Engineering Encyclopedia

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Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

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For additional information on this subject, contact S.B. Jones on 874-1969 or S.P. Cox on 874-2488

Engineering Encyclopedia

Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

CONTENTS

PAGES

STRUCTURE OF METALS AND NONMETALS.................................................... 1 Crystalline-Metallic ......................................................................................... 1 Nonmetallic Materials ..................................................................................... 3 Plastics ................................................................................................. 3 Elastomers............................................................................................ 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS AND NONMETALS....................................... 4 Tensile Strength............................................................................................... 4 Yield Strength.................................................................................................. 4 Ductility........................................................................................................... 4 Toughness........................................................................................................ 4 Hardness .......................................................................................................... 4 Strength at Low or Elevated Temperatures ..................................................... 5 Corrosion and Erosion Resistance................................................................... 5 Characteristics of Plastics................................................................................ 7 Thermoplastics..................................................................................... 7 Elastomers............................................................................................ 7 Thermosetting Plastics ......................................................................... 7 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels .............................................................. 9 Cast Irons ............................................................................................. 9 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels........................................................... 9 Nickel Alloys ....................................................................................... 9

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

Copper Alloys ...................................................................................... 9 Aluminum ............................................................................................ 9 Titanium............................................................................................... 9 GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................. 11

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

STRUCTURE OF METALS AND NONMETALS Metals and nonmetals are basic materials of construction for the Petroleum Industry. Their proper selection, design, fabrication, or application and use in new construction or maintenance are essential to safe, reliable operation of production, pipeline, and refining facilities. Crystalline-Metallic To be able to identify the structure and characteristics of metals, it is important to recognize that metals have crystalline structures. In a crystalline structure the atoms are located in a periodic or geometric arrangement. Figure 1, Crystalline-Metallic Structures, shows the three most common crystalline structures: Crystalline Structures: Body-Centered Cubic Face-Centered Cubic Hexagonal Close Packed Examples: Iron and Steels Austenitic Stainless Steels Magnesium

As indicated above, metals are crystalline solids that have periodic or geometric arrangements of atoms, i.e., they have long-range order.

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Body-Centered Cubic

Face-Centered Cubic

Hexagonal Close Packed

Figure 1. Crystalline-Metallic Structures

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

Nonmetallic Materials In contrast to metallic materials, nonmetallic materials such as glass, plastics and elastomers have a noncrystalline structure. The atoms making up these materials do not possess the periodicity of a crystal, i.e., they have no long-range order. Ceramics, which are also classified as nonmetallic materials, can exhibit a crystalline structure. An example of a ceramic material is aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Plastics The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a plastic as a material that contains as an essential ingredient an organic substance of large molecular weight, is solid in its finished state, and at some stage in its manufacture or in its processing into finished articles can be shaped by flow. There are two types or classes of plastics: Thermoplastics soften with increasing temperature and return to their original hardness when cooled. Thermosetters cannot be softened by heat and will char or burn as the temperature is increased.

Plastics do not corrode like metals. Among the types of plastic deterioration are loss in mechanical properties, swelling, softening, hardening, and color change. Elastomers Elastomers, such as natural and synthetic rubbers, have good elastic, resilience, and flexibility properties. Certain elastomers have good chemical and abrasion resistance and are used in corrosive environments.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS AND NONMETALS Some of the important characteristics of engineering materials are: tensile strength, yield strength, ductility, toughness, hardness, strength at low or elevated temperatures, corrosion and erosion resistance. Tensile Strength Tensile strength refers to the maximum load that a material can withstand without rupturing. Loads are normally expressed in MPa or lbs/in2 (psi). Figure 2 compares the tensile strength and five other characteristics of eleven important engineering materials. In the oil industry, equipment and piping must be capable of resisting the effects of pressure and mechanical loads at both ambient and elevated temperature. Yield Strength Yield Strength refers to the maximum load that a material can resist without permanent plastic deformation. Loads are normally expressed in MPa or lbs/in2 (psi). In the oil industry, materials with high yield strength are needed for the fabrication of items of equipment and piping. Equipment and piping must be capable of resisting the effects of pressure and mechanical loads at both ambient and elevated temperature. Ductility Ductility refers to the ability of a material to deform plastically without fracturing. Ductility is measured by elongation or reduction in area. Toughness Toughness refers to the ability of a material to absorb impact energy and deform plastically prior to fracture. Toughness is measured by a notch impact test. In the oil industry, tough (high-ductility) materials are used to fabricate equipment and piping components that will be in low-temperature service. Low-temperature service is normally defined as design temperatures below -29.5 C (-20.5 F). Hardness Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist penetration by an indenter. Hardness data are sometimes used to estimate tensile strength.

