Cell Structures

4/6/09 A. Cell Theory Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure of all living things. Development of this theory during the 1800's was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the fundamental foundations of biology. The theory says that new cells are formed from other existing cells and the cell is a fundamental unit of structure, physiology, and organization in all living organisms.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theory

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Notes
Reading: Cell Theory 7th chp 3 8th chp 3 9th chp 3 Basic Tenets of Cell theory: 1. 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism. All living things are composed of one or more cells (assuming viruses are not alive). Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells (since the origin of life).

Cell (plasma) membrane - is composed of a lipid bilayer surrounding the cell. Proteins are interspersed in this layer, with carbohydrates on the surface. The layer is semi-permeable; it is permeable to water but not to solutes. Nucleus - is bound by its own double membrane, within which the chromatin / chromosomes (DNA) are located. Cytoplasm (Cytosol) - is all the fluid material in a cell located between the nuclear membrane and the plasma membrane and incorporates the ! Cytoskeleton composed of microfilaments and microtubules that anchor organelles, give shape, and allow motion Organelles subcellular, mostly membrane bound, functional units of the cell
Label all diagrams for review alwaysand dont forget the image catalogues. Need some help with this one? Try the cell diagram on the last page. Answers: 1. Nucleolus 2. Nucleus 3. Ribosome 4. Vesicle 5. Rough endoplasmic reticulum 6. Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body") 7. Cytoskeleton 8. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 9. Mitochondrion 10. Vacuole 11. Cytoplasm 12. Lysosome 13. Centriole (not examinable) 14. Cell membrane (add this one on yourself)

Basic Tenets 1. The cell is the unit of structure and the unit of function of most living things. - Prokaryote and Eukaryote - Endosymbiosis 2. Life is Unicellular (and colonial) or Multicellular 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells by reproduction. - i.e., Mitosis (Binary fission) and Meiosis Additionally: - Cells tend to be small. - !of the Surface Area2 = Volume3 Rule - as you increase the size of a cell, the volume (V) increases at a proportionally greater rate than the surface area (S) - therefore making it increasing more difficult for the cell to feed and respire, as its mouth grows increasingly smaller relative to its stomach

3.

Surface Area (6 x s2) Volume (v3) Ratio -

(1mm) 6 mm2 1 mm3 6:1

(2 mm) 24 mm2 8 mm3 3:1

(4 mm) 96 mm2 64 mm3 1.5:1

(8 mm) 384 mm2 512 mm3 0.75:1

Basic Structure - The basic eukaryotic cell contains the following:

Diagram: Review text for diagrams of animal and plant cells, as well as prokaryotic cell

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Subcellular, functional units of the cell, - primarily membrane bound

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1. Cellular Information a. The Nucleus - plays a central role in cell reproduction, - directs metabolic activities of the cell - emanates "instructions" that guide the cell's life processes - large double membrane-bounded organelle containing the DNA (in the form of chromatin / chromosomes) b. Chromatin - elongate threads of genetic material that fill the eukaryotic nucleus - composed primarily of DNA and protein (mainly histones), and RNA - during cell division it coils and folds to form the chromosomes Chromosomes - are rod-like bodies visible only when the cell is undergoing division - meiosis = germ cells; - mitosis = somatic cells - primarily composed of DNA in a double helix form that comprise genes Genes (the units of heredity) - A sequence of DNA that represents a fundamental unit of heredity - that generally encodes for the synthesis of a protein, that affects some trait, such as eye colour

Source: http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/

c. Nucleoid - a region, not bounded by a membrane, where the chromosome is located in a prokaryotic cell d. Nucleoli (singular, nucleolus) - non-membrane bound structure found in most nuclei in which ribosomes are synthesized and partially assembled - composed of DNA, RNA, and proteins - site of rRNA transcription e. Nuclear membrane - a double membrane, inner and outer lipid bilayers - surrounding the nucleus permits maintenance within the nucleus of an environment different from that in the surrounding cytoplasm 2. Energy-based " Life is characterized by the ability to assimilate, convert, and utilize energy. Energy is changed from one form to another via chemical reactions in the mitochondria and

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chloroplasts." a. Photosynthesis - process by which light energy is converted to and stored as chemical energy glucose - Chloroplast - energy converting organelle - plants H2O + CO2 light" C6H12O6 + O2 + H2O
Caveat: This is a major topic in Biology 11, it is expected students are already familiar with the steps in photosynthesis (light and light-independent reactions) and cell respirations (glycolysis, citiric acid / krebs cycle, electron transport / respiratory chain)it is recommended you review these topics.

