Users Guide To The DELTA System A General System Fo Processing Taxonomic Descriptions Ruguide

Dallwitz, M.J., Paine, T.A. and Zurcher, E.J. 1993 onwards.
Users guide to the DELTA System: a general system for processing taxonomic descriptions. 4th edition. http://delta-intkey.com
Users Guide to the DELTA System: a General System for Processing Taxonomic Descriptions
20 May 2010
M.J. Dallwitz, T.A. Paine and E.J. Zurcher
Abstract
The DELTA system is a flexible data-coding format for taxonomic descriptions, and an associated set of programs for producing and typesetting natural-language descriptions and keys, for interactive identification and information retrieval, and for conversion of the data to formats required for phylogenetic and phenetic analysis. This manual is a comprehensive guide to the data format and the program directives.
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................ 1 2. Characters and Taxon Descriptions ..................................... 2 2.1 The character list ................................................................ 2 2.2 The taxon descriptions ....................................................... 3 3. The Format-Conversion Program Confor........................... 6 3.1 Introduction........................................................................ 6 3.2 Data organization and file names ....................................... 6 3.3 Error messages ................................................................... 7 3.3.1 General ........................................................................ 7 3.3.2 Storage limitations ...................................................... 8 3.4 Typesetting marks .............................................................. 8 3.5 Directives (in alphabetical order)..................................... 10 4. The Data-Maintenance Program Delfor ............................ 64 4.1 Introduction...................................................................... 64 4.2 Directives (in alphabetical order)..................................... 65 5. The Key-Generation Program Key .................................... 68 5.1 Introduction...................................................................... 68 5.2 Data and directives files ................................................... 68 5.3 Examples.......................................................................... 69 5.3.1 Interpreting program output ...................................... 69 5.3.2 Controlling the effect of character reliabilities ......... 71 5.3.3 Controlling the effect of intra-taxon variability ........ 73 5.3.4 Presetting characters.................................................. 74 5.3.5 Confirmatory characters............................................ 75 5.4 How the program selects characters................................. 77 5.5 Directives (in alphabetical order)..................................... 79 6. The Distance-Matrix Program Dist.................................... 92 6.1 Introduction...................................................................... 92 6.2 Directives (in alphabetical order)..................................... 93 7. The Interactive Identification Program Intkey ................. 98 7.1 Introduction...................................................................... 98 7.2 Accessing data and images over the Internet ................... 99 8. The Image-Annotation Program Intimate....................... 102 8.1 Introduction.................................................................... 102 8.2 Program start-up............................................................. 102 8.3 The File menu ................................................................ 103 8.4 The Illustrate menu ........................................................ 104 8.5 The Image menu............................................................. 105 8.6 The Overlay menu.......................................................... 106 8.7 The image window and manipulation of overlays ......... 109 8.8 Syntax of directives........................................................ 109 Acknowledgements................................................................. 116 References and Citation......................................................... 116
1. Introduction
When taxonomic descriptions are prepared for input to computer programs, the form of the coding is usually dictated by the requirements of a particular program or set of programs. This restricts the type of data that can be represented, and the number of other programs that can use the data. Even when working with a particular program, it is frequently necessary to set up different versions of the same basic data for example, when using restricted sets of taxa or characters to make special-purpose keys. The potential advantages of automation, especially in connection with large groups, cannot be realised if the data have to be restructured by hand for every operation. The DELTA (DEscription Language for TAxonomy) system was developed to overcome these problems. It was designed primarily for easy use by people rather than for convenience in computer programming, and is versatile enough to replace the written description as the primary means of recording data. Consequently, it can be used as a shorthand method of recording data, even if computer processing of the data is not envisaged. Particular attention has been paid to the need to minimize coding errors. The data are written in free format that is, there is no need to place data in particular columns. The characters may be assigned numbers in any order that suits the user (there is no need to group them by character types, as required by some programs). However, this order need not be adhered to when recording the attributes of a particular taxon. Thus, attributes that are unknown or considered unimportant can be omitted, and later added to the end of the list, if required. An incorrect attribute can be deleted, and the correct one inserted in the same place or at the end. Common character attributes may be made implicit that is, only the corresponding unusual attributes need appear explicitly in the data. The system is capable of encoding all of the types of character commonly used for identification and classification: unordered and ordered multistate (including two-state), counts, measurements, and text. Intermediates, ranges, and alternatives can be represented, and distinction is made between variable, unknown, and not applicable. There is provision for comments, which can be used to indicate such things as probability, rarity, uncertainty, qualification, amplification, or references. There is some redundancy in the coding system, to aid the detection of errors. Most errors have only a local effect, so that a program can continue to scan the rest of the data for other errors. A format-conversion program, Confor, converts DELTA-format data into natural language, or into formats required by several other programs, including Key (generation of keys), Dist (generation of distance matrices), Paup, MacClade (Nexus), and Hennig86 (cladistic analysis), and Intkey (interactive identification and information retrieval). A complete list of the available translations can be found under the TRANSLATE INTO directive in Section 3.5. R.J. Various other programs use DELTA format directly see DELTA Programs and Documentation. This Guide is intended as a reference manual for the DELTA format (Chapter 2), and for the programs Confor, Delfor, Key, and Dist. Intkey has built-in documentation, and there is some further information in Chapter 7 of this Guide. Introductions to using the DELTA format and programs are available in Users Guide to the DELTA Editor (Dallwitz, Paine and Zurcher 1999) and A Primer for the DELTA System (Partridge, Dallwitz and Watson 1993). The programs run on IBM-compatible PCs under MS-Windows 95/NT or later (see Installation Guide for details). The programs will also run on Macintosh computers, under Windows emulation programs. The programs are free for non-commercial use (see Conditions of Use for details). The latest versions of the DELTA programs, and several data sets, are available via the Web from http://delta-intkey.com and via anonymous ftp from ftp://delta-intkey.com.
M. J. Dallwitz, T. A. Paine and E. J. Zurcher
2. Characters and Taxon Descriptions

2.1 The character list
The taxa are described in terms of a list of characters, each of which consists of a feature and a set of states. Five main types of character are recognized: unordered multistate (UM), ordered multistate (OM), integer numeric (IN), real numeric (RN), and text (TE). A multistate character has a fixed number of states (one or more), whereas a numeric character has (in principle) an infinite number of states. (Note. One-state characters are allowed mainly for convenience when using a hierarchy of characters to represent a taxonomic or geographic hierarchy.) Table 1 shows an example of a character list. Characters 1, 2, and 3 are unordered multistate, 4 is ordered multistate, 5 is integer numeric, 6 is real numeric, and 7 is text. (For two-state characters, the distinction between unordered and ordered is arbitrary.) Table 1. Example of a character list. #1. striated area on maxillary palp <presence>/ 1. present/ 2. absent/ #2. pronotum <colour>/ 1. red/ 2. black/ 3. yellow/ #3. eyes <size>/ 1. of normal size <i.e. less than 0.5mm in diameter>/ 2. very large <i.e. more than 0.5mm in diameter>/ #4. frons <setae>/ 1. with setae on anterior middle and above eyes/ 2. with setae above eyes only/ 3. without setae/ #5. number of lamellae in antennal club/ #6. length/ mm/ #7. <comments>/ Each character description starts with a feature description. The feature description starts with a numero (#), which must be at the start of a line or preceded by a blank. The numero is followed by the character number, a full stop (.), and a blank. A blank between the numero and the character number is optional. The feature description is terminated by a slash (/), which must be at the end of a line or followed by a blank. For multistate characters, the feature description is followed by the state descriptions. A state description starts with the state number, followed by a full stop and a blank. It is terminated by a slash, which must be at the end of a line or followed by a blank. For numeric characters, the feature description may optionally be followed by the units in which the character is measured. The units are terminated by a slash, which must be at the end of a line or followed by a blank. The character numbers must be consecutive integers starting at 1, and must be in ascending order in the character list. State numbers must be consecutive integers starting at 1, and must be in ascending order within each character description. A slash not followed by a blank or end of line (e.g. and/or) is allowed, and does not constitute a terminating slash. The descriptions of the features, states, and units may contain comments delimited by angle brackets (<>). To be interpreted as a delimiting bracket, an opening bracket must be at the start of a line, or be preceded by a blank, a left bracket, or a right bracket; and a closing bracket must be at the end of a line, or be followed by a blank, a right bracket, a left bracket, or the slash which terminates that part of the character description. Nesting of comments is allowed, e.g. <aaa <bbb>>.
Users Guide to the DELTA System
Confor omits character-list comments from much of its output: in particular, they do not appear in natural-language descriptions. They may contain any kind of subsidiary material, such as definitions of the terms being used, or references. In some contexts, such as interactive identification, a feature description may be displayed in isolation; comments should therefore be used, if necessary, to make the feature description convey the nature of the character (see examples in Table 1). Lengthy comments may be more appropriately placed in the Confor directive CHARACTER NOTES (see Section 3.5). Inner nested comments should be used for the authors private notes; they can be omitted when the character list is printed or translated into other formats (see OMIT INNER COMMENTS in Section 3.5). The feature and state descriptions should start with lower-case letters (except for proper nouns, etc.). If an initial letter must remain lower case even when at the start of a sentence, it should be preceded by a vertical bar, e.g. |mRNA. If output is to be automatically typeset, any necessary typesetting marks should be included (see Section 3.4). For input to Confor, the character list must be preceded by the control phrase *CHARACTER LIST (see Chapter 3).
2.2 The taxon descriptions

A taxon description consists of one or more item descriptions, each of which describes one form or variant of the taxon. Usually one item per taxon is sufficient. However, it may be desirable, for example, to represent two or more subspecies as separate items within one species (taxon), or to represent one variable taxon by several items. An item description consists of the item name followed by a set of attributes. The item name starts with a numero (#), which must be at the start of a line or preceded by a blank. A blank after the numero is optional. The item name is terminated by a slash (/), which must be at the end of a line or followed by a blank. A slash not followed by a blank or end of line is allowed, and does not constitute a terminating slash. The item name may contain comments delimited by angle brackets (<>). To be interpreted as a delimiting bracket, an opening bracket must be at the start of a line, or be preceded by a blank, a left bracket, or a right bracket; and a closing bracket must be at the end of a line, or be followed by a blank, a right bracket, a left bracket, or the slash which terminates the item name. Nesting of comments is allowed. It is recommended that item-name comments be used for the authority, as in the example below. (The interpretation of inner nested comments is currently not defined; they may be used in future extensions of the DELTA format.) Example Item name and comment. # Archaeoglenes nemoralis <Ford>/ An attribute consists of a character number, together with the character values (state numbers or numerical values) that apply to the taxon being described. The special symbols V, U, and -, represent variable, unknown, and not applicable, respectively. These are called pseudo-values. The simplest form of an attribute is c,v where c is a character number and v is a character value or pseudo-value. Attributes must be separated by at least one blank. Example With the characters defined in Table 1, the codes 1,V 4,3 5,- 6,8.5 represent Striated area on maxillary palp present; or absent. Frons without setae. Number of lamellae in antennal club not applicable. Length 8.5mm.
The general form of an attribute is c<e 0 > or c<e 0 >,r 1 <e 1 >/r 2 <e 2 >/r n <e n > where c is a character number, r i is a value or combination of values (see below), / is a separator denoting or, and <e i > is optional extra information (a comment). Blanks or line endings are permitted within e i , but not elsewhere within the attribute. Nesting of comments is allowed. Note that, unlike the syntax in the character list and item names, any occurrence of < or > is interpreted as a comment delimiter. Inner nested comments should be used for the authors private notes; they can be omitted when the character list is printed or translated into other formats (see OMIT INNER COMMENTS in Section 3.5). r i takes one of the forms v v 1 &v 2 &v m v 1 -v 2 -v m where v is any character value or pseudo-value, vj is any character value (not a pseudo-value), & is a separator denoting and, and - is a separator denoting to. Text characters are coded simply as c<e 0 >. If an initial letter of the value of a text character must remain lower case even when at the start of a sentence, it should be preceded by a vertical bar, e.g. |mRNA. Example The codes 1,1/2<rare> 2,2/2&3<striped> 3,1-2 6,7-8.5 7<possibly two species> represent Striated area on maxillary palp present; or absent <rare>. Pronotum black; or black and yellow <striped>. Eyes of normal size to very large. Length 7 to 8.5mm. Possibly two species. When the separator - is used with ordered multistate or numeric characters, the components of r i must be in ascending order, and r i denotes all values between v1 and v m . For unordered multistate characters, values between v 1 and v m are not included in the range. Examples The attributes 4,1-3 and 4,1-2-3 are equivalent, and indicate that setae may be on the anterior middle and above the eyes, above the eyes only, or absent. However, the attributes 2,1-3 and 2,1-2-3 are not equivalent: the former denotes colours between red and yellow (red, orange, and yellow, but not black), while the latter denotes red, black, yellow, and their intermediates. For numeric characters, v1- and/or -vm may be enclosed within parentheses, to denote extreme values, and there may be at most 3 normal values (those not enclosed in parentheses). The middle or only normal value is assumed to be a measure of central tendency (mean, median, or mode). Examples These attributes are valid: 5,1 (median or mode is 1) 5,1-2 5,1-2-3 (median or mode is 2) 5,1-1-2 (median or mode is 1) 5,(1-)2 (median or mode is 2) 5,(1-)2-3 5,(1-)2-3-4 (median or mode is 3) 5,(1-)2(-3) (median or mode is 2) 5,(1-)2-3(-4) 5,(1-)2-3-4(-5) (median or mode is 3) These attributes are invalid:
Users Guide to the DELTA System 5,(1-2-)3 5,(1-)2-3-4-5
Most current applications do not make use of the distinction between the separators & and /. The only exception (apart from the Confor and Delfor options specifically for maintaining DELTA data) is the TRANSLATE INTO NATURAL LANGUAGE directive of Confor. If the distinction is essential for identification purposes, extra states can be defined for the required combinations. However, this may be less satisfactory for use in classification, as there is no way (within the DELTA system) to express the relationship between the composite states and their components. Attributes may be recorded in any order within an item. A missing attribute is equivalent to an attribute with pseudo-value U (except for variant items in a multi-item taxon, or if character dependencies or implicit values have been specified see below). Example The item # Species A/ 1,1 3,2 5,2 6,9 4,1 is equivalent to # Species A/ 1,1 2,U 3,2 4,1 5,2 6,9 The items of a multi-item taxon must be grouped together. The items are identified as belonging to the same taxon by having a plus sign after the numero of the second and subsequent items (#+). The first item is called the main item, and the other items are called variant items. Missing attributes in the main item denote characters with unknown values (or dependent or implicit values), in the usual way. Missing attributes in the variant items denote attributes that are the same as in the main item. Example The 2-item taxon # Species B (Australia)/ 1,1 2,1/2<rare> 3,1 5,3 6,5-6 #+ Species B (New Guinea)/ 3,2 5,U is equivalent to # Species B (Australia)/ 1,1 2,1/2<rare> 3,1 5,3 6,5-6 # Species B (New Guinea)/ 1,1 2,1/2<rare> 3,2 5,U 6,5-6 Confor can be used to produce DELTA-format data in which all the relevant information from the main items is explicit in the variant items (see INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES in Section 3.5). This process can also be reversed (see OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES in Section 3.5). (It is proposed that future versions of the DELTA format will have provision for specifying a taxonomic hierarchy, and for passing attribute information up and down the hierarchy. The variant items facility, in its present form, will be then be redundant, and will be removed.) Some characters have a common or usual state value, which describes the great majority of taxa, and a rare or unusual state value, which describes only one or a few taxa. It is possible to specify that the common value is to be implicit unless otherwise indicated (see IMPLICIT VALUES in Section 3.5). Then only the rare values need be explicitly coded in the items. The main purpose of implicit values is to improve natural-language descriptions by omitting the common character values. Confor can be used to insert the implicit values in DELTA-format data or natural-language descriptions (see INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES in Section 3.5). However, if implicit values are inserted in DELTA-format data, the process cannot be reversed. Sometimes certain attributes imply that other characters are inapplicable. A common example is a character that specifies the presence or absence of some structure: if the structure is absent, then all characters that further describe that structure are inapplicable. If this dependency of the characters is specified (see DEPENDENT CHARACTERS in Section 3.5), then the inapplicable characters can be omitted from items, instead of being explicitly coded as inapplicable.
For input to Confor, the items must be preceded by the control phrase *ITEM DESCRIPTIONS (see Chapter 3).
3. The Format-Conversion Program Confor

3.1 Introduction
Confor is a program for translating DELTA-format data into various other formats, including natural language. Execution of the program is controlled by means of directives, which are described in detail in Section 3.5. The output formats available are listed in that Section under the directive TRANSLATE INTO. A directive consists of a star (*), a control phrase of up to four words, and data. The star must be at the start of a line, or be preceded by a blank. A blank following the star is optional. The control phrase must be in upper-case letters. Only the first two or three symbols of each word of the control phrase are examined by the program. However, it is recommended that the words be written in full, to make the directive as readable as possible. The data take different forms, depending on the control phrase, and in some directives are absent. A control phrase must be contained in one line, but its data may extend over several lines. A directive is terminated by the star at the start of the next directive. Example *TRANSLATE INTO NATURAL LANGUAGE *PRINT WIDTH 132 *COMMENT. African species *INCLUDE ITEMS 2 3 6-8 14-15 20 23 25 The execution of the program is controlled by the contents of the directives, and by the order in which they appear. Not all combinations and orders of directives are permitted. The restrictions are given in full in the individual descriptions of the directives (see Section 3.5). The order in which the directives may appear are governed by their types. There are 6 types: 0, and 1-5. Type-0 directives have no restrictions on order. Directives of types 1-5 must appear in order of their types that is, a directive must not precede any directive of lower type. The reason for this restriction is that higher-type directives may need to use information provided by lower-type directives. The directive types for individual directives are given in Section 3.5. Except for type-0 directives, a directive must not appear more than once in a run. This restriction extends to sets of directives that specify the same or similar information, for example, the directives INCLUDE ITEMS and EXCLUDE ITEMS. Many of the variables whose values may be set by directives are assigned default values by the program at the start of each run. Variables whose default values are what is required need not be explicitly set: the directives or parts of directives that set these variables may be omitted. Sets of Confor directives are stored in files (see Section 3.2). To run the program, enter confor directives-file for example, confor tokey
3.2 Data organization and file names

The Confor directives required for a particular purpose can all be stored in a single computer file. However, it is usually more convenient and flexible to divide the directives into four files, as follows. 1. The directives file. This contains the directives required for a particular operation for example, the TRANSLATE INTO, EXCLUDE CHARACTERS, and EXCLUDE ITEMS directives. It also contains INPUT FILE directives to direct Confor to read the other three files described below. 2. The specifications file. This contains directives that describe the nature of the data, and are required for all (or almost all) operations. It always contains the directives NUMBER OF CHARACTERS, MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STATES, MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITEMS,
M. J. Dallwitz, T. A. Paine and E. J. Zurcher CHARACTER TYPES, and NUMBERS OF STATES. It should also contain directives such as DATA BUFFER SIZE, DEPENDENT CHARACTERS, and IMPLICIT VALUES, as necessary. 3. The characters file. This file contains the CHARACTER LIST directive. 4. The items file. This file contains the ITEM DESCRIPTIONS directive.
The adoption of conventions for naming files makes the names easier to remember. It is best to use a separate subdirectory for each set of data: then the names of corresponding files can always be the same, e.g. specs for the specifications file. Some examples are given below. Basic DELTA-format files. specs Specifications. chars Character list. items Items. Special-purpose DELTA-format files. The purpose is indicated by a suffix to the file name. charsf French character list. charsk Character list with special wording appropriate for translation into Key format. Key-format files produced by the TRANSLATE INTO KEY FORMAT option of Confor. The format of the files is indicated by a prefix to the file name. kchars Character list kitems Items. Directives files. tokey Translate into Key format. topau Translate into PAUP format. checki Check the items. printc Print the characters.
3.3 Error messages 3.3.1 General