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Principle uses for hard materials include: Hoppers handling coke are lined or constructed of hard, erosion resistant materials to minimize the abrasive action of coke fines. Shafts for pumps, turbines, compressors and valve stems are made of materials hardened by heat treatment.

Strength at Low or Elevated Temperatures Metallic materials that maintain their strength at both low and elevated temperatures are ideally suited for use in the oil industry. In fact, this attribute is a prerequisite for their use in industrial applications. Materials that maintain their useful properties at extremes of temperature are used for the fabrication of items of equipment and piping found in a refinery or other industrial plant. Examples of items of equipment include pressure vessels, heat exchangers, valves and items of rotating machinery such as pumps, compressors and turbines. Corrosion and Erosion Resistance Engineering materials can be made to resist corrosion or erosion when exposed to corrosive and/or abrasive environments by alloying and heat treatment. By incorporating certain metallic elements, materials which are inherently corrosion and erosion resistant are produced. Heat treatments which increase hardness are often used to increase a materials erosion resistance. In general, materials that exhibit high hardness are usually more erosion resistant than soft materials. Materials that resist corrosion and erosion are used for equipment and piping exposed to environments that include: sour crude oil, produced water containing sand, corrosive chemicals such as acids, sour gases, rich amines, high temperature hydrocarbons and catalyst fines. It is important to note that this list is not all inclusive.

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St re ng th St re ng th

D uc til ity

Te ns ile

Yi el d

Carbon and Low Alloys Steels Cast Irons Cr-Mo Steels Stainless Steels: Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic Duplex Nickel Alloys Copper Alloys Aluminum Titanium

G P G G G G G G P-M P-M M-G

G P G G G G G G P-M P-M M-G

G P G G M-G P M-G G G M M

M M-P M M-G M-G G M-G G P P M

M M G G G G G G P P M

G = Good ; M = Moderate ; P = Poor

Figure 2. Characteristics of Engineering Materials

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St igh re -T ng em th p C R orr es os is io ta n nc e

dn ar

es

P P-M M G G M-G G G M-G M G

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

Characteristics of Plastics Thermoplastics Thermoplastics such as fluorocarbons (teflon, KEL-F), polyethylene, and polypropylene have good resistance to many corrosive media, but limited service temperature range compared to many metals. Uses include buried raw water piping and associated valves, valve seals and gaskets, tape, valve diaphragms, and linings. Elastomers Elastomers such as Nitrile (Buna-N), Styrene-butadiene (Buna-S), Chloroprene (Neoprene), Fluorocarbon (Viton), etc. have good resistance to many corrosive media. In the oil and petrochemical industries they are used in the form of hose, tubing, seals, O-Rings, gaskets, and occasionally tank linings. A significant limitation associated with these materials is that they are not suitable for elevated temperature service. Neoprene, Buna-N, and Buna-S are limited to temperatures below about 121 C (250 F). Viton, which is a fluoroelastomer can be used at tempertures up to 260 C (500 F). Elastomers exhibit poor strength, and consequently should never be used to fabricate pressure-retaining components, unless the material is reinforced. Thermosetting Plastics Thermosetting plastics such as epoxies, phenolics and polyesters are resistant to various corrosive media and have relatively good mechanical properties. Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) are thermosetting resins that are filled or reinforced with cloth, mat or chopped fibers. The resulting composite material not only has good resistance to corrosive species, but also possesses very good mechanical properties. This enables FRP materials to be used in Code construction for pressure-retaining components. An example of an FRP material is fiberglass reinforced epoxy. FRP materials are used for the fabrication of underground storage tanks, pressure vessels, pipes, ducts, and small water or chemical injection pumps.