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Source: Biology 8th ed., Campbell

- consists of a smooth outer membrane, separated by a space from the inner. - inner membrane is folded to form cristae, which increase the organelle's surface area for Elelctron transport chain - surrounding the matrix (Krebs Cycle) A bit more on ATP - cells focus all their energy resources on making the nucleotide ATP (adenosine triphosphate) ATP + H2O Enzyme! ADP + Phosphate + Energy
Cell Respiration: Where? 1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm 2. Krebs (Citric Acid) Cycle - matrix 3. Electron Transport Chain - cristae Visit Wikipedia for more background info: - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide Vocabulary Foreshadowing: Nucleoside - consists of a nitrogenous base covalently attached to a (ribose or deoxyribose) sugar but without the phosphate group. Nucleotide - consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group, e.g., ATP, DNA, RNA monomers.

b. Cellular Respiration - process by which energy stored (glucose) is extracted and converted to ATP (energy currency). O2 + H2O + glucose " ATP + CO2 + H2O - Mitochondria "While respiration takes place outside the mitochondria, it is in these cells that the major energy transfer occurs."

350 ml of water are produced each day by Cellular Respiration.

- energy converting organelle - the "power plants" of both plant and animal cells - responsible for providing energy from the metabolic fuel (e.g., glucose) - found in all eukaryotic cells, but may later be lost.

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- which is the universal energy currency ($) of all cells

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mRNA strand (cf. Protein Synthesis: Translation) - generally produce proteins that will be used inside the cell 4. Fluid Mosaic Model and Related
cf. Fluid Mosaic model - Biomolecule notes and Cell Membrane Transport notes

Overview Aerobic Metabolism SUN O2 ATP Cellular Work Heat

Chloroplast Glucose

Mitochondria CO + H2 O 2

The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, or "phospholipid bilayer") is a semipermeable lipid bilayer common to all living cells. It contains a variety or mosaic of biological molecules, primarily proteins and lipids, which are involved in a vast array of cellular processes, and also serves as the attachment point for both the intracellular cytoskeleton and, if present, the cell wall. The membrane is not solid but fluid , with shifting phospholipids and proteins.

O2 Glucose + 2 ATP H 2O

CO2

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane

3. Protein Synthesis Proteins are key biological molecules associated with many of the support structures of the body, such as bone, and are associated with all metabolic (chemical reactions) occurring within the body. a. Ribosomes a non-membrane bound organelle composed of 2 sub-units, and attached to the ER made of the nucleic acid rRNA, and proteins site of protein synthesis
Mitochondria & Chloroplasts - both contain there own DNA (mtDNA, ctDNA) and protein synthesizing ribosomes. cf. visit Wikipedia for more about the Theory of Endosymbiosis

a. Cell Membrane selectively permeable membrane, that controls what substances enter or exit the cell, and protects the cytoplasm primary structural unit is the phosopholipid cholesterol is also an important structural element proteins are found throughout Phospholipids (pl) - main structural element - selectively permeable Lipoprotein (lp) - cholesterol - structural element
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b. Polysomes - free-floating cluster of ribosomes within the cytoplasm - attached to an mRNA strand, able to produce multiple copies of a protein from the single

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Carrier protein / Channel protein (cp) - transport thru the cell membrane
Carrier proteins bind to a substrate to assist it thru the lipid bilayer - facilitated and active transport Channel proteins are pores through which a particle simply glides thru - facilitated diffusion