When Confor detects an error in the data, it prints: the current line of data, preceded by the file name and line number; an arrow pointing to the column where the error was detected; and an error message. This information is printed on the screen and on the listing file (see LISTING FILE in Section 3.5). If an essential part of the data, such as a delimiter, has been omitted, the omission cannot usually be detected until another delimiter has been found. The site of the omission will then be before the position of the arrow, in some cases on a previous line. Error messages are often easier to interpret when viewed in full context in the listing file. By default, the CHARACTER LIST and ITEM DESCRIPTIONS directives are omitted from the listing file, but they can be included by means of the LIST CHARACTERS and LIST ITEMS directives. The latter directive was used to produce the listing file shown (in part) in the following example. Example
# nigriventris Mercovich/ 1,1.01-1.252,1 3,4 4,1-2 5,1 6,1 7,2 8,3 9,2 10,1 11,1 ^ ****** Illegal delimiter. 1 ^ ****** State number greater than specified maximum (2). 2 items,213 12,1 13,1 14,1 15, 1 17,2<difference slight> 18,3 19,2 ^ ****** Missing data. 3 ^ ****** Character 1 has already been specified. 4 items,214 20,2 21,2<usually a few on mesonotum> 23,2 24,4 25,7&8 items,215 items,211 items,212

items,216 items,217 items,218 items,219 items,220 # parvispinus Taylor 1,0.96-1.10 2,1 3,3 4,1 5.1 6,1 7,1 8,2 9,2 10,1 11,1 12,1 13,2 14,1 15,- 17,1 18,1 19,2 20,2 21,2 23,2 24,4
# phyllobates Brown/ ^ ****** Slash missing after previous item name. 5 items,221 1,0.96-1.12 2,1 3,4 4,2 5,1 6,1 7,3<fine to coarse>
There should be a blank separating the first two attributes. They should read: 1,1.01-1.25 2,1 The NUMBERS OF STATES directive specified 2 states for character 8. 3,4 Both of these messages are due to the same mistake: a blank in the middle of an attribute. It should read: 15,1 5 There should be a slash after the preceding item name (parvispinus Taylor). Note that the error in the fifth attribute (5.1 instead of 5,1) was not detected because of the missing slash, the program treated all of the attributes as part of the item name.
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After detecting errors, the program continues to process the data as long as it is possible and worthwhile to do so. When there is an error in a directive specifying a file name, the program stops immediately. After any other type of error, the program continues until a higher-type directive is encountered.
3.3.2 Storage limitations

None of the DELTA programs has fixed limits on the numbers of items or characters. All storage is allocated from a single pool, whose size depends on the amount of memory (RAM) available in the computer. All of the programs require some storage proportional to the number of characters, and some proportional to the number of items (taxa). Some of the programs also require additional storage. Key requires storage proportional to the number of items multiplied by the number of characters. Confor has a data buffer, which must be able to hold the longest item. The length of an item is increased by text material (text characters and comments), and decreased if some characters are not coded (for example, because they inapplicable to a particular item). The same storage is also used to hold individual characters from the character list and individual character notes, but these are rarely the limiting factors. Confor has two error messages that indicate that it does not have enough storage available. The first is Not enough space in data buffer. The length is n. This means that the item (or character, or character note) currently being read will not fit in the data buffer. The default length of the data buffer is 20 times the number of characters. This can be increased or decreased by means of the DATA BUFFER SIZE directive, which should be placed in the specs file immediately under the MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITEMS directive. The second message is Not enough storage. n locations required, m available. This means that the total amount of storage available is insufficient. A reduction in storage requirements is obtained by using a SPECIAL STORAGE directive in the specs file, so that the character list is stored on disk instead of in memory. Reducing the size of the data buffer (see above) will also help, but the scope for this is usually limited. However, any reduction is multiplied threefold, because there are three data buffers.
3.4 Typesetting marks

Confor recognizes RTF (Rich Text Format) typesetting marks embedded in text such as the character list, taxon names, and comments in attributes. The marks are passed through into output files such as RTF natural-language descriptions and Intkey data files (unless suppressed by means of an OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS directive). An OUTPUT FORMAT HTML directive causes the marks to be translated into the corresponding HTML (HyperText Markup Language) marks. Further typesetting marks can be inserted in various contexts in natural-language descriptions and keys by means of the TYPSETTING MARKS directive.
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Although they may contain RTF marks, DELTA data files are not RTF files (which require a special header). They must be edited as text files, or by means of the DELTA Editor which is included in the DELTA program package. In a text editor, the marks are edited as such, whereas in the DELTA Editor, the effects of the marks (for example, italics font) are edited as in a word processor. RTF marks start with a backslash (\), and are terminated by the backslash of a following mark, a space, or braces ({}). However, a space should not be used as a terminator in DELTA files, as it may be removed by Confor when wrapping lines. Some frequently used marks are given in the table below. N denotes a numeric parameter. Font size is specified in half-points, and other dimensions in twips. A twip is one-twentieth of a point. There are 1440 twips in an inch, and 567 twips in a centimetre (the conversion factor used is 1 inch = 2.5 cm). RTF Marks \i \i0 \b \b0 \sub \nosupersub \fsN \plain \endash \lquote \rquote \par \pard \sbN \saN \liN \fiN Meaning Start italics Stop italics Start bold Stop bold Start subscript Stop super- or subscript Font size Set default font attributes En dash Left quote Right quote New paragraph Default paragraph attributes Space before paragraph Space after paragraph Line indentation First line indentation (relative to line indentation) Example Marks \i{}Agrostis\i0{} \b{}Habit\b0{} C\sub{}4\nosupersub{} \fs16{}eight point Effect Agrostis Habit C4
eight point
4\endash{}10mm 4-10mm \lquote{}normal\rquote{} normal \par\pard\sb567\sa283{} Start a new paragraph with 1cm space before and 0.5cm space after Paragraph with the first line indented 0.5cm, and the others 1.5cm
\par\pard\li850\fi-567{}
A full description of RTF is available at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/q86999/.
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3.5 Directives (in alphabetical order)