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Figure 3 summarizes the principal uses of several typical engineering materials.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Cast Irons Chromium-Molybdenum Steels Stainless Steels Nickel Alloys Copper Alloys Aluminum Alloys Titanium Plastics: Thermoplastic Thermosetting Fiber-Reinforced Plastics Elastomers

Figure 3. Principle Uses of Engineering Materials

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es He sur at e V Pi Ex ess c pi n h el Pu g ang s er m s St ps or a St ge ru T c a Va tur nks lve al S Cl s te el ad di Co n g at s Li ing ni s n G gs as ke (O t a - R nd in S g s ea ) ls

Pr

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

Some brief examples of typical engineering materials used in the Petroleum Industry are: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Carbon and low alloy steels exhibit good strength, ductility, and moderate corrosion resistance. Carbon and low alloy steels are used extensively in pressure vessels, heat exchangers, piping, pumps, storage tanks, and structural steel. Cast Irons Cast irons exhibit poor ductility but reasonable corrosion and erosion resistance in nonsaline cooling water systems. Cast irons are used for certain pump casings, impellers, and valves. Chromium-Molybdenum Steels Chromium-molybdenum steels exhibit good strength at elevated temperatures, good resistance to hydrogen attack, and adequate sulfidation resistance at elevated temperatures. Chromium-molybdenum steels are used for pressure vessels, heat exchangers, piping, and furnace tubes. Stainless Steels: Austenitic, Ferritic, Martensitic, Duplex Stainless steels exhibit good strength at low and elevated temperatures, good corrosion resistance to many media. Stainless steels are used for pressure vessels, heat exchangers, piping, furnace tubes, pumps, instruments. Nickel Alloys Nickel alloys exhibit good strength, ductility at low temperatures, good corrosion resistance for certain media. Nickel alloys are used for pressure vessels, heat exchangers, piping at low temperatures, and in certain corrosive environments. Copper Alloys Copper alloys exhibit good corrosion resistance in cooling water service when kept clean. Copper alloys have good thermal conductivity, but comparatively low strength, and limited service temperature use. Applications for copper alloys include heat exchanger tubes, tubesheets, pipes, valves, and pumps. Aluminum Aluminum is a lightweight material which exhibits limited corrosion resistance and has a limited application temperature range. Aluminum is used in aircraft and as an external fin material on air-cooled heat exchangers.

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Titanium Titanium exhibits good strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance to brackish water and certain very corrosive process media. Titanium uses include heat exchangers (all components), and piping.

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Materials & Corrosion Control Structure And Characteristics Of Materials

GLOSSARY atoms characteristics corrosion resistance crystalline The smallest particle of an element that can exist either alone or in combination. A special quality found in a material. The ability of a material to resist deterioration or degradation due to the environment. Denotes a solid composed of atoms arranged in a pattern which is repetitive in three dimensions. Most common metals are crystalline. The ability of a metal to deform plastically without fracturing, as measured by elongation or reduction in area in a tensile test, cupping height in an Erichsen test, or bend radius in a bend test. The ability of a material to resist deterioration or degradation due to the abrasive action of a moving stream. That property which measures the ability of a material to resist penetration by an indenter. Hardness data can sometimes be related to the tensile strength of a metal. The regular or random arrangement of atoms in a material. The ultimate strength of a material in tension. The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracturing, as measured by the energy absorbed in a notch impact test. The strength at which a metal or alloy shows significant plastic deformation.

ductility

erosion resistance hardness

structure tensile strength toughness

yield strength

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