a dimensionless parameter) for porous media flow is typically expressed as

. where is the density of water (units of mass per volume), v is the specific discharge (not the pore velocity with units of length per time), d30 is a representative grain diameter for the porous media (often taken as the 30% passing size from a grain size analysis using sieves - with units of length), and is the viscosity of the fluid.

3. Explain The types of river channels mentioning the engineering significances of each type. A wide variety of river and stream channel types exist in limnology. All these can be divided into two groups by using the water-flow gradient as either low gradient channels for streams or rivers with less than two percent (2%) flow gradient, or high gradient channels for those with greater than a 2% gradient.

Low gradient channels

Low gradient channels of rivers and streams can be divided into braided rivers, wandering rivers, single thread sinuous rivers (meandering), and anastomosing rivers. The channel type developed depends on stream gradient, riparian vegetation and sediment supply. Braided rivers tend to occur on steeper gradients where there is a large supply of sediment for braid bars, while single thread sinous channels occur where there is a lower sediment supply for point bars. Anastomosing channels are multithreaded, but are much more stable than braided channels and commonly have thick clay and silt banks and occur at lower gradients of stream bed. Wandering rivers fall between sinuous single thread and braided streams and are relatively stable multi-channel gravel bed rivers.

High gradient channels

High gradient channels of rivers and streams have been divided into rifflepool (which can cover all of the low gradient channel morphologies discussed above), rapid/plane bed, step-pool and cascade unit morphologies.

Riffle-pool sequence channels are composed of migrating pools and transfers bars called riffles and occur on gradients less than 1-2 percent. Rapids (also called plane bed, but not to be confused with the plane beds described in sand bed rivers) lack distinct pools and bars but commonly have stone cells or clusters and occur on gradients in the range of 1-5 percent, and have "whitewater". Step-pools are composed of channel-spanning pools and boulder/cobble steps that cause subcritical flow in the pool and supercritical flow over the steps. They occur in gradients in the range of 5 and 20%. Cascade units exist at steeper gradients (approx > 1015 percent) where the channel is dominated by boulders and cobbles and channel spanning pools do not exist. Pocket pools are common. In all four channel types large woody debris may strongly influence the channel type.

4. 5. 6. 7.