Definitions A range of character numbers has the general form c 1 -c 2 where c 1 and c2 are character numbers, and c 1 is less than or equal to c 2 . It denotes all character numbers from c 1 to c 2 , inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the characters 6, 7, 8, and 9. A range of item numbers has the general form t 1 -t 2 where t1 and t 2 are item numbers, and t1 is less than or equal to t 2 . It denotes all item numbers from t1 to t2, inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the items 6, 7, 8, and 9. *ABSOLUTE ERROR (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies error limits to be applied to real numeric characters when converting to Key and Intkey formats. If an attribute in an item specifies only a single value, the errors specified in this directive are added to and subtracted from the value in the attribute to convert it to a range. See also PERCENT ERROR, OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTERS. General form *ABSOLUTE ERROR c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and r i is a positive real number. An absolute error r applied to a value v produces a range v-r to v+r. Default The values are not altered. Example *ABSOLUTE ERROR 5,10 17,.005 With this directive in force, attributes 5,95 17,.12 would be equivalent to 5,85-105 17,.115-.125. Attributes 5,55-70 17,2.2-2.6 would be unchanged. *ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive allows the occurrence of two or more attributes with the same character number in an item. The last attribute with a given character number overrides the previous ones, and a warning message is displayed. This is to enable corrections to be made by appending the correct attribute, without the need to delete the incorrect attribute. This directive should be used with care, because repeated use of the same character number can arise unintentionally through mistyping of a character number. General form *ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES Default Duplicate values are fatal errors.
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*ADD CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies additional characters (that is, additional to those specified by means of an INCLUDE CHARACTERS or EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive) to be included in the naturallanguage descriptions of specified taxa. Repeated use of the directive has a cumulative effect. General form *ADD CHARACTERS #t 1 . c 1 1 c 1 2 c 1 j #t 2 . c 2 1 c 2 2 c 2 j #t i . c i 1 c i 2 c i j or *ADD CHARACTERS #n 1 / c 1 1 c 1 2 c 1 j #n 2 /. c 2 1 c 2 2 c 2 j #n i / c i 1 c i 2 c i j where t i is an item number, n i is an item name, and c i j is a character number or range of numbers. Default No additional characters are output. Example *ADD CHARACTERS #2. 4 9 11 13 16 20 28 #7. 4 9 11 13 16 19 27-28 34 #11. 4 9 11-13 16 19 27-28 34 #14. 4 9 11-13 77 *ADD CHARACTERS # Andropogon <L.>/ 25 # Echinochloa <P. Beauv.>/ 18 # Zea <L.>/ 13 25 *ALTERNATE COMMA (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that an alternate comma be used to separate elements in a list of states in natural-language descriptions. The form of the alternate comma is specified in the VOCABULARY directive. (In Chinese, the alternate comma should be used when the states are nouns, for example, for characters specifying geographical distribution or host range.) General form *ALTERNATE COMMA c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default The normal comma is used. Example *ALTERNATE COMMA 51 59
Users Guide to the DELTA System *APPLICABLE CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies the values of controlling characters which make other dependent characters applicable. If, in a given item, a controlling character takes only values which make its dependent characters inapplicable, or if the controlling character itself is inapplicable, then the dependent characters must not be given any values (other than the pseudovalue inapplicable (see Section 2.2), which is redundant and will be removed by translation into DELTA format (see TRANSLATE INTO)). The directive must not appear with an INAPPLICABLE CHARACTERS or DEPENDENT CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *APPLICABLE CHARACTERS c 1 ,s 1 :d 1 c 2 ,s 2 :d 2 c i ,s i :d i where c i is a character number (the controlling character), s i is a set of state numbers, and d i is a set of character numbers (the dependent characters). s i takes the form t 1 /t 2 /t j / where t j is a state number. d i takes the form e 1 :e 2 :e j : where e j is a character number or range of numbers. Characters declared applicable for a given value of a character are considered to be inapplicable for any other value of that character, unless explicitly declared otherwise. The controlling characters must be multistate, and any value of a controlling character may appear only once in the directive. Default None. Example *APPLICABLE CHARACTERS 10,1:11 16,1:17 20,1:21-24 32,1:33-38 39,2:40-43 47,3:48-51 55,1:56 57,1:58-59 68,1:69 78,1:79-80 78,2:79:81 78,3:82 78,4:83 78,5:79:84 This is equivalent to the example given for the DEPENDENT CHARACTERS directive. *CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive allows the specification, from information coded in the items, of the names of files for natural-language descriptions. It is an alternative to the ITEM OUTPUT FILES directive. See also INDEX OUTPUT FILE, SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES. General form *CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES c where c is the number of a text character. The text recorded against this character for an item is used as the main part of the output-file name, from that item onwards. The appropriate file type (.rtf or .htm) is appended. Default Output files for natural-language descriptions are specified by the PRINT FILE and NEW FILES AT ITEMS directives Example *CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES 226
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*CHARACTERS FOR SYNONYMY (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies text characters which contain information on synonymy. These characters, as well as the taxon names, are searched by the Find taxa option in Intkey (Version 4.04 and later). General form *CHARACTERS FOR SYNONYMY c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default None. Only the taxon names are searched by Intkey. Example *CHARACTERS FOR SYNONYMY 1-3 *CHARACTER FOR TAXON IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies a dummy text character, which is used as a placeholder for taxon-image information in natural-language descriptions. The images and associated information are stored in a TAXON IMAGES directive. General form *CHARACTER FOR TAXON IMAGES c where c is a character number. Default None. Example *CHARACTER FOR TAXON IMAGES 105 *CHARACTER FOR TAXON NAMES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive allows the specification of alternative taxon name for use in output files. It is mainly intended for specifying abbreviated names for output files destined for other programs, in which long names are impossible or inconvenient. General form *CHARACTER FOR TAXON NAMES c where c is the number of a text character. The text recorded against this character for an item is used as the taxon name in output files. Default The normal taxon name is used. Example *CHARACTER FOR TAXON NAMES 226
Users Guide to the DELTA System *CHARACTER HEADINGS (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies headings to be placed in the character list produced by a PRINT CHARACTER LIST directive. (It should not be confused with the ITEM SUBHEADINGS directive.) General form *CHARACTER HEADINGS ! #c 1 . !t 1 ! #c 2 . !t 2 ! #c i . !t i ! where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; c i is a character number; and t i is any text. The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within the heading. The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the words CHARACTER HEADINGS). t i is output immediately before character c i on a separate line. Default None. Example *CHARACTER HEADINGS #1. Habit and Leaf Form #24. Inflorescence and Floral Morphology #69. Fruit, Seed and Seedling #87. Transverse Section of Lamina #96. Leaf Epidermis #119. Wood Anatomy #124. Pollen Ultrastructure #131. Miscellaneous *CHARACTER IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies information on character images and associated annotation for use with Intkey. The directive is normally created and edited by means of the program Intimate (see Chapter 8). General form See CHARACTER IMAGES in Section 8.8. Default None. Example See file cimages in the sample data supplied with the programs. *CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies information on character keyword images and associated annotation for use with Intkey. It allows selection of character keywords from image screens (instead of from text screens).
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The directive is normally created and edited by means of the program Intimate (see Chapter 8). General form See CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES in Section 8.8. Default None. Example See file kimages in the sample data supplied with the programs. *CHARACTER LIST (Confor; Type 5) Description This directive specifies the character list. See also CHARACTER NOTES and CHARACTER IMAGES. General form *CHARACTER LIST c where c is the character list (see Section 2.1). Default None. Example See file chars in the sample data supplied with the programs. *CHARACTER NOTES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies text containing supplementary information about characters. This information is placed after the appropriate characters in the output produced by the PRINT CHARACTER LIST directive, and is also available through Intkey. General form *CHARACTER NOTES #s 1 . t 1 #s 2 . t 2 #s i . t i where s i is a set of character numbers and t i is any text. s i takes the form c 1 :c 2 :c j : where c j is a character number or range of numbers. Default None. Example See file cnotes in the sample data supplied with the programs.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies the reliabilities or weights of the characters. The interpretation of the reliabilities or weights depends on the program for which they are intended. Generally, characters with high reliabilities or weights will be given emphasis in some way for example, they will tend to be used early in keys. This directive specifies the same information as the CHARACTER WEIGHTS directive. The relation between a reliability, r, and a weight, w, is given by w = 2 r-5 . For example, reliabilities of 5 and 3 are equivalent to weights of 1 and 0.25, respectively. General form *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of character numbers, and r i is a real number in the range 0 to 10. Default 5. Example *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES 2,6 3,10 8,7.5 10,0 12-14,2 The equivalent weights are 2,2 3,32 8,5.66 10,0.03125 12-14,0.125. *CHARACTER TYPES (Confor, Delfor; Type 2) Description This directive specifies the types of the characters. General form *CHARACTER TYPES c 1 ,t 1 c 2 ,t 2 c i ,t i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and t i is one of the following character types. UM Unordered Multistate. Multistate (including 2-state) characters in which the states are not arranged in a natural order. OM Ordered Multistate. Multistate characters in which the states are arranged in a natural order. IN Integer Numeric. Numeric characters which take only integer (whole-number) values. RN Real Numeric. Numeric characters which may take fractional or integer values. TE Text. Default Characters not specified in this directive have type UM. Example 1 *CHARACTER TYPES 1-2,UM 3,OM 4,IN 5,UM 6,IN 7-9,UM 10-11,RN 12,UM 13,TE Example 2 *CHARACTER TYPES 3,OM 4,IN 6,IN 10-11,RN 13,TE Equivalent to Example 1.
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*CHARACTER WEIGHTS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the weights of the characters. The interpretation of the weights depends on the program for which they are intended. Generally, characters with high weights will be given emphasis in some way for example, they will tend to be used early in keys. The directive must not appear with a CHARACTER RELIABILITIES directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *CHARACTER WEIGHTS c 1 ,w 1 c 2 ,w 2 c i ,w i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and w i is a real number in the range 0.03125 to 32 (corresponding to character reliabilities in the range 0 to 10). Default 1. Example *CHARACTER WEIGHTS 1,5 2,10 3,1.5 6,0.5 8,.05 *CHINESE FORMAT (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies formatting for Chinese and similar languages. Chinese symbols (characters) are assumed to be represented by pairs of bytes with the high-order bit set in the first byte. Capitalization is suppressed, line breaks may occur before or after any Chinese symbol, and spaces are not placed between features and states in natural-language descriptions. General form *CHINESE FORMAT Default Normal formatting for alphabetic languages. *COMMENT (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive enables comments to be incorporated in directives files. It is intended for information that is not associated with a particular character, item, or attribute (for example, the date of the last revision of the data). It can also be used to deactivate a directive that is not currently required, but may be required again later. See also SHOW. General form *COMMENT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. Default None. Example 1 *COMMENT Mask for Australian genera. Example 2 Deactivate an EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *COMMENT EXCLUDE CHARACTERS 35-52 *DATA BUFFER SIZE (Confor, Delfor; Type 1) Description
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This directive sets the size of arrays used for temporary storage of character and item descriptions. It need be used only if error messages on previous runs have indicated storage problems (see Section 3.3.2). The arrays must be large enough to hold (in the internal representation) the longest character or item description. However, if the arrays are larger than necessary, they occupy storage that could be used for other purposes. General form *DATA BUFFER SIZE n where n is a positive integer. Default 2000, or 20 times the number of characters, whichever is the greater. Example *DATA BUFFER SIZE 1200 *DATA COMPRESSION (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes the items produced when translating into DELTA format to be coded more compactly. Successive attributes that have the same character types and the same state values are combined by using a range of character numbers. For example, the attributes 12,2 13,2 14,2 would become 12-14,2. General form *DATA COMPRESSION Default Each attribute is output separately. *DATA LISTING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive causes the data read from the input file to be listed on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). In the listing, each line is preceded by the name of the file from which it was read, and by the line number. The directive is cancelled by the NO DATA LISTING directive. This directive does not cause the characters and items files to be listed. This is done by means of the LIST CHARACTERS and LIST ITEMS directives. General form *DATA LISTING Default The input data are not listed. Note, however, that the listing is turned on by the LISTING FILE directive.
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*DECIMAL PLACES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the number of decimal places to be used in outputting real character values, when translating into DELTA format or natural language. General form *DECIMAL PLACES c1,d1 c2,d2 ci,di where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and d i is an integer in the range 0 to 5. The characters must be real numeric (RN). Default 5 significant figures, with suppression of non-significant zeros. Example Suppose that characters 1, 2, and 3 are real numeric. *DECIMAL PLACES 2,0 3,2 The attributes 1,2.6 2,2.6 3,2.6 would be output in DELTA format as 1,2.6 2,3 3,2.60. *DEPENDENT CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the values of controlling characters that make other dependent characters inapplicable. If, in a given item, a controlling character takes only values that make its dependent characters inapplicable, or if the controlling character itself is inapplicable, then the dependent characters must not be given any values (other than the pseudovalue inapplicable (see Section 2.2), which is redundant and will be removed by translation into DELTA format (see TRANSLATE INTO)). The directive must not appear with an APPLICABLE CHARACTERS or INAPPLICABLE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *DEPENDENT CHARACTERS c 1 ,s 1 :d 1 c 2 ,s 2 :d 2 c i ,s i :d i where c i is a character number (the controlling character), s i is a set of state numbers, and d i is a set of character numbers (the dependent characters). s i takes the form t 1 /t 2 /t j / where t j is a state number. d i takes the form e 1 :e 2 :e k : where e k is a character number or range of numbers. The controlling characters must be multistate, and any value of a controlling character may appear only once in the directive. Default None. Example *DEPENDENT CHARACTERS 4,2:16 10,1/3:12-13:20:30-35 Attribute 4,2 implies that character 16 is inapplicable. Attributes 10,1 and 10,3 imply that characters 12, 13, 20, and 30-35 are inapplicable. *DISABLE DELTA OUTPUT (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive, used with TRANSLATE INTO INTKEY FORMAT, disables the Intkey commands OUTPUT DESCRIBE and OUTPUT SUMMARY (which produce DELTA-format data). Note that
Users Guide to the DELTA System this cannot prevent Intkey users from capturing data for processing by other programs it only makes it more difficult. General form *DISABLE DELTA OUTPUT Default DELTA output from Intkey is permitted. *DIST OUTPUT FILE (Confor; Type 0) Description
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This directive specifies the file on which data destined for input to the Dist program will be written (see TRANSLATE INTO). The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. It is a direct-access file, and cannot be viewed or changed with ordinary text editors. General form *DIST OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default None. Example *DIST OUTPUT FILE ditems.grass *EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies characters to be emphasized in the typeset natural-language descriptions of specified taxa (see TYPESETTING MARKS). The specified characters will appear in the description regardless of whether they have been included by means of an INCLUDE CHARACTERS or EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive. Repeated use of the directive has a cumulative effect. General form *EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS #t 1 . c 1 1 c 1 2 c 1 j #t 2 . c 2 1 c 2 2 c 2 j #t i . c i 1 c i 2 c i j or *EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS #n 1 / c 1 1 c 1 2 c 1 j #n 2 / c 2 1 c 2 2 c 2 j #n i / c i 1 c i 2 c i j where t i is an item number, n i is an item name, and c i j is a character number or range of numbers. Default Character descriptions are not emphasized. Example *EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS
22 #1. 11 35 39 #2. 16 #3. 31 61 #4. 15 66 #5. 16 19 31 #6. 19 28 31 44 #7. 16 19 27 #8. 65 #9. 4 44 66 #10. 4 60 #11. 13 27 34 #12. 11 56 #13. 13 52 66 #14. 12
*EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS # Andropogon <L.>/ 25 # Bambusa <Schreber>/ 13 # Echinochloa <P. Beauv.>/ 18 # Zea <L.>/ 13 25 *EMPHASIZE FEATURES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes the specified features to be emphasized in natural-language descriptions (see TYPESETTING MARKS). To emphasize the feature in a set of linked characters, all of the features in the set should normally be specified in the EMPHASIZE FEATURES directive, in case the attribute corresponding to the first character is missing. General form *EMPHASIZE FEATURES c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default None. Example *EMPHASIZE FEATURES 1 6-8 20 *END (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive terminates the program. It is supplied automatically by the program at the end of the main directives file. General form *END Default None.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *ERROR FILE (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description
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This directive specifies the file on which error messages will be output. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output, apart from listing and print output (see LISTING FILE and PRINT FILE). General form *ERROR FILE f where f is a file name. Default Error messages are output on the default output device or file of the particular computer system. This is usually the screen. Also, error messages are always output on the listing file if one has been specified. Example *ERROR FILE check.err *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies characters that are to be excluded from output files. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default All characters are included. Example *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS 1 3-5 *EXCLUDE ITEMS (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies items that are to be excluded from output files. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *EXCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default All items are included. Example *EXCLUDE ITEMS 3 5-6 20
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*HEADING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies a heading, which may subsequently used to label the output. The current time and date may be included in the heading. The heading is printed on the error file when reading of the HEADING directive is complete; on the listing file (see LISTING FILE) when a new file is started, or after a LIST HEADING directive; and on the print file (see PRINT FILE) after a PRINT HEADING directive. On the output file, the heading is written wherever #HEADING (or the equivalent) appears in the data of a OUTPUT PARAMETERS directive (except when translating into DELTA format). General form *HEADING t where t is any text not containing blank-star. The words #TIME and #DATE are replaced by the current time and date, respectively. The total number of symbols in the heading, including the time and date, must not exceed 200. Default None. Example *HEADING: Genus Orectognathus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). #DATE *IMAGE DIRECTORY (Confor; Type 4) This directive specifies a directory name for images that have links from natural-language descriptions in HTML format. The names of the image files are obtained from a TAXON IMAGES directive, and the specified directory name is prefixed to the file names. To facilitate moving the output files onto other computers (in particular, onto a WWW server), the image directory should be specified as a relative rather than an absolute path, as shown in the example. General form *IMAGE DIRECTORY d where d is a directory name. Default None. Hence, the image files must be in the same directory as the HTML files which reference them. Example *IMAGE DIRECTORY ..\images The .. refers to the parent of the current directory. Typically, the HTML descriptions are in a subdirectory www and the images in a subdirectory images, both of which are subdirectories of a directory containing the HTML index file and the Intkey files. *IMPLICIT VALUES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive permits certain attributes or state values to be omitted from items. The omitted attributes or values are assigned default values. The main purpose of the directive is to improve natural-language descriptions by omitting frequently occurring state values. General form *IMPLICIT VALUES c 1 ,s 1 :t 1 c 2 ,s 2 :t 2 c i ,s i :t i
Users Guide to the DELTA System where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and s i and t i are state values. :t i is optional. Numeric or text characters must not be specified.
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If a character specified by c i does not appear in an item, then the character is assigned the value s i (unless the item is a variant item, in which case missing characters have their normal interpretation). If a character specified by c i appears without a value or pseudovalue, it is assigned the value t i ; if :t i is not present in the directive, then no value is assigned. Unknown values must be represented by U. When translating into DELTA format, implicit values are not inserted unless an INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES directive is in force. When translating into natural language, implicit values corresponding to s i are not inserted unless an INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES directive is in force, or the item and character have been specified in an ADD CHARACTERS or EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS directive. Implicit values corresponding to t i are inserted as though they were explicitly coded in the item; that is, the attributes c i and c i ,t i produce the same result. If an attribute which has been specified as implicit is nevertheless explicitly coded in an item (that is, c i ,s i appears in the item), the attribute is output when translating into DELTA format or natural language. This explicit coding of otherwise implicit attributes can be used for emphasis, for example, when the attribute is important for distinguishing the taxon from a closely related one. Default None. Example *IMPLICIT VALUES 1-3,2:1 5,1 The attributes 1,3 3 are then equivalent to 1,3 2,2 3,1 5,1 (except in natural-language descriptions). *INAPPLICABLE CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive is synonymous with the DEPENDENT CHARACTERS directive. *INCLUDE CHARACTERS (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies characters which are to be included in output files. The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default All characters are included. Example *INCLUDE CHARACTERS 2 6-20
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*INCLUDE ITEMS (Confor, Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies items which are to be included in output files. The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default All items are included. Example *INCLUDE ITEMS 1-2 4 7-19 *INDEX HEADINGS (Confor; Type 4) This directive specifies headings to be used in the HTML index file (see INDEX OUTPUT FILE), interspersed with the taxon names. General form *INDEX HEADINGS ! #n 1 / !h 1 ! #n 2 / !h 2 ! #n i / !h i! where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; n i is a taxon name; and h i is a heading. The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within the heading. The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the words INDEX HEADINGS). In the output, the headings are positioned before corresponding taxon names. Default There are no headings interspersed with the taxon names in the index. Example *INDEX HEADINGS ! # F. arizonica/ !Subg. Festuca L. ! # F. altaica/ !Subg. Leucopoa (Griseb.) Hack. ! # F. arundinacea/ !Subg. Schedonorus (Beauv.) Peterm. ! # F. elmeri/ !Subg. Subulatae Tzvelev, sect. Subulatae Tzvelev ! #F. paradoxa/ !Subg. Subulatae (Tzvelev) E. B. Alexeev, sect. Obtusae E. B. Alexeev ! #F. amethystina/ !Species of Festuca that have been excluded for various reasons, such as limited data or uncertainties related to the correct name, and two species of Lolium. ! *INDEX OUTPUT FILE (Confor; Type 0) This directive specifies the name of an HTML index file, into which are put links to files containing natural-language descriptions in HTML format. It is used in conjunction with the directives
Users Guide to the DELTA System CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES or ITEM OUTPUT FILES, which specify files containing individual taxon descriptions. See also INDEX TEXT. General form *INDEX OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default None. Example *INDEX OUTPUT FILE .\index.htm
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The .\ (current directory) overrides the directory specified in a previous OUTPUT DIRECTORY directive. (Usually, the index file is in the main data directory, whereas the HTML files are in a subdirectory www, which is specified as the output directory when these files are being generated.) *INDEX TEXT (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies text to be put in the HTML index file specified by the INDEX OUPUT FILE directive. General form *INDEX TEXT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. Default None. Example See file tonath in the sample data supplied with the programs. *INPUT DELTA FILE (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file from which directives are next to be read. It differs from the INPUT FILE directive in that if the specified file is not found in the current default directory, the program looks for it in the DELTA directory. General form *INPUT DELTA FILE f where f is a file name. Default None. Example *INPUT DELTA FILE vocabde
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*INPUT FILE (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file from which input lines will be read after the processing of the current input line is finished. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. General form *INPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default Input is from a file specified in the command line which started the program running, or a file specified in response to a prompt issued by the program. Example *INPUT FILE specs *INSERT CHARACTER SEQUENCE NUMBERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that sequence numbers are to be inserted in the new characters file, when translating into DELTA format. (It was used when data were saved on punched cards, so that the card deck could be correctly re-assembled if it was dropped.) See also SEQUENCE INCREMENT. General form *INSERT CHARACTER SEQUENCE NUMBERS Default Sequence numbers are omitted from the new characters file. *INSERT IMAGE FILE NAME (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes the image-file names to be included in the output generated by the CHARACTER FOR TAXON IMAGES and TAXON IMAGES directives. It is intended for constructing an HTML image catalog for use by the author of a data set. General form *INSERT IMAGE FILE NAME Default Image-file names are not output (unless no subject has been specified for the image see Chapter 8). *INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes implicit values (see IMPLICIT VALUES) to be inserted in natural-language and DELTA-format output. (They are always inserted in all other output.) General form *INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES Default Implicit values are omitted from natural-language and DELTA-format output.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *INSERT ITEM SEQUENCE NUMBERS (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies that sequence numbers are to be inserted in the new items file, when translating into DELTA format. (It was used when data were saved on punched cards, so that the card deck could be correctly re-assembled if it was dropped.) See also SEQUENCE INCREMENT. General form *INSERT ITEM SEQUENCE NUMBERS Default Sequence numbers are omitted from the new items file. *INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that, when translating a variant item into DELTA format or natural language, an attribute will be output if it is coded in either the master or variant item that is, information missing from the variant item will be taken from the master item if possible. (Note that, for all other output formats, this is always done it is not necessary to use this directive.) See also OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES. General form *INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES Default When translating a variant item into DELTA format or natural language, variant items are output as coded. *INTKEY OUTPUT FILE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file on which data destined for input to the Intkey program will be written (see TRANSLATE INTO). The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. It is a direct-access file, and cannot be viewed or changed with ordinary text editors. General form *INTKEY OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default None. Example *INTKEY OUTPUT FILE iitems *ITEM ABUNDANCES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the abundances or weights of the items. The interpretation of the abundances or weights depends on the program for which they are intended. Generally, items with high abundances or weights will be given emphasis in some way for example, they tend to come out early in keys.
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This directive specifies the same information as the ITEM WEIGHTS directive. The relation between an abundance, a, and a weight, w, is given by w = 2 a-5 . For example, abundances of 9 and 5 are equivalent to weights of 16 and 1, respectively. General form *ITEM ABUNDANCES t 1 ,a 1 t 2 ,a 2 t i ,a i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. and a i is a real number in the range 0 to 10. Default 5. Example *ITEM ABUNDANCES 2-4,3 6,8 10,9 *ITEM DESCRIPTIONS (Confor; Type 5) Description This directive specifies the item descriptions. See also ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES, DEPENDENT CHARACTERS, IMPLICIT VALUES, MANDATORY CHARACTERS. General form *ITEM DESCRIPTIONS t where t is the taxon descriptions (see Section 2.2). Default None. Example See file items in the sample data supplied with the programs. *ITEM HEADINGS (Confor; Type 4) This directive specifies headings to be used in natural-language output, interspersed with the taxon descriptions. General form *ITEM HEADINGS ! #n 1 / !h 1 ! #n 2 / !h 2 ! #n i / !h i ! where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; n i is a taxon name; and h i is a heading. The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within the heading. The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the words ITEM HEADINGS). In the output, the headings are positioned before corresponding taxon descriptions. Default There are no headings interspersed with the taxon descriptions. Example *ITEM HEADINGS
Users Guide to the DELTA System # F. arizonica/ \page\b\fs24{}Subg. \i{}Festuca\i0{} L.\b0{} # F. altaica/ \page\b\fs24{}Subg. \i{}Leucopoa\i0{} (Griseb.) Hack.\b0{} # F. arundinacea/ \page\b\fs24{}Subg. \i{}Schedonorus\i0{} (Beauv.) Peterm.\b0{} # F. elmeri/ \page\b\fs24{}Subg. \i{}Subulatae\i0{} Tzvelev, sect. \i{}Subulatae\i0{} Tzvelev\b0{} #F. paradoxa/ \page\b\fs24{}Subg. \i{}Subulatae\i0{} (Tzvelev) E. B. Alexeev, sect. \i{}Obtusae\i0{} E. B. Alexeev\b0{} #F. amethystina/ \page\b\fs24{}Species of \i{}Festuca\i0{} that have been excluded for various reasons, such as limited data or uncertainties related to the correct name, and two species of \i{}Lolium\i0{}.\b0{} *ITEM OUTPUT FILES (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies the names of output files for natural-language descriptions. It is an alternative to the CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES directive. See also INDEX OUTPUT FILE, SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES. General form *ITEM OUTPUT FILES #n 1 / f 1 #n 2 / f 2 #n i / f i where n i is a taxon name, and f i is text specifying a file name. f i is used as the main part of the outputfile name, from the corresponding item onwards. The appropriate file type (.rtf or .htm) is appended by the program. Default Output files for natural-language descriptions are specified by the PRINT FILE and NEW FILES AT ITEMS directives Example *ITEM OUTPUT FILES # Agrostis <L.>/ agrostis # Andropogon <L.>/ andropog # Phragmites <Adans.>/ phragmit # Poa <L.>/ poa # Zea <L.>/ zea *ITEM SUBHEADINGS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies subheadings to be placed in natural-language descriptions (see TRANSLATE INTO). (It should not be confused with the CHARACTER HEADINGS directive.) General form *ITEM SUBHEADINGS ! #c 1 . !t 1 ! #c 2 . !t 2 ! #c i . !t i !
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where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; c i is a character number; and t i is any text. The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within the heading. The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the words ITEM SUBHEADINGS). t i is output immediately before attribute c i . Default None. Example *ITEM SUBHEADINGS #87. Transverse section of lamina. #96. Leaf epidermis. #124. Pollen ultrastructure. *ITEM WEIGHTS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the weights of the items. The interpretation of the weights depends on the program for which they are intended. Generally, items with high weights will be given emphasis in some way for example, they tend to come out early in keys. The directive must not appear with an ITEM ABUNDANCES directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *ITEM WEIGHTS t 1 ,w 1 t 2 ,w 2 t i ,w i where t i is an item number or range of numbers, and w i is a real number in the range 0.03125 to 32 (corresponding to item abundances in the range 0 to 10). Default 1. Example *ITEM WEIGHTS 3,.5 5,7 6-7,.05 10,20 *KEY CHARACTER LIST (Confor; Type 5) Description This directive specifies an alternative character list, in which the state descriptions conform to the states specified in the KEY STATES directive. It is intended for use when the wording of the new state descriptions generated by the program is unsatisfactory. The directive must not appear with a CHARACTER LIST directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *KEY CHARACTER LIST c where c is a character list (see Section 2.1). Default None. Example Suppose that the character list in Table 1 (Section 2.1) is used with the following KEY STATES directive.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *KEY STATES 4,1&2/3 5,7/8 6,~5/5~ The following wordings would be generated for the new states of characters 4 to 6. #4. frons <setae>/ 1. with setae on anterior middle and above eyes or with setae above eyes only/ 2. without setae/ #5. number of lamellae in antennal club/ 1. 7/ 2. 8/ #6. length/ 1. up to 5 mm/ 2. 5 mm or more/ The following directive could be used to change the wordings of characters 4 and 6. *KEY CHARACTER LIST #1. striated area on maxillary palp <presence>/ 1. present/ 2. absent/ #2. pronotum <colour>/ 1. red/ 2. black/ 3. yellow/ #3. eyes <size>/ 1. of normal size <i.e. less than 0.5 mm in diameter>/ 2. very large <i.e. more than 0.5 mm in diameter>/ #4. frons <setae>/ 1. with setae/ 2. without setae/ #5. number of lamellae in antennal club/ 1. 7/ 2. 8/ #6. length/ 1. 5 mm or less/ 2. 5 mm or more/ #7. <comments>/
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Note that the definitions in the KEY CHARACTER LIST directive of all characters appearing in the KEY STATES directive must be consistent with the KEY STATES directive. Thus, in the example, it is not permissible to leave the wording of character 5 in the form appropriate to a numeric character. Also, all characters must be present, including those not mentioned in the KEY STATES directive. *KEY OUTPUT FILE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file on which data destined for input to the Key program will be written. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. It is a direct-access file, and cannot be viewed or changed with ordinary text editors. General form *KEY OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default None.
34 Example
*KEY OUTPUT FILE kchars *KEY STATES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies how the DELTA character states and values are to be modified for use in identification keys. Numeric characters must be converted into multistate characters by breaking up the total range of values into two or more intervals. Multistate characters may be modified by combining or reordering states. Combining of states may be desirable if discrimination between some of the states is difficult. The new states may be overlapped, in order to give a margin for error. Values which fall in a region of overlap are assigned to both states. Conversely, the new states need not completely cover the range of the old states. This could be appropriate if some values never occur in the group of taxa for which the key is required. When translating into Intkey format (see TRANSLATE INTO), key states can be defined only for multistate characters (if numeric characters are specified, they are ignored). General form *KEY STATES c 1 ,p 1 c 2 ,p 2 c i ,p i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and p i is the specification of the new states for that character. pi takes the form s 1 /s 2 /s j / where s j is the specification of new state j. For unordered multistate characters, s j takes the form t or t 1 &t 2 &t k & where t and t k are old state numbers. The new state includes all of the specified old states. For ordered multistate characters, s j takes the form t or t-u where t and u are old state numbers. t-u denotes t, u, and all of the states in between. For numeric characters, sj takes the form t or t-u or ~t or t~ where t and u are numbers. t-u denotes t, u, and all values in between; ~t denotes all values up to and including t; and t~ denotes t and all larger values. Default For numeric characters, there is no default if the characters are to be used in the key, key states must be specified. For multistate characters, the default key states are the same as the DELTA states. Example *CHARACTER TYPES 1-3,UM 4-6,OM 7-9,IN 10-12,RN *NUMBERS OF STATES 1,2 2,4 3,2 4,3 5,5 6,3 *KEY STATES 2,1&3/2/4 3,2/1 5,1/2/3-5 6,1-2/2-3 8,~2/3~ 9,0-2/3/4 11,~5/5~ 12,0-2/1.5-4/3.5~ No new states have been specified for characters 1, 4, 7, and 10. Thus, the multistate characters 1 and 4 are unchanged, and the numeric characters 7 and 10 cannot be used in the key. In character 2, states 1 and 3 become state 1, state 2 is unchanged, and state 4 becomes state 3. In character 3, the order of the two states is reversed. In character 5, states 1 and 2 are unchanged, and states 3, 4, and 5 become state 3. In character 6, states 1 and 2 become state 1, and states 2 and 3 become state 2. (For example, suppose that the DELTA states of character 6 were: 1. concave, 2. straight, 3. convex. The key states would be: 1. concave or straight, 2. straight or convex.) In character 8, the states are 2 or fewer, and 3 or more. In character 9, the states are 0 to 2, 3, and 4. In character 11, the states are 5 or less and 5 or greater. In character 12, the states are 0 to 2, 1.5 to 4, and 3.5 or greater.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *LINK CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies how attributes are to be combined into sentences in natural-language descriptions. The attributes corresponding to a linked set of characters are placed in the same sentence until an attribute not belonging to the set is encountered. The attributes in a sentence are separated by semicolons, unless a REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA directive is in force. Words at the start of the feature description (see Section 2.1) of the second and subsequent attributes in a sentence are omitted if they are the same as the words at the start of the feature description of the first attribute in the sentence. General form *LINK CHARACTERS s 1 s 2 s i where s i is a set of character numbers. s i takes the form c 1 :c 2 :c j : where cj is a character number or range of numbers. Default Each attribute in a natural-language description is placed in a separate sentence. Example 1 *LINK CHARACTERS 1-3 6:10-11 7-9 The linked sets are: {1,2,3}, {6,10,11}, {7,8,9}. Example 2 The unlinked attributes Culm sheaths persistent. Culm leaves present. in which the feature descriptions are culm sheaths and culm leaves become Culm sheaths persistent; leaves present. when linked. Example 3 Note that a sentence will be terminated before the end of the linked set if the set is not contiguous and intervening attributes are present. Compare the treatments of attributes 45 to 54 (lemmas, shape of apex to lemmas, number of nerves) in the descriptions of Agrostis and Zea in the sample data supplied with the programs. In Agrostis, the awn attributes 48 to 51 separate the two groups of lemma attributes, so there are three sentences. In Zea, there are no awns, so there is only a single sentence. *LIST CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the CHARACTER LIST, CHARACTER NOTES, and CHARACTER IMAGES directives are to be listed on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). It overrides a NO DATA LISTING directive. General form *LIST CHARACTERS Default The directives are not listed.
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*LIST HEADING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies that the heading is to be printed on the listing file (see HEADING, LISTING FILE). General form *LIST HEADING Default None. *LIST ITEMS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the ITEM DESCRIPTIONS and TAXON IMAGES directives are to be listed on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). It overrides a NO DATA LISTING directive. General form *LIST ITEMS Default The directives are not listed. *LISTING FILE (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies a file on which a listing of the input data will be output, and turns the listing on. If the file is not already in use, the current heading and the text of the last SHOW directive are output on the file. The line on which the directive ends is the first one listed on the file. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output, apart from error and print output (see ERROR FILE and PRINT FILE). Error messages are also output on this file, as well as on the error file. General form *LISTING FILE f where f is a file name. Default The input data are not listed. If listing has activated by means of a DATA LISTING directive, and a listing file has not been defined, the listing is produced on the default output device or file of the particular computer system. This is usually the screen. Example *LISTING FILE tonat.lst *MANDATORY CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies characters that must be coded for every item. If any of the specified characters is not coded in an item, a warning is given. General form *MANDATORY CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i
Users Guide to the DELTA System where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default No characters are mandatory. Example *MANDATORY CHARACTERS 1 3-5 *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITEMS (Confor; Type 1) Description This directive specifies the maximum number of items to be read. The number specified should be greater than or equal to the actual number of item descriptions. General form *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITEMS n where n is a positive integer. Default 1. Example *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITEMS 173 *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STATES (Confor, Delfor; Type 1) Description
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This directive specifies the maximum number of states present in any of the characters. (States defined in a KEY STATES directive must be taken into account.) The number may be set larger than the actual maximum, but this wastes some storage. General form *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STATES n where n is a positive integer. Default 2. Example *MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STATES 10 *NEW FILES AT ITEMS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies where new output files are to be started in natural-language descriptions (see TRANSLATE INTO). The directive is intended for breaking up large output files for convenience in later processing. The names of the extra files are generated automatically by appending numbers to the file name specified in the PRINT FILE directive. General form *NEW FILES AT ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers.
38 Default
All output is written to a single file. Example *NEW FILES AT ITEMS 1 51 101 *NEW LISTING PAGE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive produces a new page on the listing file (see LISTING FILE), unless a NO DATA LISTING directive is in force. General form *NEW LISTING PAGE Default None. *NEW PARAGRAPHS AT CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies where new paragraphs are to be started in natural-language descriptions (see TRANSLATE INTO). For translation into Intkey format, the paragraph formatting attributes must be established by means of an ITEM SUBHEADINGS directive (a heading for character 1 is sufficient). General form *NEW PARAGRAPHS AT CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default A new paragraph is started at character 1. Example *NEW PARAGRAPHS AT CHARACTERS 1 6 19 *NEW PRINT PAGE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive produces a new page on the print file (see PRINT FILE). General form *NEW PRINT PAGE Default None. *NO DATA LISTING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive suppresses listing of the input data (see DATA LISTING). (However, the record containing the directive is listed.) The directive is cancelled by the DATA LISTING directive. General form *NO DATA LISTING
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default The input data are not listed. Note, however, that the listing is turned on by the LISTING FILE directive. *NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies controlling characters whose values must be set by the user in Intkey before any of the dependent characters are used.
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By default, when a dependent character is used in Intkey, all controlling attributes that would make the character applicable are automatically set (unless more than one state of an individual character would be set). This can lead to wrong results when the dependent character is capable of expressing the same information as a controlling character. For example, a character for leaf length might be dependent on a character for presence of leaves. If a user selected leaf length, intending to enter a value of 0, the program would automatically set leaves present, eliminating those taxa with leaves absent, that is, of length 0. To avoid this kind of problem, such dependent characters must be specified in a USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST directive, or the controlling characters specified in a NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS directive. Using this directive without specifying any characters allows all controlling characters to be set automatically by Intkey (even if this results in setting multiple values for individual characters). The directive and the USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST directive may be used together. General form *NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default Controlling characters are automatically set by Intkey, unless more than one state of an individual character would be set, or a USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST directive has been used. Note that using this directive without specifying any characters is not equivalent to omitting the directive see above. Example *NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS 32 *NUMBER OF CHARACTERS (Confor, Delfor; Type 1) Description This directive specifies the number of characters in the character list. General form *NUMBER OF CHARACTERS n where n is a positive integer. Default 1. Example *NUMBER OF CHARACTERS 126
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*NUMBER STATES FROM ZERO (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that states in PAUP and Nexus output are to be numbered from 0 (see TRANSLATE INTO). General form *NUMBER STATES FROM ZERO Default States are numbered from 1. *NUMBERS OF STATES (Confor, Delfor; Type 3) Description This directive specifies the numbers of states for multistate characters. General form *NUMBERS OF STATES c 1 ,s 1 c 2 ,s 2 c i ,s i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and s i is the number of states of c i . Default 2. Example The character list in Table 1 (Section 2.1) would require the directive *NUMBERS OF STATES 2,3 4,3 Characters 1 and 3 default to 2 states. *OMIT CHARACTER NUMBERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that character numbers are to be omitted from the natural-language descriptions (see TRANSLATE INTO). General form *OMIT CHARACTER NUMBERS Default A character number, in parentheses, is placed before each attribute in natural-language descriptions. *OMIT COMMENTS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that comments in attributes (see Section 2.2) be omitted from natural-language descriptions. General form *OMIT COMMENTS Default Comments in attributes are included in natural-language descriptions.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *OMIT FINAL COMMA (Confor; Type 4) Description
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In natural-languages descriptions, an attribute such as 10,1&2&3 is normally rendered as state 1, state 2, and state 3. This directive specifies that the final comma, that is, the one before and, be omitted. General form *OMIT FINAL COMMA c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default Commas separate all of the elements of a list of states in natural-language descriptions. Example *OMIT FINAL COMMA 49 *OMIT INAPPLICABLES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the phrase or not applicable is to be omitted from natural-language descriptions, when translating attributes of the form c,v/-. (Attributes of the form c,- never produce any natural-language output, and the word inapplicable is always omitted when translating attributes of the form c,-<comment>). Improved wording of natural-language descriptions can often be achieved by using this directive, and incorporating such phrases as when present as a comment in the attribute, immediately after the character number. General form *OMIT INAPPLICABLES Default Attributes of the form c,v/- give rise to the phrase or not applicable in natural-language descriptions. *OMIT INNER COMMENTS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that inner comments in the character list and in attributes (see Section 2.2) be omitted from output. General form *OMIT INNER COMMENTS Default Inner comments in attributes are included in all output. Example With this directive in force, the attributes 15,1<rarely <5%>>/3 41,2<<?need to examine fresher material>> might be rendered as Trees (rarely); or shrubs. Leaves not aromatic.
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*OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that, for numeric characters, the lower values be omitted from naturallanguage descriptions. The values omitted are the lower extreme and normal values of a range, and the mean value (see Section 2.2). The values retained are the upper normal and extreme values of a range. The directive is intended for use with characters which represent a maximum value, but where it is desirable for identification purposes to also code a minimum value. See also ABSOLUTE ERROR, PERCENT ERROR. General form *OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default All values are output in natural-language descriptions. Example Consider a real numeric character #20. leaves up to/ cm long/ The directive *OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTER 20 will cause an attribute 20,0-10(-12) to be rendered in natural language as leaves up to 10(-12) cm long. For identification (with Key or Intkey), any specimen with a leaf length in the range 0-12 cm would be a possible member of this taxon. *OMIT OR FOR CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the linking word or be omitted between alternative states of the specified characters in natural-language descriptions (including the descriptions generated by Intkey). The directive is intended for use with attributes in which the state values would normally be separated by & (for example, in characters giving a geographical distribution), but where the separator / has been used instead, to permit the use of comments before the separators. The directive should not be used with characters for which REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA has been specified (otherwise there will be no punctuation or connecting word between the states). General form *OMIT OR FOR CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default The word or is inserted as appropriate between state descriptions in natural-language descriptions. Example *OMIT OR FOR CHARACTERS 10 15 *OMIT PERIOD FOR CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the omission of the period (full stop) that would normally terminate a sentence in natural-language descriptions (including the descriptions generated by Intkey). It is intended for use with characters specifying taxon names and authorities, to avoid confusion with abbreviations of authorities.
Users Guide to the DELTA System General form *OMIT PERIOD FOR CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default The terminating period is inserted as appropriate. Example *OMIT PERIOD FOR CHARACTER 1 *OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies that, when translating a variant item into DELTA format or natural language, only those attributes that differ from the master item will be output. See also INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES. General form *OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES Default When translating a variant item into DELTA format or natural language, variant items are output as coded. *OMIT SPACE BEFORE UNITS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that, for numeric characters in natural-language descriptions, the space before the units be omitted. General form *OMIT SPACE BEFORE UNITS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default There is a space between the numerical value(s) and the units. Example Consider a real numeric character #20. leaves/ cm long/ The directive *OMIT SPACE BEFORE UNITS 20 will cause an attribute 20,7-10 to be rendered in natural language as leaves 7-10cm long instead of leaves 7-10 cm long. *OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that RTF typesetting marks (see Section 3.4) are to be removed from the data before output (except in the listing). See also TYPESETTING MARKS. General form *OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS
44 Default
Typesetting marks in the data are not removed. *OUTPUT DIRECTORY (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies a default directory for output files. General form *OUTPUT DIRECTORY d where d is a directory name. Default Files are output in the current directory the directory from which the main directives file (for example, tonatr) is read. Example *OUTPUT DIRECTORY www *OUTPUT FILE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file on which ordinary (that is, non-binary, sequential) data destined for input to other programs will be written. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. General form *OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default None. Example *OUTPUT FILE items.new *OUTPUT FORMAT HTML (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that RTF control words, accented characters (e.g. ), and various special characters in the data (see Section 3.4) are to be translated into the corresponding HTML forms in output files. It must be used with a corresponding TYPESETTING MARKS directive. General form *OUTPUT FORMAT HTML Default RTF marks from the data are included in output files, unless an OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS directive is used.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *OUTPUT PARAMETERS (Confor; Type 0) Description
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This directive produces parameters, key words, or directives in the format specified in the TRANSLATE INTO directive. The information is output on the output file (see OUTPUT FILE). Certain information, such as the number of characters, can be represented by variables, and the actual values are substituted by the program. General form *OUTPUT PARAMETERS l1 l2 li where l i represents a line of data in the format specified in the TRANSLATE INTO directive. Any material following the control phrase, and on the same line, is ignored. The lines are input in fixed format that is, blanks and blank lines are significant. Any symbols beyond column 80 are ignored. The directive is terminated by the first input line having star (*) as its first non-blank symbol. When translation into DELTA format has been specified, each occurrence of blank-numero in an input line is changed to blank-star. The lines of data for all other formats are interpreted as follows. The lines of data may contain variables, which are denoted by a numero (#) immediately followed by the variable name. Only the first two characters of the name are checked. When a variable is encountered, the appropriate value or values, and any other necessary information, are substituted by the program. The variables recognized depend on the format specified in the TRANSLATE INTO directive. For program parameters that must be right-aligned in fixed fields, the substituted value is inserted so that its rightmost symbol occupies the column formerly occupied by the rightmost symbol of the variable name. The variables implemented for each format are described under TRANSLATE INTO. Default None. Example See file tonex in the sample data supplied with the programs. *OUTPUT WIDTH (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the maximum line length for the output file (see OUTPUT FILE). The lines are kept within this length by starting a new line whenever a word will not fit on the current line. Fixed-format output is not affected by this directive. General form *OUTPUT WIDTH n where n is an integer in the range 40 to 132. Default 80. Example *OUTPUT WIDTH 70
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*OVERLAY FONTS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the fonts to be used in image overlays. See Chapter 8. General form See OVERLAY FONTS in Section 8.8. Default The system font is used. Example See file ofonts in the sample data supplied with the programs. *PAGE LENGTH (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the number of lines of text to be output on each page of print output (see PRINT FILE). General form *PAGE LENGTH n where n is a non-negative integer. If n is 0, print output is not paginated. Default No pagination. Example *PAGE LENGTH 60 *PERCENT ERROR (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies error limits to be applied to real numeric characters when converting to Key and Intkey formats. If an attribute in an item specifies only a single value, the errors specified in this directive are added to and subtracted from the value in the attribute to convert it to a range. See also ABSOLUTE ERROR, OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTERS. General form *PERCENT ERROR c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and r i is a positive real number. A percentage error r applied to a value v produces a range 100v/(100+r) to v(100+r)/100. Default The values are not altered. Example *PERCENT ERROR 7,50 With this directive in force, an attribute 7,120 would be equivalent to 7,79.2-180. An attribute 7,65-90 would be unchanged.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *PREVIOUS INPUT FILE (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description
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This directive specifies that after processing of the current input line is finished, input will continue from the input file that was in use before the current input file. The directive is supplied automatically by the program at the end of any input file other than the main directives file. General form *PREVIOUS INPUT FILE Default None. *PRINT ALL CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive overrides the effect of the INCLUDE CHARACTERS and EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directives in the output produced by the PRINT CHARACTER LIST and PRINT ITEM DESCRIPTIONS directives. The directive takes effect only when no translation, or translation into Key format or natural language, has been specified. General form *PRINT ALL CHARACTERS Default Only included characters are printed. *PRINT CHARACTER LIST (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the character descriptions are to be printed on the print file (see PRINT FILE). If characters have been excluded, the remaining characters are renumbered unless no translation, or translation into Key format or natural language, has been specified. See also PRINT ALL CHARACTERS. General form *PRINT CHARACTER LIST Default Character descriptions are not printed. *PRINT COMMENT (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies text to be output on the print file (see PRINT FILE). General form *PRINT COMMENT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. The starting position of the output text is determined as follows (unless a TYPESETTING MARKS directive is in force). If the input text starts on the same line as the control phrase, the first line of the output text is indented by 1 less than the number of blanks between the control phrase and the input text. If the input text starts n lines below the control phrase, n blank lines are added to the output, and the first line of the output text is indented the same amount as the first line of the input text.
48 Default None. Example
*PRINT COMMENT Descriptions of the African species The output text will start at the margin. *PRINT FILE (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file that will receive printer output other than error messages and the data listing. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output, apart from error and listing output (see ERROR FILE and LISTING FILE). General form *PRINT FILE f where f is a file name. Default Print output goes to the default output device or file of the particular computer system. This is usually the screen. Example 1 *LISTING FILE tonat.lst *PRINT FILE tonat.lst The data listing and print output (in this case, natural-language descriptions) are both output, interspersed, on the file tonat.lst. Example 2 *LISTING FILE tonat.lst *PRINT FILE tonat.prt The data listing and print output are on separate files. *PRINT HEADING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive causes the heading to be printed on the print file (see HEADING and PRINT FILE). General form *PRINT HEADING Default None. *PRINT ITEM DESCRIPTIONS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the item descriptions are to be printed, in DELTA format, on the print file. If characters have been excluded, the attributes corresponding to the remaining characters are renumbered unless no translation, or translation into Key format or natural language, has been specified. See also PRINT ALL CHARACTERS. General form *PRINT ITEM DESCRIPTIONS
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default None. *PRINT ITEM NAMES (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies that a numbered list of item names is to be printed on the print file (see PRINT FILE). If items have been excluded, the remaining items are renumbered. General form *PRINT ITEM NAMES Default None. *PRINT SUMMARY (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes a summary of the data to be printed on the print file (see PRINT FILE). If KEY STATES are specified, summaries are produced for the new states as well as for the original data. General form *PRINT SUMMARY Default None. *PRINT UNCODED CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the character numbers of the unrecorded characters for each item are to be listed on the print file (see PRINT FILE). See also TRANSLATE UNCODED CHARACTERS. General form *PRINT UNCODED CHARACTERS Default No list of uncoded characters is produced. *PRINT WIDTH (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the maximum line length for print output. The lines are kept within this length by starting a new line whenever a word will not fit on the current line. If a value of 0 is specified, line length is unlimited. Listing output is not affected by this directive the lines are listed exactly as input (apart from the addition of the file name and line number). General form *PRINT WIDTH n where n is 0 or an integer in the range 40 to 132. Default 80.
50 Example *PRINT WIDTH 132
*REGISTRATION HEADING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive is now obsolete, as Intkey is free for non-commercial use. It formerly specified a heading for use with TRANSLATE INTO INTKEY FORMAT. When used with a corresponding REGISTRATION VALIDATION directive, it allowed the use of the generated Intkey data files with unregistered copies of Intkey. General form *REGISTRATION HEADING t where t is any text not containing blank-star. The total number of symbols in the heading must not exceed 200. Default None. Example *REGISTRATION HEADING Genus Orectognathus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) *REGISTRATION SUBHEADING (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies a subheading, to be used with a heading specified by the HEADING or REGISTRATION HEADING directive (the latter is now obsolete). The subheading is written to the Intkey log file. It can be used for a version number and/or date. General form *REGISTRATION SUBHEADING t where t is any text not containing blank-star. The words #TIME and #DATE are replaced by the current time and date, respectively. The total number of symbols in the heading, including the time and date, must not exceed 200. Default None. Example *REGISTRATION SUBHEADING Version 1.2, #DATE *REGISTRATION VALIDATION (Confor; Type 0) Description This directive is now obsolete, as Intkey is free for non-commercial use. If formerly specified a validation string corresponding to the heading specified in a REGISTRATION HEADING directive. General form *REGISTRATION VALIDATION t where t is text supplied by CSIRO Entomology when the data set is registered. Default None.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *REPLACE ANGLE BRACKETS (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies that angle brackets in natural-language descriptions are to be replaced by parentheses, or omitted entirely, depending on context. Brackets are omitted from the taxon name. In attributes, brackets are omitted from comments associated with the feature. They are also omitted from comments associated with values which do not give rise to any text in the natural-language descriptions, that is, U and -. Otherwise, they are replaced by parentheses. General form *REPLACE ANGLE BRACKETS Default Angle brackets are used in natural-language descriptions wherever they occur in the DELTA descriptions, except in text (TE) characters. *REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that linked characters (see LINK CHARACTERS) be separated by a comma, rather than a semicolon, in natural language output. The commas that normally separate character states linked by or are omitted. Warning. This directive can lead to poor wording when used with complex character descriptions or complex attributes. General form *REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA s 1 s 2 s i where s i is a set of character numbers. s i takes the form c 1 :c 2 :c j : where c j is a character number or range of numbers. Default Linked characters are separated by a semicolon. Example *REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA 10-13 20:22-24 *REPLACE STATE CODES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that state codes (see STATE CODES) are to be replaced by numeric codes when translating into DELTA format (see TRANSLATE INTO). General form *REPLACE STATE CODES Default If used, state codes are reproduced in the DELTA output. *SCALE CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies scaling factors for real numeric characters. The values of each character specified are multiplied by the given factor. Descriptions of scaled characters may need to be altered.
52 General form
*SCALE CHARACTERS c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and r i is a real number. Default Characters are not scaled. Example *SCALE CHARACTERS 3,10 25,0.1 *SEQUENCE INCREMENT (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive sets the size of the increment for the sequence numbers that are inserted in the characters and items files by INSERT CHARACTER SEQUENCE NUMBERS or INSERT ITEM SEQUENCE NUMBERS directives. The default value is satisfactory unless any individual character or item description contains more than 99 lines. General form *SEQUENCE INCREMENT i where i is a real number in the range .001 to .1. Default .01. Example *SEQUENCE INCREMENT .001 *SHOW (Confor, Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies text which is printed on the error file (see ERROR FILE). The text is also printed on the listing file (see LISTING FILE) when a new file is started. General form *SHOW text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The total number of symbols in the text must not exceed 200. Default None. Example *SHOW Colpochila specifications. Revised 4/5/86 *SORT STATES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies characters whose state values are to be output in ascending order in DELTAformat items (see TRANSLATE INTO). General form *SORT STATES c 1 c 2 c i
Users Guide to the DELTA System where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default Values are output in the order in which they appeared in the input item. Example *SORT STATES 2 20-23 An attribute 20,2<comment>/1 would then become 20,1/2<comment>. *SPECIAL STORAGE (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the character descriptions are to be stored in a special way (on disc or in lower-speed memory), which allows the storage of longer descriptions but slows down the speed of execution of the program. The directive may not be implemented on some computers. General form *SPECIAL STORAGE Default The character descriptions are stored in ordinary memory. *STARTUP IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies illustrations to be displayed when the data set is opened in Intkey. The directive is normally created and edited by means of the program Intimate (see Chapter 8). General form See STARTUP IMAGES in Section 8.8. Default None. Example See file kimages in the sample data supplied with the programs. *STATE CODES (Confor, Delfor; Type 1) Description
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This directive specifies the codes used to identify the states and values of multistate characters in the character list and item descriptions. Its use is not recommended. Data sets using STATE CODES can be converted to standard form by means of the REPLACE STATE CODES directive. General form *STATE CODES s 1 s 2 s i where s i is the new code for the state i, and n is the maximum number of states. s i must be a single symbol other than V U - + . * # / < > , & : All of the s i must be different.
54 Default
States and values are identified by the positive integers. Example *STATE CODES A B C *STOP AFTER ITEM (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive causes processing of items to stop after the specified number have been processed. It is intended for checking that the desired results are being produced, before making a long run. After the specified number of items have been processed, input returns to the previous input file. General form *STOP AFTER ITEM n where n is a positive integer. Default All of the items are processed. Example *STOP AFTER ITEM 2 *SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive generates links through which Intkey can access files containing RTF descriptions generated by Confor. The directive is used with the TRANSLATE INTO INTKEY FORMAT directive, and one of the directives for specifying names of output files: ITEM OUTPUT FILES or CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES. The directive specifying the names of output files must be identical with that used in the TRANSLATE INTO NATURAL LANGUAGE process. This directive can be used with a TAXON LINKS directive specifying links to other files. General form *SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES text where text is any text not containing blank-star. Default None. Example *SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES Full description *CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES 89 *TAXON IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies information on taxon images and associated annotation for use with Intkey and in natural-language descriptions. Within Intkey, the images can be displayed to illustrate the taxa. This directive is normally created and edited by means of the program Intimate (see Chapter 8). General form See TAXON IMAGES in Section 8.8.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default None. Example See file timages in the sample data supplied with the programs. *TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES (Confor; Type 4) Description
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This directive specifies information on taxon keyword images and associated annotation for use with Intkey. It allows selection of taxon keywords from image screens (instead of from text screens). The directive is normally created and edited by means of the program Intimate (see Chapter 8). General form See TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES in Section 8.8. Default None. Example See file kimages in the sample data supplied with the programs. *TAXON LINKS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies associations between file names and taxa for use with Intkey. Within Intkey, the files can be displayed using the INFORMATION command. See also SUBJECT FOR OUTPUT FILES. General form The syntax is the same as that used for the image directives, however only the subject keyword is relevant in this context. See Section 8.8. Default None. Example *TAXON LINKS # Agrostis <L.>/ agrostis.rtf <@subject Full description> agrostis.ink <@subject Key to species> # Andropogon <L.>/ andropog.rtf <@subject Full description> # Anisopogon <R.Br.>/ anisopog.rtf <@subject Full description> # Bambusa <Schreber>/ bambusa.rtf <@subject Full description> # Chloris <O. Swartz>/ chloris.rtf <@subject Full description> # Cynodon <Rich.>/ cynodon.rtf <@subject Full description> # Echinochloa <P. Beauv.>/ echinoch.rtf <@subject Full description> # Eleusine <Gaertn.>/ eleusine.rtf <@subject Full description> # Festuca <L.>/ festuca.rtf <@subject Full description> # Oryza <L.>/ oryza.rtf <@subject Full description> # Panicum <L.>/ panicum.rtf <@subject Full description> # Phragmites <Adans.>/ phragmit.rtf <@subject Full description> # Poa <L.>/ poa.rtf <@subject Full description> # Zea <L.>/ zea.rtf <@subject Full description>
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*TRANSLATE IMPLICIT VALUES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that a natural-language description corresponding to the implicit values (see IMPLICIT VALUES) is output on the print file (see PRINT FILE). General form *TRANSLATE IMPLICIT VALUES Default No list of natural-language description of the implicit values is produced. *TRANSLATE INTO (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies the format into which the input data are to be converted. The translated output is on the output file (see OUTPUT FILE) unless otherwise stated. Text characters are automatically excluded when translating into formats that cannot use them. With some of the options, an OUTPUT PARAMETERS directive can be used to produce parameters, key words, or directives to be used with the output data. General aspects of the OUTPUT PARAMETERS directive are described under that directive, and the specific output variables for the various options are described below. General form *TRANSLATE INTO f where f is one of the following options. DELTA FORMAT Produces new DELTA-format characters and items files. The form of the output can be modified by means of the directives DECIMAL PLACES, EXCLUDE CHARACTERS, EXCLUDE ITEMS, INCLUDE CHARACTERS, INCLUDE ITEMS, INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES, INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES, OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES, OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS, and OUTPUT WIDTH. It is usually better to carry out exclusion of characters by using the program Delfor, which can make corresponding changes in all directives files (not just the characters and items). DIST FORMAT Produces output suitable for input to the program Dist (see Chapter 6), which generates a distance matrix. The names of the output files are specified by means of the DIST OUTPUT FILE directive. The translation procedure is as follows. (1) Only normal values of numeric characters are used: extreme values are ignored (see Section 2.2). (2) KEY STATES are applied if specified. Numeric characters to which KEY STATES have been applied are subsequently treated as ordered multistate characters. (3) For unordered multistate characters, all the states present are output. (4) For ordered multistate characters (including former numeric characters), the mean of the values present is output. For example, 1-3/5 becomes 2.75 ((1+2+3+5)/4). (5) For numeric characters for which KEY STATES have not been specified, a single value is obtained as follows. If a range of values has a middle value, the range is replaced by that value; otherwise, it is replaced by its midpoint. The overall mean of the resulting values is then calculated and output. For example, 1/3-4-6/9-10 becomes 1/4/9.5 and then 4.83. HENNIG86 FORMAT Produces output suitable for input to the phylogenetic analysis program HENNIG86 (Farris 1988). The method of translation is similar to that used for PAUP format (see below).
Users Guide to the DELTA System INTKEY FORMAT
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Produces output suitable for input to the program Intkey (see Chapter 7) for interactive identification and information retrieval. The names of the output files are specified by means of the INTKEY OUTPUT FILE directive. See also ABSOLUTE ERROR, CHARACTER IMAGES, CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES, CHARACTER NOTES, PERCENT ERROR, STARTUP IMAGES, TAXON IMAGES, and TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES, USE NORMAL VALUES. KEY FORMAT Produces the format required by the key-generating program Key (see Chapter 5). Numeric characters, if they are to be used in the key, must be converted to multistate by a KEY STATES directive, which can also be used to combine or reorder states of multistate characters. The names of the output files are specified by means of the KEY OUTPUT FILE directive. See also ABSOLUTE ERROR, PERCENT ERROR, USE NORMAL VALUES. The maximum number of characters that may be included for key generation is 511 (see INCLUDE CHARACTERS and EXCLUDE CHARACTERS in Sections 3.5 and 5.5). The maximum number of states that can be used is 20. The number of states of characters in the Key-format files is determined at the time of translation, and can be reduced by means of a KEY STATES directive. NATURAL LANGUAGE Produces natural-language descriptions. The output is on the print file (see PRINT FILE), or on files specified in an ITEM OUTPUT FILES directive, or on files specified in a special character (see CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES). See also ADD CHARACTERS, ALTERNATE COMMA, CHINESE FORMAT, DECIMAL PLACES, EMPHASIZE CHARACTERS, EMPHASIZE FEATURES, EXCLUDE CHARACTERS, EXCLUDE ITEMS, IMPLICIT VALUES, INCLUDE CHARACTERS, INCLUDE ITEMS, INSERT IMPLICIT VALUES, INSERT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES, ITEM HEADINGS, ITEM SUBHEADINGS, LINK CHARACTERS, NEW FILES AT ITEMS, NEW PARAGRAPHS AT CHARACTERS, OMIT CHARACTER NUMBERS, OMIT COMMENTS, OMIT FINAL COMMA, OMIT INAPPLICABLES, OMIT INNER COMMENTS, OMIT LOWER FOR CHARACTERS, OMIT OR FOR CHARACTERS, OMIT PERIOD FOR CHARACTERS, OMIT REDUNDANT VARIANT ATTRIBUTES, OMIT SPACE BEFORE UNITS, OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS, PAGE LENGTH, PRINT COMMENT, PRINT HEADING, PRINT WIDTH, REPLACE ANGLE BRACKETS, REPLACE SEMICOLON BY COMMA, TYPESETTING MARKS, VOCABULARY. NEXUS FORMAT Produces output suitable for input to the programs MacClade (Maddison and Maddison 1992) and PAUP (Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony; version 3.1) (Swofford 1991). The translation procedure is as follows. (1) Numeric characters for which KEY STATES have not been specified are excluded. (2) Only normal values of numeric characters are used: extreme values are ignored (see Section 2.2). (3) KEY STATES are applied. All (included) numeric characters are subsequently treated as ordered multistate. (4) If a USE MEAN VALUES directive is in force, multiple values of ordered multistate characters (including former numeric characters) are replaced by their mean, which is rounded if necessary (.5 being rounded down). For example, 1-3/5 is replaced by 3 ((1+2+3+5)/4=2.75). (5) The value or values are output. The DELTA character and state descriptions are truncated as necessary to fit into the Nexus CHARLABELS and STATELABELS fields. If this is unacceptable, you can construct a suitably abbreviated DELTA character list for use with this translation. This is preferable to manually rewriting the Nexus CHARLABELS and STATELABELS, as the abbreviated DELTA character list can be automatically reordered whenever the main list is reordered. Output variables
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M. J. Dallwitz, T. A. Paine and E. J. Zurcher #ASSUMPTIONS. Writes the string BEGIN ASSUMPTIONS;, signifying the start of a Nexus assumptions block. #CHARLABELS. Writes text labels for each character used. Each label is preceded by a comment giving the character number. DELTA comments are included in the labels. #DATA. Writes the string BEGIN DATA;, signifying the start of a Nexus data block. #DIMENSIONS. Writes a DIMENSIONS command, with appropriate values for NTAX and NCHAR. #END. Writes the string END;, used to end a Nexus data or assumptions block. #FORMAT. Writes a FORMAT command, specifying ? as the MISSING symbol, and the symbols used in the data matrix. The symbols normally are 1-9, followed by A-W. This is modified to begin with symbols 0-9, if the directive NUMBER STATES FROM ZERO has been given. #HEADING. Writes the current heading as a Nexus comment. #STATELABELS. Writes text labels for all states used. DELTA comments are ignored. #MATRIX. Writes the data matrix. When a taxon exhibits multiple states for a given character, the list of exhibited states is enclosed in parentheses. Note that PAUP and MacClade differ slightly in their interpretation of this notation. By default, PAUP will regard these cases as uncertainties; MacClade will treat them as polymorphisms. #NEXUS. Writes the string #NEXUS, which must be the first line of any Nexus-format file. #TYPESET. Writes a Nexus TYPESET command specifying which characters are ordered and which unordered. #WTSET. Writes a Nexus WTSET command specifying character weights.
PAUP FORMAT Produces output suitable for input to the program PAUP (Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony) Version 2.2 (Swofford 1984). The translation procedure is as follows. (1) Numeric characters for which KEY STATES have not been specified are excluded. (2) Only normal values of numeric characters are used: extreme values are ignored (see Section 2.2). (3) KEY STATES are applied. All (included) numeric characters are subsequently treated as ordered multistate. (4) If a USE MEAN VALUES directive is in force, multiple values of ordered multistate characters (including former numeric characters) are replaced by their mean, which is rounded if necessary (.5 being rounded down). For example, 1-3/5 is replaced by 3 ((1+2+3+5)/4=2.75). (5) If only one state value is present, that value is output. Otherwise: (6) If all possible state values are present, or if more than one value is present and TREAT VARIABLE AS UNKNOWN has been specified, then ? (unknown) is output. Otherwise: (7) For ordered multistate characters (including former numeric characters), a single value is obtained as in step 4. (8) For unordered multistate characters, a single value is obtained from the original data (that is, before the application of KEY STATES) by selecting the first value coded, unless USE LAST VALUE CODED has been specified, when the last value is selected. KEY STATES are then applied if specified. (9) The value is output. See also NUMBER STATES FROM ZERO. Output variables #COMMENT. Heading. #PARAMETERS. The values of NOTU and NCHAR. #SYMBOLS. The symbols used in the matrix. #DATA. Data format, followed by the taxon names and data matrix. #UNORDERED. The unordered characters. #WEIGHTS. The character weights. #GO. GO statement. #END. END statement. PAYNE FORMAT Produces output suitable for the key-generation program Genkey (Payne 1975).
Users Guide to the DELTA System Output variables The key words CAPTION, COSTS, LEVELS, NAMES, NUMBERS, and PREFERENCES, as used by Genkey, are recognized when preceded by a numero sign, and the appropriate output is generated. Default
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None. If the directive does not appear, the data are checked for errors, but no translation is carried out. Example *TRANSLATE INTO NATURAL LANGUAGE *TRANSLATE UNCODED CHARACTERS (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that the character numbers and feature descriptions of the uncoded characters for each item are to be output on the print file (see PRINT FILE). See also PRINT UNCODED CHARACTERS. General form *TRANSLATE UNCODED CHARACTERS Default No list of uncoded characters is produced. *TREAT INTEGER AS REAL (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies integer numeric characters that are to be stored in the same manner as real numeric characters when translating into Intkey format (see TRANSLATE INTO). The default storage method (see below) is usually satisfactory. General form *TREAT INTEGER AS REAL c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default It is fairly common for integer attributes to contain multiple ranges representing non-contiguous sets of numbers, for example, 5/10-12, meaning 5 or 10 or 11 or 12. The integer storage method in Intkey data files stores all of the numbers individually. However, this method becomes inefficient when the total range of values for a character (over all taxa) is large. The real storage method (which is always used for real numeric characters) stores only the minimum and maximum values for each taxon, that is, a single range. The storage method for an integer numeric character is chosen as follows. (1) If the attributes contain only single ranges, they are stored by the method which uses least space. No information is lost. (2) Otherwise, the values are examined over all taxa. (3) If the total range of values is less than or equal to 200, the integer storage method is used. No information is lost. (Examples: Total ranges 1-200, 20-219, -100-99.) (4) If the total range of values is greater than 200, the values of highest magnitude (whether positive or negative) are lumped together at the top and/or bottom of the range. If fewer than half of the different values are lumped in this way, the integer storage method is used, and the highest and/or lowest values are marked as representing lumped values. Distinctions between the lumped values are lost. (5) If more than half the values are lumped, the real storage method is used (working from the original data, not the lumped values). The gaps in non-contiguous sets of numbers are lost.
60 Example
*TREAT INTEGER AS REAL 3-5 59 *TREAT UNKNOWN AS VARIABLE (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive could formerly be used in translating into the obsolete DCR (CSIRO Division of Computing Research) format. It specified that missing or unknown values of unordered multistate characters were to be represented as variable (all values present). General form *TREAT UNKNOWN AS VARIABLE Default All missing or unknown values are represented as missing (* in DCR format). *TREAT VARIABLE AS UNKNOWN (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that, in translating into PAUP or HENNIG86 format, characters that are variable are to be represented as ? (unknown). General form *TREAT VARIABLE AS UNKNOWN Default See TRANSLATE INTO PAUP FORMAT. *TYPESETTING MARKS (Confor, Key; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that print output be produced in a form suitable for interpretation by a typesetting program. Note that some typesetting marks will usually need to be incorporated in the data by the user see Section 3.4. See also OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS and OUTPUT FORMAT HTML. General form *TYPESETTING MARKS ! #n 1 . <r 1 > !m 1 ! #n 2 . <r 1 > !m 2 ! #n i . <r i > !m i! where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; n i is a number which specifies the context in which the typesetting marks are to be used; r i is an optional comment, which may be used to describe that context; and m i is typesetting marks. The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within the typesetting marks. The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the words TYPESETTING MARKS). If the first symbol of a typesetting mark is a blank, the mark, when placed in the output file, may be broken between lines at any blank; otherwise, the mark is not broken. Note that the first symbol can only be blank if the delimiter symbol ! is used.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default Any typesetting marks in the input data are retained, but no marks are inserted by the program. (To omit marks that are in the input data, use OMIT TYPESETTING MARKS.) Examples See files markrtf (RTF marks) and markhtm (HTML marks) in the sample files supplied with the programs. *USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that when certain dependent characters are used in Intkey, the values of their controlling characters must first be set by the user.
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By default, when a dependent character is used in Intkey, all controlling attributes that would make the character applicable are automatically set (unless more than one state of an individual character would be set). This can lead to wrong results when the dependent character is capable of expressing the same information as a controlling character. For example, a character for leaf length might be dependent on a character for presence of leaves. If a user selected leaf length, intending to enter a value of 0, the program would automatically set leaves present, eliminating those taxa with leaves absent, that is, of length 0. To avoid this kind of problem, such dependent characters must be specified in a USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST, or the controlling characters specified in a NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS directive. The directive and the NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS may be used together. General form *USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default Controlling characters are automatically set by Intkey, unless more than one state of an individual character would be set, or a NONAUTOMATIC CONTROLLING CHARACTERS directive has been used. Example *USE CONTROLLING CHARACTERS FIRST 6-20 33 51-52 *USE LAST VALUE CODED (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive modifies the way that unordered multistate characters are translated into PAUP or HENNIG86 format. See TRANSLATE INTO PAUP FORMAT. General form *USE LAST VALUE CODED Default See TRANSLATE INTO PAUP FORMAT. *USE MEAN VALUES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive modifies the way that ordered multistate and numeric characters are translated into HENNIG86, Nexus, or PAUP format. See TRANSLATE INTO.
62 General form *USE MEAN VALUES Default See TRANSLATE INTO.
*USE NORMAL VALUES (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies numeric characters for which extreme values are to be ignored and normal values used when translating into most formats. The directive is ignored when translating into DELTA format or natural language. Extreme values of numeric characters are indicated in DELTA-format items by being enclosed in parentheses (see Section 2.2). General form *USE NORMAL VALUES c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default The full range of values is used, except when translating into DIST, HENNIG86, Nexus, and PAUP formats, when normal values are always used. Example The directive *USE NORMAL VALUES 10 15 would cause the attributes 10,(5-)10-16-24(-35) 15,(2-)5.3(-10.5) to be treated as if coded 10,10-16-24 15,5.3. *VOCABULARY (Confor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies words to be used when producing natural-language descriptions (see TRANSLATE INTO NATURAL LANGUAGE), Intkey data files (see TRANSLATE INTO INTKEY FORMAT), descriptions of new character states generated by a KEY STATES directive, or lists of uncoded characters (see PRINT UNCODED CHARACTERS). It is needed only when producing descriptions and keys in languages other than English. General form *VOCABULARY ! #n 1 . <r 1 > !w 1 ! #n 2 . <r 2 > !w 2 ! #n i . <r i > !w i ! where ! represents a delimiter symbol, which may be any symbol except the DELTA delimiters *, #, <, and >; n i is a number which specifies the context in which the words are to be used; r i is an optional comment, which may be used to describe that context; and w i is the word or words corresponding to n i (see below). The delimiter ! is optional; its purpose is to allow the use of the DELTA delimiters within w i . The delimiter may be left undefined, by omitting its first occurrence (after the word VOCABULARY).
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default
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The words used will be those stored in the program. These defaults, and the contexts in which they are used, are as follows. #1. or Used in natural-language descriptions to represent the separator / in attributes (see Section 2.2). Also used in Intkey data files and for key states. #2. to Used in natural-language descriptions to represent the separator - in attributes. Also used for key states. #3. and Used in natural-language descriptions to represent the separator & in attributes. #4. variable Unused. Formerly used in natural-language descriptions to represent the pseudovalue V in attributes. #5. unknown Unused. Formerly used in natural-language descriptions to represent the pseudovalue U in attributes. #6. not applicable Used in natural-language descriptions to represent the pseudovalue - in attributes. See also OMIT INAPPLICABLES. #7. variant Used in natural-language descriptions before the name of a variant item. #8. not coded Used before a list of uncoded characters. #9. never Unused. Formerly used for EXIR format. #10. minimum Unused. Formerly used for EXIR format. #11. maximum Unused. Formerly used for EXIR format. #12. up to Used for key states. See example under KEY CHARACTER LIST. #13. or more Used for key states. See example under KEY CHARACTER LIST. #14. . Full stop (period). Used in natural-language descriptions. #15. , Comma. Used in natural-language descriptions. #16. , Alternate comma. Used in natural-language descriptions, for characters specified in the ALTERNATE COMMA directive. Intended for use in Chinese. #17. ; Semicolon. Used in natural-language descriptions. #18. . Decimal point. Used in natural-language descriptions and for key states. Example *COMMENT French vocabulary. *VOCABULARY #1. ou #2. #3. et #4. variable #5. inconnu #6. non applicable #7. variant #8. non codes #9. jamais #10. minimum #11. maximum #12. jusqu' #13. ou plus #14. . #15. , #16. <alternate comma> , #17. ; #18. <decimal point> .
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4. The Data-Maintenance Program Delfor