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Glycolipid (gl) - energy - recognition site for specific chemicals - cellular Velcro to form tissue Glycoprotein (gp) - are important for immune cell recognition, e.g., MHC - bind tissues - mucin, protective coating

c. Cytoskeleton - The network of filamentous protein structures within the cell that help it maintain shape, anchor organelles, or help the organelles move as necessary. - The primary constituents of the cytoskeleton are microtubules and microfilaments (proteins).
Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical aggregates of tube-like structure that help give the cell shape and form; they are also involved in other cell processes. - made up of 13 rows of globular proteins arranged to form a hollow tube - serve in moving materials within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton structure. Microfilaments are long, thin, contractile rods that appear to be responsible for the movement of cells (both external and internal movement). - made up of double filaments arranged in a helical pattern, with each filament consisting of numerous globular proteins joined together. - serve in anchoring organelles and moving them within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton structure.

b. Cell Wall semi-rigid, permeable layer that helps the cell maintain its shape and chemical equilibrium Plants cellulose (and lignin) mostly
algae - cellulose fungi chitin some bacteria -peptidoglycan (murein) archea - various

Unipoldia: Extensions of the Cell Membrane d. Cilia - short, hairlike projections that function in cell movement - e.g., sweeping up mucus coated debris from the bronchi and trachea (respiratory tract) shorter than flagella beat stiffly, like oars
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Not found in animal cells

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consists of a membrane-bound cylinder, with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules.

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e. Flagella - longer than cilia, but with same basic anatomy as cilia (membrane-bound cylinder, with 9+2 arrangement of
microtubules).

beat in undulating whip-like fashion function in cell movement (e.g. sperm cells) ii. Golgi Apparatus - system of membranous compartments

5. The Endomembrane System "eukaryotic cells contain several interrelated membranebound compartments, known collectively as the endomembrane system." - plays both an architectural and biochemical role in many cellular activities i. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - present in all nucleated cells - a system of membrane-bounded channels in the cytoplasm - serves as routes for transport of materials between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the various parts of the cytoplasm and nucleus, forming a communication network a. Rough ER - ER lined with ribosomes - associated with cells synthesizing protein Translation b. Smooth ER - ER sans the ribosomes - various functions; synthesis (steroids), storage, transport of material, and detoxification

central role in processing, packaging, and distribution of material to and from other regions of the cell and to and from the outside of the cell

- proteins synthesized in rough ER pass through golgi complex, and are modified and distributed - forms 2 types of vesicles; lysosomes and secretory vesicle a. Lysosomes - small, often-spherical - characterized by the presence of acid hydrolase, a hydrolytic digestive enzyme - Hydrolases are proteins made at the rough ER, then delivered via the Golgi to the lysosome

Suffix ase indicates an enzyme (a protein that acts as a biological catalyst). Proteinprotease" peptides (protein fragments) Peptidespeptidase" a.a. Nucleic Acidsnuclease" nucleotides Lipidslipase" glycerol + fatty acids

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Lysosomes contain many hydrolytic enzymes including proteases, nucleases, and lipases. - function is to breakdown both materials brought into the cell from outside, and of other cellular components already present (autodigestion)

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Hydrolytic Vesicles - Peroxisomes - like lysosomes are also singlemembrane organelles. - Peroxisomal enzymes remove hydrogen atoms from small molecules and join the hydrogen atoms to oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide, and then break it down into water and oxygen.

b. Vacuole - a large vesicle - in animals are a part of the processes of exocytosis and endocytosis. a large secretory vesicle is a vacuole Lysosomes fuse with vacuoles and dispense their enzymes into the vacuoles, digesting their contents. in plants, the central vacuole maintains turgor (shape), and for storage of water and water soluble compounds

Review: Label the cell below

Other Organelles you might be expected to know if Cell Division - Centrioles - animal cells have two cylindrical (nonmembrane bound) bodies, called centrioles, located near the nucleus. - are short cylinders with a 9+0 pattern of microtubular (microtubule proteins) triplets. centrioles give rise to basal bodies which. - assist in the formation of the spindle apparatus in cell division. - direct the formation of cilia and flagella

Hints: 4 is the smaller type 10 is the larger type 12 contains acid hydrolase 14 add your own arrow to locate the cell (plasma) membrane answers on page 2 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Biological_cell.svg Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle

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