4.1 Introduction
Delfor is a program for reformatting DELTA data and directives. Lines in the files are made uniform in length (as far as possible), the character list is indented to improve readability, and character numbers are placed in ascending order within directives. Changes can be made to the order in which characters and states appear in the character list (and hence in descriptions). The corresponding changes can (and, of course, should) be made in all directives files that depend on these orders (for example, specs, items, layout, tokey). DELTA-format files containing subsets of the data can be prepared, but this should seldom be necessary. It is generally preferable to carry out masking for particular applications, via Confor, Key, Intkey, etc. The names of the output files are generated from the names of the input files by changing the file extension (type) to .new (for example, items becomes items.new). To change the new files into current files, run the program Movenew. This also changes the current files into old files with extension .old. The basic syntax of Delfor directives, and the rules governing their use, are the same as for Confor directives (see Section 3.1). Delfor interprets directives either as information specifying how the reformatting is to be carried out, or as information that is to be reformatted. The latter interpretation is applied only to directives that are in files read by the directive REFORMAT. The following special Delfor directives are described in Section 4.2. CONTROL PHRASES NEW CHARACTER ORDER NEW LINE FOR ATTRIBUTES NEW STATE ORDERS OUTPUT FILE REFORMAT Delfor also uses the following Confor directives (see Section 3.5): ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES, CHARACTER TYPES, CHINESE FORMAT, COMMENT, DATA BUFFER SIZE, END, ERROR FILE, EXCLUDE CHARACTERS, EXCLUDE ITEMS, INCLUDE CHARACTERS, INCLUDE ITEMS, INPUT DELTA FILE, INPUT FILE, LISTING FILE, MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STATES, NUMBER OF CHARACTERS, NUMBERS OF STATES, OUTPUT WIDTH, PREVIOUS INPUT FILE, SHOW, STATE CODES. To run the program, open a command window, move to the directory containing the directives file, and enter Delfor directives-file for example, Delfor REORDER
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Definition A range of character numbers has the general form c 1 -c 2 where c1 and c2 are character numbers, and c1 is less than or equal to c2. It denotes all character numbers from c1 to c2, inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the characters 6, 7, 8, and 9. *CONTROL PHRASES (Delfor; Type 5) Description This directive specifies the syntaxes of the control phrases that are to be reformatted. Two files containing instances of this directive are supplied with the programs: confor.cph for Confor, Key, and Dist directives; and intkey.cph for Intkey directives. It is not normally necessary to alter these files. General form *CONTROL PHRASES n s f1 w11 w12 fi wi1 wi2 where n is the maximum number of words in a control phrase, s is the number of significant symbols in each word of a control phrase, f i is a number indicating the syntax of the i-th control phrase, and w i j is the j-th word of the i-th control phrase. Each control phrase, with its associated number, must be on a separate line. Default None. Example See files supplied with the programs. *NEW CHARACTER ORDER (Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies a new character order. It is mainly intended for maintaining a logical order when new characters are added. Note that it is not necessary to use this directive when new attributes from the existing character set are appended to the item descriptions the program always outputs DELTA attributes in ascending order of character number. General form *NEW CHARACTER ORDER c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. The character numbers specified in the directive are the old numbers the first character specified becomes the new character 1, the next becomes the new character 2, and so on. All of the old characters must be specified. If an EXCLUDE CHARACTERS or INCLUDE CHARACTERS directive is used with this directive, it is specified in terms of the old numbers. Default The character order is unchanged.
66 Example
*NEW CHARACTER ORDER 1 13 15 2-6 14 7 16-20 8-12 Character 1 is unchanged, old character 13 becomes new character 2, 15 becomes 3, 2 to 6 become 4 to 8, 14 becomes 9, 7 becomes 10, 16 to 20 become 11 to 15, and 8 to 12 become 16 to 20. *NEW LINE FOR ATTRIBUTES (Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive specifies that each attribute in a reformatted item is to start on a new line. It is intended to facilitate comparison of items. General form *NEW LINE FOR ATTRIBUTES Default Lines of items are filled to the specified output width (see OUTPUT WIDTH). *NEW STATE ORDERS (Delfor; Type 4) Description This directive allows the order of the states of multistate characters to be changed. General form *NEW STATE ORDERS c 1 ,o 1 c 2 ,o 2 c i ,o i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and o i is the new state order for character(s) c i . o i is given by s 1 -t 1 :s 2 -t 2 :s j -t j : where s j -t j is a range of state numbers, and -t j is optional. The state numbers specified are the old state numbers old state s1 becomes new state 1, old state s1+1 becomes new state 2, old state t1 becomes new state t 1 -s 1 +1, old state s 2 becomes new state t 1 -s 1 +2, and so on. See also SORT STATES (Confor). Default The state orders are unchanged. Example *NEW STATE ORDERS 5,2:1 10,4:1-3:5 The two states of character 5 are exchanged. In character 10, state 4 becomes state 1, states 1-3 become states 2-4, and state 5 remains state 5. *OUTPUT FILE (Delfor; Type 0) Description This directive specifies the file to receive the output of the next REFORMAT directive. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. General form *OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default The file name is generated from the name specified in the REFORMAT directive, by replacing the file type (extension) with .new.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Example *OUTPUT FILE ausitems *REFORMAT (Delfor; Type 5) Description This directive specifies a file of directives which are to be reformatted. General form *REFORMAT f
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where f is a file name. The name of the reformatted file is generated from f by replacing the file type (extension) with .NEW (unless a different name was specified in an OUTPUT FILE directive). Default None. Example *REFORMAT specs The name of the reformatted file is specs.new.
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5. The Key-Generation Program Key

5.1 Introduction
Key is a program for constructing identification keys. The program produces keys in the conventional bracketed form, or in a tabular form resembling a tree diagram, and there is provision for inserting typesetting marks for later processing by a typesetting program. The program user can specify the relative reliabilities of the characters. A character is given a high reliability if its state values can be easily and accurately assigned to any specimen. The characters selected by the program for inclusion in the key are those that have high reliability, divide the taxa into evenly sized subgroups, and are not too variable within taxa. (The method of character selection is described in detail in Section 5.4.) The program user can also specify the character to be used at any position in the key that is, automatic selection of characters can be overridden. Keys may be formed using subsets of the taxa or the characters. This makes possible the easy construction of special-purposes keys for example, a key for a particular locality, or a field key using characters not requiring microscopy. Execution of Key is controlled by means of directives, which are described in detail in Section 5.5. A directive consists of a star (*), a control phrase of up to four words, and data. The star must be at the start of a line, or be preceded by a blank. A blank following the star is optional. The control phrase must be in upper-case letters. Only the first two or three symbols of each word of the control phrase are examined by the program. However, it is recommended that the words be written in full, to make the directive as readable as possible. The data take different forms, depending on the control phrase, and in some directives are absent. A control phrase must be contained in one line, but its data may extend over several lines. A directive is terminated by the star at the start of the next directive. Example *NO TABULAR KEY *PRINT WIDTH 132 *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES 1-6,8 7,9 8-11,6 12,4 13,6 14-20,3 Except for the COMMENT directive, a directive must not appear more than once in a run. This restriction extends to sets of directives that specify the same or similar information, for example, the directives INCLUDE ITEMS and EXCLUDE ITEMS. Many of the variables whose values may be set by directives are assigned default values by the program at the start of each run. Variables whose default values are what is required need not be explicitly set: the directives or parts of directives that set these variables may be omitted. To run the program, enter key directives-file for example, key key4
5.2 Data and directives files

The data for Key are prepared in DELTA format (see Chapter 2), but the program does not use this format directly. The data must first be translated by means of the TRANSLATE INTO KEY FORMAT directive of the program Confor (see Section 3.5). This produces two Key-format data files the characters file and the items file. The default names of these files are kchars and kitems, respectively. They are direct access files, and cannot be viewed or changed with ordinary text editors. In addition to the characters and items, they may contain certain other information that was specified in the Confor run for example, the number of characters, the number of items, and the character reliabilities.
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Key can be run with just its characters and items files a file of directives is not necessary. If there is no directives file, the various options and parameters take their default values. The default values for the included characters and items, and the character reliabilities, are those specified in the Confor run which produced the Key-format items file. However, in practice, it is usually necessary, or at least convenient, to use a directives file. If the included characters and items, and the character reliabilities, are specified in a Key directives file, rather than in the Confor directives file, then they can be changed, and new keys produced, without rerunning Confor. It is then necessary to rerun Confor only if the data are changed, or if it is required to specify new KEY STATES (see Section 3.5). If a directives file is used, its default name is key. The maximum number of characters that may be included for key generation is 511 (see INCLUDE CHARACTERS and EXCLUDE CHARACTERS in Sections 3.5 and 5.4). The maximum number of states is 20. The number of states in a character is determined at the time the data are translated into Key format, and can be reduced by means of a KEY STATES directive (see Section 3.5).
5.3 Examples
These examples were produced from the sample data and directives files supplied with the programs. Running confor tokey produces data files kchars and kitems in the special format used by Key. No attempt has been made to optimize the keys for use as actual identification aids. The character reliabilities, while not unreasonable, were chosen mainly to help illustrate the effects of different parameter values on the form of the key.
5.3.1 Interpreting program output

The key in this example was produced using a simple directives file, which serves only to specify a heading. The parameters therefore have their default values (see Section 5.5), and the character reliabilities and characters included are those specified in the Confor run which produced the Keyformat items. The output file starts with the heading, and the time and date of the run. The line starting Characters - shows the number of characters in the data set, the number specified in the INCLUDE CHARACTERS (or equivalent) directive, and the number actually appearing in the key. The line starting Items - gives similar information for the items. Note that the number of items in the key may be greater or less than the number included, because variable items may be split during the construction of the key, and variant items may be coalesced. The next two lines give the values of various parameters (see Sections 5.4 and 5.5 for the meanings of the parameters). The next two lines give information about the size of the key. The average length of the key is the average number of characters that must be used to obtain an identification, and the maximum length is the largest number of characters required for any of the taxa. The costs of the key are defined in Section 5.4. Large costs indicate that less reliable characters are being used in the key, but it must be borne in mind that the costs depend on the value of RBASE see Section 5.5. The last group of lines before the key itself give the characters included and their reliabilities (and similar information for the items, if any non-default values are set). The next part of the output is the tabular key. The taxon (item) names are on the left. Any name that appears more than once is followed by the number of its occurrences. To the right of each item name is a list of the attributes that distinguish it from the other items in the key. The format of the attributes differs from DELTA format in that the comma is omitted and the states are represented by letters rather than numbers. State 1 becomes state A, and so on; for example, 27C corresponds to 27,3. To identify a specimen with the tabular key, the characters are examined in the order specified in the key, reading from left to right. As the value of each character is determined, the group of possible taxa is reduced, until finally only one taxon remains, and the identification is complete. For example, an identification using the tabular key might proceed as follows. The first character to be examined is 66, the form of the hilum. Suppose the specimen has attribute 66A, that is, hilum short; then it must be one of the first 13 items in the key: Agrostis, Chloris, Phragmites. The next
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character to be examined is 44, the number of female-fertile florets per spikelet. If the specimen has attribute 44C, 3 or more florets per spikelet, then the remaining possibilities are Eleusine, Poa, and Phragmites. The next character is 13, the form of the inflorescence. If the specimen has attribute 13E, inflorescence paniculate, then it must be Poa or Phragmites. Finally, we examine character 37, whether the glumes are carinate. If the specimen has attribute 37A, glumes carinate, it is Poa. The final part of the output is the same key, in the conventional, bracketed format. Directives file key1 *HEADING Key 1. Default parameters *COMMENT (except for PRINT WIDTH) *PRINT WIDTH 78 Output file key1.prt
Key 1. Default parameters Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 11 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 17 in key. RBASE = 1.40 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .80 Number of confirmatory characters = 0 Average length of key = 3.8 Average cost of key = 1.5 Maximum length of key = 5 Maximum cost of key = 2.1 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+ |Agrostis |66A|44A|28A|11A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Chloris |66A|44A|28A|11B|31A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Cynodon 2|66A|44A|28A|11B|31B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+ |Cynodon 2|66A|44A|28B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Andropogon |66A|44A|28C|16A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Echinochloa |66A|44A|28C|16B|13B| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Panicum 2|66A|44A|28C|16B|13E| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+ |Zea |66A|44A|28D|12A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Panicum 2|66A|44A|28D|12B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+ |Poa 2|66A|44B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+ |Eleusine |66A|44C|13B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Poa 2|66A|44C|13E|37A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Phragmites |66A|44C|13E|37B| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+ |Festuca |66B|60D|11A| +---------------------------+ | |---+ |Anisopogon |66B|60D|11B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+ |Bambusa |66B|60G| 4A| +---------------------------+ | |---+ |Oryza |66B|60G| 4B| +---------------------------+---+---+---+

Key 1. Default parameters Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 11 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 17 in key. RBASE = 1.40 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .80 Number of confirmatory characters = 0 Average length of key = 3.8 Average cost of key = 1.5 Maximum length of key = 5 Maximum cost of key = 2.1 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 1(0). Hilum short........................................................ 2 Hilum long-linear................................................. 11 2(1). Female-fertile florets 1........................................... 3 Female-fertile florets 2......................................... Poa Female-fertile florets 3 or more................................... 9 3(2). Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes......................... 4 Spikelets disarticulating between the glumes................. Cynodon Spikelets falling with the glumes.................................. 6 Spikelets not disarticulating...................................... 8 4(3). Ligule an unfringed membrane................................ Agrostis Ligule a fringed membrane to a fringe of hairs..................... 5 5(4). Hairy callus present......................................... Chloris Hairy callus absent.......................................... Cynodon 6(3). Spikelet-bearing axes disarticulating..................... Andropogon Spikelet-bearing axes persistent................................... 7 7(6). Inflorescence of spicate main branches................... Echinochloa Inflorescence paniculate..................................... Panicum 8(3). Plants monoecious with all the fertile spikelets unisexual....... Zea Plants bisexual, with bisexual spikelets..................... Panicum 9(2). Inflorescence of spicate main branches...................... Eleusine Inflorescence paniculate.......................................... 10 10(9). Glumes carinate.................................................. Poa Glumes non-carinate....................................... Phragmites 11(1). Stamens 3......................................................... 12 Stamens 6......................................................... 13 12(11). Ligule an unfringed membrane................................. Festuca Ligule a fringed membrane to a fringe of hairs............ Anisopogon 13(11). Culms woody and persistent................................... Bambusa Culms herbaceous............................................... Oryza
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5.3.2 Controlling the effect of character reliabilities

The value of the parameter RBASE controls the effect of the character reliabilities on the selection of characters for the key. The character-selection criterion depends on three properties of a character: the reliability, the evenness of distribution of taxa among the states, and the number of taxa that are variable for the character (see Section 5.4 for details). Higher values of RBASE cause more importance to be attached to the character reliability. A sufficiently high value will cause character reliability to completely override the other two properties. A value of 1 (the lowest allowed) will cause the reliabilities to be completely ignored. If RBASE is 2, a character which splits a group poorly (one taxon against all the rest) would need an advantage of 1 in reliability to be selected ahead of a two-state character which splits the group well (two equal subgroups). If RBASE is 1.4 (the default value), an advantage of 2 in reliability would be required. In the example below, RBASE is set to 1, so that the character reliabilities have no effect. The program has chosen the characters that produce the best splits of the groups of taxa, with the result that the average length of the key has been reduced from 3.8 in Key 1 to 3.5. However, character 60 (reliability 7), has been used first instead of character 66 (reliability 8). The costs of the two keys cannot be compared, because of the different values of RBASE.
72 Directives file key2
*HEADING Key 2. RBASE = 1 *RBASE 1.0 *NO BRACKETTED KEY *PRINT WIDTH 78 Output file key2.prt
Key 2. RBASE = 1 Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 9 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 18 in key. RBASE = 1.00 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .80 Number of confirmatory characters = 0 Average length of key = 3.5 Average cost of key = 3.5 Maximum length of key = 5 Maximum cost of key = 5.0 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 +---------------------------+---+ |Zea |60A| +---------------------------+---+ |Andropogon 3|60B| +---------------------------+---+ |Andropogon 3|60C| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+ |Chloris |60D|52A|44A|31A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Cynodon |60D|52A|44A|31B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Poa 2|60D|52A|44B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Eleusine |60D|52A|44C|13B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Poa 2|60D|52A|44C|13E| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+---+ |Festuca |60D|52B|28A|11A|34A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Agrostis |60D|52B|28A|11A|34B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Phragmites |60D|52B|28A|11B|34A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Anisopogon |60D|52B|28A|11B|34B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+ |Andropogon 3|60D|52B|28C|31A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Echinochloa |60D|52B|28C|31B|13B| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Panicum 2|60D|52B|28C|31B|13E| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+ |Panicum 2|60D|52B|28D| +---------------------------+---+---+---+ |Bambusa |60G| 4A| +---------------------------+ |---+ |Oryza |60G| 4B| +---------------------------+---+---+
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5.3.3 Controlling the effect of intra-taxon variability

The value of the parameter VARYWT controls the effect of intra-taxon variability on the selection of characters for the key. The character-selection criterion depends on three properties of a character: the reliability, the evenness of distribution of taxa among the states, and the number of taxa that are variable for the character (see Section 5.4 for details). Lower values of VARYWT give more bias against characters with high intra-taxon variability. If VARYWT is 0, characters with any intra-taxon variability (in the group of taxa under consideration at a given point in the key) are completely excluded; thus, each taxon will appear only once in the key. If VARYWT is 1, there is no special penalty for intra-taxon variability. The default value is 0.8. In the example below, VARYWT is set to 0.3, which is low enough (in this case) to completely exclude variable taxa. However, the average length of the key is 4.3, compared with 3.8 in Key 1, and the average cost is 1.8, compared with 1.5. Character 52 (reliability 7) is used instead of character 44 (reliability 8), because the latter is variable for Poa. Character 28, which is variable for Cynodon and Panicum, is avoided. Notice that Key 1 is shorter and less costly than Key 3, even though there are more items in Key 1 (that is, some taxa come out more than once). The average length and cost of the key are the most important considerations for the key user, because they represent the average number of questions that will have to be answered to obtain an identification, and the difficulty or unreliability of those questions. The number of items, relative to the number of different taxa, is of little or no consequence to the key user. However, it does affect the amount of space occupied by the key, and hence the printing costs, and therefore some compromise is usually necessary. Directives file key3 *HEADING Key 3. Small VARYWT *VARYWT 0.3 *NO BRACKETTED KEY *PRINT WIDTH 78 Output file key3.prt
Key 3. Small VARYWT Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 11 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 14 in key. RBASE = 1.40 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .30 Number of confirmatory characters = 0 Average length of key = 4.3 Average cost of key = 1.8 Maximum length of key = 6 Maximum cost of key = 2.6 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ |Chloris |66A|52A|13B|44A|31A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Cynodon |66A|52A|13B|44A|31B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Eleusine |66A|52A|13B|44C| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Poa |66A|52A|13E| +---------------------------+ |---+---+ |Zea |66A|52B|12A| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+ |Echinochloa |66A|52B|12B|44A|34A|13B| +---------------------------+ | | | | |---+ |Panicum |66A|52B|12B|44A|34A|13E| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+---+ |Andropogon |66A|52B|12B|44A|34B|16A| +---------------------------+ | | | | |---+ |Agrostis |66A|52B|12B|44A|34B|16B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+
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|Phragmites |66A|52B|12B|44C| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+ |Festuca |66B|60D|11A| +---------------------------+ | |---+ |Anisopogon |66B|60D|11B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+ |Bambusa |66B|60G| 4A| +---------------------------+ | |---+ |Oryza |66B|60G| 4B| +---------------------------+---+---+---+
5.3.4 Presetting characters

The automatic selection of characters can be overridden by using the PRESET CHARACTERS directive. To a certain extent, the incorporation of desired characters can be achieved by manipulating reliabilities, particularly early in the key. However, a character reliability applies to the character as a whole: there is no way of specifying that a character is particularly good or particularly bad for separating a certain subset of the taxa. This capability may be provided in a later version of the program. In the meantime, presetting characters provides a way around the problem. Each character is preset by a specification of the form character,column:group column and group specify the position in the tabular key at which character is to be preset. column is found by counting the columns of attributes, from left to right, until the desired position is reached. group is found by counting, from the top, the taxon groups in the previous column, until the desired position is reached; groups consisting of only one taxon are not counted. The specifications must be ordered by column number (lowest first), and by group number within each column. In this example, character 77 is preset as the first character, to separate Zea from the rest; and characters 13 and 4 are preset in column 4. Directives file key4 *HEADING Key 4. Preset characters *PRESET CHARACTERS 77,1:1 13,4:1 4,4:4 *NO BRACKETTED KEY *PRINT WIDTH 78 Output file key4.prt
Key 4. Preset characters Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 12 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 16 in key. RBASE = 1.40 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .80 Number of confirmatory characters = 0 Average length of key = 4.7 Average cost of key = 1.9 Maximum length of key = 6 Maximum cost of key = 2.4 Preset characters (character,column:group) 77,1:1 13,4:1 4,4:4 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 +---------------------------+---+ |Zea |77A| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Chloris |77B|66A|44A|13B|31A|34A| +---------------------------+ | | | | |---+ |Andropogon 2|77B|66A|44A|13B|31A|34B| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+---+ |Cynodon |77B|66A|44A|13B|31B|27A| +---------------------------+ | | | | |---+ |Echinochloa |77B|66A|44A|13B|31B|27C| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+ |Panicum |77B|66A|44A|13E|34A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+---+ |Andropogon 2|77B|66A|44A|13E|34B|16A|

+---------------------------+ | | | | |---+ |Agrostis |77B|66A|44A|13E|34B|16B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+ |Poa 2|77B|66A|44B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Eleusine |77B|66A|44C|13B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+ |Poa 2|77B|66A|44C|13E|37A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+ |Phragmites |77B|66A|44C|13E|37B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+---+ |Festuca |77B|66B|60D|11A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Anisopogon |77B|66B|60D|11B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+ |Bambusa |77B|66B|60G| 4A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+ |Oryza |77B|66B|60G| 4B| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+
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5.3.5 Confirmatory characters

The program can made to search for confirmatory characters, that is, characters whose state values have the same distribution, within the group of taxa under consideration at a given point in the key, as the main character used at that point. The main character and the confirmatory characters are equivalent: any or all of them may be used in the identification. The default number of confirmatory characters is 0, and the maximum number is 4. In the tabular key, there are no vertical rulings within the groups of equivalent characters. In the bracketed key, the states of the equivalent characters are separated by semicolons. Apart from the addition of the confirmatory characters, the key in this example is identical to Key 1. The example also illustrates the production of RTF output from the program. Directives file key5 *HEADING Key 5. Confirmatory characters *NUMBER OF CONFIRMATORY CHARACTERS 3 *OUTPUT DIRECTORY rtf *INPUT FILE markrtf *PRINT COMMENT \pard\plain\s3\sa200\keepn\fs24\b{}Key 5. Confirmatory characters\b0{} Output file key5.prt
Key 5. Confirmatory characters Characters - 88 in data, 75 included, 28 in key. Items - 14 in data, 14 included, 17 in key. RBASE = 1.40 ABASE = 2.00 REUSE = 1.01 VARYWT = .80 Number of confirmatory characters = 3 Average length of key = 3.8 Average cost of key = 1.5 Maximum length of key = 5 Maximum cost of key = 2.1 Characters included 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities 2-5,7 7-10,7 11-13,8 14-26,7 27,8 28-38,7 40-43,7 44,8 45-47,7 48,8 49-63,7 64,6 65,7 66,8 67,7 68,2 69,1 70,2 71-76,1 77,8 78-85,1 86,6 +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Chloris |66A|44A|28A|13B 11B 19A 35A|31A 47C 69A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+---+---+ |Cynodon 2|66A|44A|28A|13B 11B 19A 35A|31B 47A 69B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Agrostis |66A|44A|28A|13E 11A 19B 35B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+---+ |Cynodon 2|66A|44A|28B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+---+ |Andropogon |66A|44A|28C|16A 31A 34B 45B| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+---+---+---+
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|Echinochloa |66A|44A|28C|16B 31B 34A 45A|13B 19A| +---------------------------+ | | | |---+---+ |Panicum 2|66A|44A|28C|16B 31B 34A 45A|13E 19B| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Zea |66A|44A|28D|12A 77A 34B 60A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+---+ |Panicum 2|66A|44A|28D|12B 77B 34A 60D| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Poa 2|66A|44B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+---+---+ |Eleusine |66A|44C|13B 19A 65A 67A| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Poa 2|66A|44C|13E 19B 65B 67C|37A 52A 58B 63A| +---------------------------+ | | |---+---+---+---+ |Phragmites |66A|44C|13E 19B 65B 67C|37B 52B 58A 63C| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Festuca |66B|60D 71B 74A|11A 31B 34A 35A| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+ |Anisopogon |66B|60D 71B 74A|11B 31A 34B 35B| +---------------------------+ |---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |Bambusa |66B|60G 71A 74C|15A 30A 46B 59A| +---------------------------+ | |---+---+---+---+ |Oryza |66B|60G 71A 74C|15B 30B 46A 59B| +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Output file key5.rtf, as displayed in MS-Word If there is no room for the tabbed text at the end of a line (as for Eleusine), a line break (Shift+Enter) must be entered manually in Word. (There is no mechanism in Word for handling this automatically.) Key 5. Confirmatory characters Characters: 88 in data, 75 included, 28 in key. Items: 14 in data, 14 included, 17 in key. Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80 Characters included: 2-24 26-77 Character reliabilities: 2-5,7.0 7-0,7.0 11-13,8.0 14-26,7.0 27,8.0 28-38,7.0 40-43,7.0 44,8.0 45-47,7.0 48,8.0 49-63,7.0 64,6.0 65,7.0 66,8.0 67,7.0 68,2.0 69,1.0 70,2.0 71-76,1.0 77,8.0 78-85,1.0 86,6.0 1(0). Hilum short. ............................................................................................................................. 2 Hilum long-linear. .................................................................................................................. 11 2(1). Female-fertile florets 1. ............................................................................................................ 3 Female-fertile florets 2. ....................................................................................................... Poa Female-fertile florets 3 or more. .............................................................................................. 9 3(2). Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes. ............................................................................. 4 Spikelets disarticulating between the glumes. ............................................................ Cynodon Spikelets falling with the glumes. ............................................................................................ 6 Spikelets not disarticulating. .................................................................................................... 8 4(3). Inflorescence of spicate main branches; ligule a fringed membrane to a fringe of hairs; spikelets secund; glumes shorter than the adjacent lemmas. ............................................... 5 Inflorescence paniculate; ligule an unfringed membrane; spikelets not secund; glumes long relative to the adjacent lemmas................................................................................ Agrostis 5(4). Hairy callus present; lemmas awned; biochemical type PCK. ...................................... Chloris Hairy callus absent; lemmas awnless; biochemical type NADME. .......................... Cynodon 6(3). Spikelet-bearing axes disarticulating; hairy callus present; glumes more or less equal; lemmas incised. ................................................................................................ Andropogon Spikelet-bearing axes persistent; hairy callus absent; glumes very unequal; lemmas entire. .. 7 7(6). Inflorescence of spicate main branches; spikelets secund. ................................... Echinochloa Inflorescence paniculate; spikelets not secund. .......................................................... Panicum
Users Guide to the DELTA System 8(3).
77
9(2). 10(9). 11(1). 12(11).
13(11).
Plants monoecious with all the fertile spikelets unisexual; fruiting inflorescence a massive, spatheate cob, the fruits in many rows; glumes more or less equal; stamens 0. ............ Zea Plants bisexual, with bisexual spikelets; fruiting inflorescence not as in maize; glumes very unequal; stamens 3. ................................................................................................ Panicum Inflorescence of spicate main branches; spikelets secund; fruit sculptured; pericarp free. ................................................................................................................................. Eleusine Inflorescence paniculate; spikelets not secund; fruit smooth; pericarp fused. ....................... 10 Glumes carinate; lemmas carinate; lodicules membranous; stigmas white. ........................ Poa Glumes non-carinate; lemmas non-carinate; lodicules fleshy; stigmas brown. ...... Phragmites Stamens 3; mesophyll without arm cells; midrib with one bundle only. ............................... 12 Stamens 6; mesophyll with arm cells; midrib having complex vascularization. ................... 13 Ligule an unfringed membrane; hairy callus absent; glumes very unequal; glumes shorter than the adjacent lemmas. ........................................................................................ Festuca Ligule a fringed membrane to a fringe of hairs; hairy callus present; glumes more or less equal; glumes long relative to the adjacent lemmas. ........................................ Anisopogon Inflorescence a complex of partial inflorescences and intervening foliar organs; rachilla prolonged beyond the uppermost female-fertile floret; lemmas blunt; lodicules ciliate. .................................................................................................... Bambusa Inflorescence not comprising partial inflorescences and foliar organs; rachilla terminated by a female-fertile floret; lemmas pointed; lodicules glabrous. ................................. Oryza
5.4 How the program selects characters

The program user may provide estimates of the relative costs of the characters and the relative frequencies of the items. By default, all costs and frequencies are assumed to be equal. An interpretation of the meaning of the cost of a character is not essential for the use of the program or for the development of the theory, but it may be thought of as a combination of the probability of error in using the character and the amount of effort required to use the character. Errors may arise because of misinterpretation or misjudgement by the user of the key, or because intra-taxon variability has not been completely accounted for in the taxon descriptions. The frequency of an item should be proportional to the frequency with which the item will need to be identified. (The character costs and item frequencies are specified indirectly by means of the CHARACTER RELIABILITIES and ITEM ABUNDANCES directives. See Section 5.5 for details.) Under the assumption that the character costs are additive (that is, that the cost of using two characters is the sum of the costs of the characters), the program attempts to construct a key in which the average cost of an identification is minimized. The construction of a key proceeds in the following way. The best character is selected, and is used to divide the original group of taxa into two or more subgroups. Each subgroup is then divided by the best remaining character (not necessarily the same one for each subgroup), and this process is continued until each subgroup contains only one taxon (or until no suitable character can be found). The first step in the choice of the best character for the subdivision of a group of taxa is to eliminate those characters which take only one value in the group, or are not applicable to some members of the group. A comparison function is then evaluated for each remaining character, and the character giving the lowest value is chosen. The comparison function used in Key is based on the average cost of an identification in the subgroup under consideration. It was derived by the following argument. We define the length L as the average number of questions which must be answered to identify a taxon. If the taxon frequencies are all equal, L is given by
1 n l n i i 1
where n is the number of taxa and l i is the number of questions required to identify the i-th taxon. It is easily verified that if all the characters have two states, the minimum value of L over all conceivable keys is given by
78
(1) where k is the integral part of log 2 n. The value of L min may be approximated by the simpler formula
Lmin k 2 2 k 1 n
Lmin log 2 n
which is exact if n is a power of 2, and differs from the value given by equation (1) by at most 0.086. Suppose a character having a cost c is used to divide a group of n taxa into s subgroups. A key for the group can then be obtained by constructing subkeys for each of the subgroups. The average cost C of an identification in the key is then given by
C c ( f j c j L j )
j 1
/ ( f )
j j 1
(2)
where cj is the average cost of the characters used in the j-th subkey, f j is the total frequency of the items in the j-th subgroup, and L j is the length of the j-th subkey. If we further assume that the subkeys are not far from minimum length, and that most of the characters have two states, equation (2) becomes
C c ( f j c j log 2 n j )
j 1
/ ( f )
j j 1
(3)
where nj is the number of taxa in the j-th subgroup. The estimation of the cj before the subkeys are constructed is difficult, and in view of the many other approximations, an elaborate procedure is not warranted. In the program, all the cj are simply set equal to c min, the smallest cost for the characters under consideration. Equation (3) then becomes
C c cmin ( f j log 2 n j )
j 1
/ ( f ) .
j j 1 s j
(4)
The comparison function K used in the program is obtained from equation (4) by incorporating a term V which allows the user to control the amount of intra-taxon variability in the key:
K c cmin[( f j log 2 n j )
j 1
/ ( f ) V ] .
j 1 s
(5)
V is given by
1 v V ( )( n n 8n )( n j n) v log 2 j 1
where v is the parameter VARYWT described in Sections 5.3.3 and 5.5. It should be noted that the term V is an arbitrary one, unrelated to the minimization of the cost. Even without this term (i.e. with v=1), the comparison function favours characters with low intra-taxon variability. Characters which produce subgroups, at least one of which is the same size as the original group, can be treated in two ways. By default, these characters are not used. If an ALLOW IMPROPER SUBGROUPS directive is specified, these characters may be used, but V contains an extra factor (1+100m), where m is the number of subgroups that are equal in size to the original group (i.e. for which n j =n).
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Definitions A range of character numbers has the general form c1-c2 where c1 and c2 are character numbers, and c1 is less than or equal to c2. It denotes all character numbers from c1 to c2, inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the characters 6, 7, 8, and 9. A range of item numbers has the general form t1-t2 where t 1 and t 2 are item numbers, and t 1 is less than or equal to t 2 . It denotes all item numbers from t 1 to t 2 , inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the items 6, 7, 8, and 9. *ABASE (Key) Description This directive sets the base of the logarithmic item abundance scale. The frequency f of an item (see Section 5.4) is related to the abundance a (see ITEM ABUNDANCES) by the formula f = b a-5 where b is the value of ABASE. Thus, if b=1, all items have equal frequencies, and the abundances have no influence on the formation of the key. If b=2, each increase of 1 in the abundance means a doubling of the frequency. General form *ABASE b where b is a real number in the range 1 to 5. Default 2. Example *ABASE 1.2 *ADD CHARACTER NUMBERS (Key) Description This directive specifies that character numbers be inserted in bracketed keys. General form *ADD CHARACTER NUMBERS Default Character numbers are omitted from bracketed keys. *ALLOW IMPROPER SUBGROUPS (Key) Description By default, a character is not considered for inclusion in the key unless the subgroups it produces are all proper subgroups of the group of taxa currently under consideration (that is, the subgroups must all contain fewer taxa than the group being divided). This directive removes this requirement. General form *ALLOW IMPROPER SUBGROUPS
80 Default
Characters giving rise to improper subgroups are not used. *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES (Key) Description This directive specifies the reliabilities of the characters. Characters with high reliabilities tend to be used in the key in preference to those with lower reliabilities. See also RBASE, and Section 5.4. Any characters not specified in this directive retain any reliabilities specified in the equivalent Confor directive. General form *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and r i is a real number in the range 0 to 10. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). If no reliabilities were specified in the Confor run, all reliabilities default to 5. Example *CHARACTER RELIABILITIES 1-3,6 5,9.5 6-10,8 11,10 12-15,0 *CHARACTERS FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the name of the characters file (which was output by Confor as the Key characters file see KEY OUTPUT FILE). General form *CHARACTERS FILE f where f is a file name. Default kchars. Example *CHARACTERS FILE kcharsf *COMMENT (Key) Description This directive enables comments to be incorporated in the directives file. General form *COMMENT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. Default None. Example *COMMENT Anatomical characters have been assigned reliability 1.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *DUMP (Key) Description This directive gives the values of the character-selection function and its components (see Section 5.4), for the character chosen at each point in the key, and the two next-best characters. General form *DUMP n where n is a non-negative integer. Information is output up to and including column n of the tabular key. The output is on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). Default The values of the character-selection function are not output. Example *DUMP 2 If this directive is added to the directives file key1 (see Section 5.3.1), the following output is produced.
Column 1 Group 1: Char R 66 8.0 60 7.0 44 8.0 Column 2 Group 1: Char R 44 8.0 27 8.0 12 8.0 Group 2: Char R 60 7.0 4 7.0 15 7.0 14 taxa Div 2.944 2.710 3.167 10 taxa Div 2.354 2.687 2.729 4 taxa Div 1.000 1.189 1.189
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Div&R TotN 1.430 14 1.491 16 1.511 18
N1 10 1 10
N2 ... 4 1 1 3 5
11
Div&R TotN 1.216 11 1.337 13 1.352 11 Div&R TotN .871 4 .939 4 .939 4
N1 7 7 1 N1 0 1 1
N2 ... 1 3 2 4 9 1 N2 ... 0 0 3 3
The column and group numbers refer to the tabular key see Section 5.3.1. In column 1, there is only 1 group, comprising all 14 taxa. In column 2, there are 2 groups of taxa: group 1, comprising the 10 taxa (some repeated) Agrostis to Phragmites; and group 2, comprising the 4 taxa Festuca to Oryza. Char is the character number. The characters are listed in increasing order of values of the selection function, so the first in the list is always the one actually used in the key. R is the character reliability. Div is the component of the selection function that depends only on how the character divides the group (i.e. the term in square brackets in equation (5), Section 5.4). Div&R is the complete selection function, taking into account both the division and cost (reliability). (Note that the cost is reduced by a factor REUSE if the character has been used previously in the key see REUSE below). N1 N2 are the numbers of taxa having states 1, 2, ,and TotN is the sum of these numbers. *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS (Key) Description This directive specifies which characters are to be excluded. The corresponding attributes are also excluded from the items. The excluded characters specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative.
82 General form
*EXCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). Example *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS 1 3-5 *EXCLUDE ITEMS (Key) Description This directive specifies which items are to be excluded. The corresponding attributes are also excluded from the items. The excluded items specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *EXCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). Example *EXCLUDE ITEMS 3 5-6 20 *HEADING (Key) Description This directive specifies a heading, which is placed at the top of the key. General form *HEADING text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The total number of symbols in the heading must not exceed 200. Default The heading specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). Example *HEADING Key to the Grass Genera of Australia *INCLUDE CHARACTERS (Key) Description This directive specifies which characters are to be included. The corresponding attributes are also included in the items. The included characters specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor.
Users Guide to the DELTA System The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). Example *INCLUDE CHARACTERS 2 6-20 *INCLUDE ITEMS (Key) Description
83
This directive specifies which items are to be included. The included items specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). Example *INCLUDE ITEMS 1-2 4 7-19 *INPUT FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the file from which input lines will be read after the processing of the current input line is finished. The file must not have been used for any other type of input or output. General form *INPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default Input is from a file specified in the command line that started the program running, or a file specified in response to a prompt issued by the program. Example *INPUT FILE markrtf *ITEM ABUNDANCES (Key) Description This directive specifies the abundances of the items. The program attempts to construct keys in which taxa with high abundances key out early (i.e. via a small number of characters). See also ABASE, and Section 5.4.
84
Any characters not specified in this directive retain any abundances specified in the equivalent Confor directive. General form *ITEM ABUNDANCES t 1 ,a 1 t 2 ,a 2 t i ,a i where t i is a item number or range of numbers, and a i is a real number in the range 0 to 10. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the Key items file (see KEY OUTPUT FILE). If no abundances were specified in the Confor run, all abundances default to 5. Example *ITEM ABUNDANCES 7,3 11-13,0 24,10 *ITEMS FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the name of the items file (which was output by Confor as the Key items file see KEY OUTPUT FILE). General form *ITEMS FILE f where f is a file name. Default kitems. Example *ITEMS FILE kitems1 *KEY OUTPUT FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the file on which the tabular key is output. The bracketed key is also output on this file unless a TYPESETTING MARKS directive has been specified. General form *KEY OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default The name of the directives file, with the file type changed to .prt. Example *KEY OUTPUT FILE aust.tab *KEY TYPESETTING FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the file on which the bracketed key is output if a TYPESETTING MARKS directive is specified. General form *KEY TYPESETTING FILE f
Users Guide to the DELTA System where f is a file name. Default The name of the directives file, with the file type changed to .rtf. Example *KEY TYPESETTING FILE aust.rtf *LISTING FILE (Key) Description This directive specifies the file on which certain information about the program run is output. Error messages are also output on this file (as well as on the standard system output device). General form *LISTING FILE f where f is a file name. Default Information about the run is output on the standard system output device, usually the screen. Example *LISTING FILE key.lst *MATRIX DUMP (Key) Description
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This directive outputs selected rows of the matrix during key generation. It is intended primarily as an aid to program debugging. The output is on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). General form *MATRIX DUMP n r where n and r are non-negative integers or ranges of integers . The matrix rows specified in r are output after the completion of each of the columns of the tabular key specified in n. If n contains the value 0, the matrix rows are output before the key generation starts. If n is absent, it defaults to 0. If r is absent, all rows of the matrix are output. Default The matrix is not output. Example *MATRIX DUMP 0-2 1-5 *NO BRACKETTED KEY (Key) Description This directive suppresses the production of a key in the conventional, bracketed format. General form *NO BRACKETTED KEY Default Both tabular and bracketed keys are produced.
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*NO TABULAR KEY (Key) Description This directive suppresses the production of a key in tabular format. General form *NO TABULAR KEY Default Both tabular and bracketed keys are produced.. *NUMBER OF CONFIRMATORY CHARACTERS (Key) Description This directive specifies the number of confirmatory characters that will be sought by the program for each main character in the key. The state values of the confirmatory characters must have the same distribution (with the possible exception of their order) as the state values of the main character, in the group of taxa under consideration. The main character is selected before the confirmatory characters are sought; the presence or absence of confirmatory characters therefore has no effect on the selection of the main character. General form *NUMBER OF CONFIRMATORY CHARACTERS n where n is an integer in the range 0 to 4. Default No confirmatory characters are sought. Example *NUMBER OF CONFIRMATORY CHARACTERS 2 For a complete example, showing the generated key, see Section 5.3.5. *OUTPUT DIRECTORY (Key) Description This directive specifies a default directory for RTF and HTML output files (see TYPESETTING MARKS). General form *OUTPUT DIRECTORY d where d is a directory name. Default Files are output in the current directory the directory from which the main directives file (for example, key5) is read. Example *OUTPUT DIRECTORY www
Users Guide to the DELTA System *OUTPUT FORMAT HTML (Key) Description This directive specifies that RTF control words, accented characters (e.g. ), and various special characters in the data (see Section 3.4) are to be translated into the corresponding HTML forms in keys. It must be used with a corresponding TYPESETTING MARKS directive. General form *OUTPUT FORMAT HTML Default RTF marks from the data are omitted from plain-text keys, and included in RTF keys. *PAGE LENGTH (Key) Description
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This directive specifies the number of lines of the key to be output on each page. It does not apply to keys in RTF or HTML format (see TYPESETTING MARKS). General form *PAGE LENGTH n where n is a non-negative integer. If n is 0, the key is not paginated. Default No pagination. Example *PAGE LENGTH 60 *PRESET CHARACTERS (Key) Description This directive enables the user to select the characters to be used at any points in the key, i.e., to override the automatic selection of characters. General form *PRESET CHARACTERS c 1 ,k 1 :g 1 c 2 ,k 2 :g 2 c i ,k i :g i where c i is a character number, k i is a column number, and g i is a group number. k i and g i specify the position in the tabular key at which c i is to be preset. k i is found by counting the columns of attributes, from left to right, until the desired position is reached. g i is found by counting, from the top, the taxon groups in the previous column, until the desired position is reached; groups consisting of only one taxon are not counted. The specifications must be ordered by column number (lowest first), and by group number within each column (this is the order in which the key is constructed). Default All character selection is automatic. Example *PRESET CHARACTERS 16,1:1 44,2:1 23,2:2 23,2:3 30,5:11 3,7:2 For a complete example, showing the generated key, see Section 5.3.4.
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*PRINT COMMENT (Key) Description This directive specifies text to be output at the start of a key in RTF or HTML format (see TYPESETTING MARKS). General form *PRINT COMMENT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. Default None. Example *PRINT COMMENT \pard\plain\s3\sa200\keepn\fs24\b{}Key 5. Confirmatory characters\b0{} *PRINT WIDTH (Key) Description This directive specifies the maximum line length for output of the keys. In the bracketed key, lines are kept within this length by starting a new line whenever a word will not fit on the current line. In the tabular key, if any lines are longer than the specified maximum, only the first parts of those lines are immediately printed. The excess parts of the lines are printed, together with all the taxon names, on an extra set of pages. This set of pages can be placed side by side with the first set to obtain the complete key. See also TRUNCATE TABULAR KEY AT. This directive does not affect the width of the output produced by the TYPESETTING MARKS directive. General form *PRINT WIDTH n where n is an integer in the range 40 to 200. Default 80. Example *PRINT WIDTH 132 *RBASE (Key) Description This directive sets the base of the logarithmic character-reliability scale. The cost c of a character (see Section 5.4) is related to the reliability r (see CHARACTER RELIABILITIES) by the formula c = b 5-r where b is the value of RBASE. Thus, if b=1, all characters have equal costs, and the reliabilities have no influence on the formation of the key. If b=1.4, each decrease of 2 in the reliability means a doubling of the cost (1.42). General form *RBASE b where b is a real number in the range 1 to 5.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default 1.4. Example *RBASE 1.2 *REUSE (Key) Description
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This directive is used to attempt to minimize the number of different characters used in the key. When a character is first used, its cost is divided by REUSE. If REUSE is greater than 1, the character is then more likely to be used again later in the key. As this is not usually an important requirement, the value should usually be only slightly greater than 1. General form *REUSE r where r is a real number in the range 1 to 5. Default 1.01. Example *REUSE 1.5 *STOP AFTER COLUMN (Key) Description This directive causes generation of the key to stop after a specified number of columns. Its purpose is to save time while investigating alternative structures for the early part of the key. General form *STOP AFTER COLUMN n where n is a positive number. Default Key generation proceeds as far as possible. Example *STOP AFTER COLUMN 4 *STORAGE FACTOR (Key) Description This directive controls the amount of storage reserved for the data matrix. The amount required by the original matrix is multiplied by the specified value, to allow room for generation of new items (when variable items are split). The remaining available storage is used for other purposes. Any need for a non-default value will be indicated by the program. General form *STORAGE FACTOR f Default 1.5.
90 Example *STORAGE FACTOR 2
*TREAT CHARACTERS AS VARIABLE (Key) Description This directive specifies that particular attributes are to be treated as variable. Thus, if one of these attributes is used in a key, the corresponding taxon is placed on all the branches emanating from that point in the key. This is a way of allowing for incorrect interpretation of the character (in a particular taxon) by the user of the key, without actually coding the incorrect interpretation in your data, where it would be misleading in natural-language descriptions and classification analyses. General form *TREAT CHARACTERS AS VARIABLE #t 1 . c 1 1 c 1 2 c 1 j #t 2 . c 2 1 c 2 2 c 2 j #t i . c i 1 c i 2 c i j where t i is an item number, and c i j is a character number or range of numbers. Note that currently only item numbers, not names, are permitted. Default None. Example *TREAT CHARACTERS AS VARIABLE #1. 44 66 #4. 4 Item 1 is effectively coded 44,V 66,V and item 4 is effectively coded 4,V. *TREAT UNKNOWN AS INAPPLICABLE (Key) Description This directive specifies that missing or unknown values are treated as inapplicable. That is, if the value of a character is missing or unknown for a particular taxon, then that character cannot be used for any group containing the taxon. General form *TREAT UNKNOWN AS INAPPLICABLE Default Missing or unknown values are treated as variable. If the value of a character is unknown for a particular taxon, and the character is used for a group containing that taxon, then the taxon will appear in the branches of the key corresponding to all the states of the character. *TRUNCATE TABULAR KEY AT (Key) Description If the tabular key is too wide for the page, the program automatically prints any overflow on a new set of pages. As the tabular key is mainly used to evaluate the structure of the key, the rightmost parts are of less significance. This directive can be used to restrict the number of columns output, and thereby
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prevent overflow onto extra pages. The generation of the key and the output of the bracketed key are not affected. See also PRINT WIDTH. General form *TRUNCATE TABULAR KEY AT n where n is a positive integer. Default The output of the tabular key is not truncated. Example *TRUNCATE TABULAR KEY AT 20 *TYPESETTING MARKS (Key) Description This directive specifies that print output be produced in a form suitable for interpretation by a typesetting program. It is identical with the Confor TYPESETTING MARKS directive (see Section 3.5), but the default is different. Default No typesetting marks are inserted, and any typesetting marks in the input data are omitted. Examples See files markrtf (RTF marks) and markhtm (HTML marks) in the sample data supplied with the programs. *VARYWT (Key) Description This directive sets the value of a parameter that determines the treatment of intra-taxon variability in the process of character selection. If VARYWT is 0, characters which are variable for some taxa will not be used to divide groups containing any of the variable taxa; as a result, each taxon will appear only once in the key. If VARYWT is 1, there is no special penalty applied to characters with intrataxon variability. Intermediate values of VARYWT have effects between these extremes. A mathematical specification of the effect of VARYWT is given in equation (5) in Section 5.4. General form *VARYWT v where v is a real number in the range 0 to 1. Default 0.8. Example *VARYWT .7 For a complete example, showing the generated key, see Section 5.3.3.
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6. The Distance-Matrix Program Dist

6.1 Introduction
Dist is a program for generating a distance matrix. Distances are calculated using a modified version of Gowers (1971) similarity coefficient. Input to the program consists of a direct-access file produced by the TRANSLATE INTO DIST FORMAT option of Confor (see Section 3.5), and an optional directives file, which controls execution of the program. The default name of the directives file is dist. For unordered multistate characters, the calculation of the distance depends on whether the directive MATCH OVERLAP is used. If MATCH OVERLAP is not used, the contribution D i j k of character k to the distance between items i and j is D i j k = .5(|P i 1 k -P j 1 k |+|P i s k -P j s k |+|P i n k -P j n k |) where P i s k is the probability of item i having state s of character k, P j s k is the probability of item j having state s of character k, and n is the number of states of character k. If the character has more than one value in an item, the probability is divided equally between the values present. If MATCH OVERLAP is used, D i j k is 0 if i and j have any state values in common, and 1 otherwise. For ordered multistate and numeric characters, a single value X i k is calculated for each included item i and character k during the translation from DELTA format (see TRANSLATE INTO DIST FORMAT in Section 3.5). The contribution of each character to the distance is calculated as D i j k = |X i k -X j k |/R k where R k is range of the X i k for all included items i. The distance contribution from each character is multiplied by the character weight, and the sum of these weighted contributions is divided by the sum of the weights. If a character is not coded or inapplicable for either item, it makes no contribution to the total distance or to the sum of the weights. The output file contains the distance matrix in upper-triangular form, without the diagonal. Each row of the matrix starts on a new line. There are up to 8 matrix elements per line. Each element occupies 10 columns, and has 5 decimal places. Thus, the first line contains D 1 2 , D 1 9 ; and D 2 3 , D 3 4 , are at the beginnings of lines.
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Definitions A range of character numbers has the general form c 1 -c 2 where c 1 and c 2 are character numbers, and c 1 is less than or equal to c 2 . It denotes all character numbers from c 1 to c 2 , inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the characters 6, 7, 8, and 9. A range of item numbers has the general form t 1 -t 2 where t 1 and t 2 are item numbers, and t 1 is less than or equal to t 2 . It denotes all item numbers from t 1 to t 2 , inclusive. For example, 6-9 denotes the items 6, 7, 8, and 9. *CHARACTER WEIGHTS (Dist) Description This directive specifies the weights of the characters. In calculating the distance between two items, the contribution from each character is multiplied by its weight. The directive completely overrides any weights (or reliabilities) specified in Confor. General form *CHARACTER WEIGHTS c 1 ,r 1 c 2 ,r 2 c i ,r i where c i is a character number or range of numbers, and r i is a real number in the range 0.03125 to 32. Default If this Dist directive is not used, the weights are those specified in the Confor run which produced the input file to Dist. If no weights were specified in Confor, all weights default to 1. If this Dist directive is used, any weights not specified in the directive default to 1 (not to the weights specified in Confor). Example *CHARACTER WEIGHTS 1-3,2 5,2 9-12,.5 19,3 20-25,2 *COMMENT (Dist) Description This directive enables comments to be incorporated in the directives file. General form *COMMENT text where text is any text not containing blank-star. The text may extend over more than one line. Default None. Example *COMMENT Anatomical characters have been assigned reliability 1.
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*EXCLUDE CHARACTERS (Dist) Description This directive specifies which characters are to be excluded. The corresponding attributes are also excluded from the items. The excluded characters specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the input file to Dist. Example *EXCLUDE CHARACTERS 1 3-5 *EXCLUDE ITEMS (Dist) Description This directive specifies which items are to be excluded. The excluded items specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an INCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *EXCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the input file to Dist. Example *EXCLUDE ITEMS 3 5-6 20 *INCLUDE CHARACTERS (Dist) Description This directive specifies which characters are to be included. The corresponding attributes are also included in the items. The included characters specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE CHARACTERS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE CHARACTERS c 1 c 2 c i where c i is a character number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the input file to Dist.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Example *INCLUDE CHARACTERS 2 6-20 *INCLUDE ITEMS (Dist) Description
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This directive specifies which items are to be included. The included items specified in this directive completely supersede those specified in Confor. The directive must not appear with an EXCLUDE ITEMS directive, to which it is an alternative. General form *INCLUDE ITEMS t 1 t 2 t i where t i is an item number or range of numbers. Default As specified in the Confor run which produced the input file to Dist. Example *INCLUDE ITEMS 1-2 4 7-19 *ITEMS FILE (Dist) Description This directive specifies the name of the input file (which was output by Confor as the DIST OUTPUT FILE). General form *ITEMS FILE f where f is a file name. Default ditems. Example *ITEMS FILE ditems.anm *LISTING FILE (Dist) Description This directive specifies the file on which certain information about the program run is output. Error messages are also output on this file (as well as on the standard system output device). General form *LISTING FILE f where f is a file name. Default Information about the program run is output on the standard system output device, usually the screen (or, in batch mode, the log file). Example *LISTING FILE dist.lst
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This directive specifies that a log of the progress of the run is to be output on the listing file (see LISTING FILE). General form *LOG Default A log is not produced. *MATCH OVERLAP (Dist) Description This directive specifies that, for unordered multistate characters, the contribution of a character to the distance between two items is 0 if the items have any of the values of the character in common. General form *MATCH OVERLAP Default The contribution to the distance depends on the probabilities of the character values for the items (see Section 6.1). *MAXIMUM ITEMS IN MEMORY (Dist) Description This directive specifies the maximum number of items to be stored in memory simultaneously. On computers with virtual memory, it may be possible to improve the efficiency of paging by using this directive. General form *MAXIMUM ITEMS IN MEMORY c where c is an integer number in the range 1 to number of included items. Default The maximum number of items possible is held in memory. Example *MAXIMUM ITEMS IN MEMORY 50 *MINIMUM NUMBER OF COMPARISONS (Dist) Description This directive specifies the minimum number of character comparisons required to calculate the distance between two items. If the required number of comparisons is not satisfied, an error message is output and an asterisk is output in the corresponding cell of the matrix. General form *MINIMUM NUMBER OF COMPARISONS c where c is an integer number in the range 1 to number of included characters.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Default The square root of the number of included characters. Example *MINIMUM NUMBER OF COMPARISONS 5 *NAMES FILE (Dist) Description This directive specifies the file on which the item names are output. General form *NAMES FILE f where f is a file name. Default The name of the output file, with the file type changed to .nam. Example *NAMES FILE grass.nam *OUTPUT FILE (Dist) Description This directive specifies the file on which the distance matrix is output. General form *OUTPUT FILE f where f is a file name. Default The name of the directives file, with the file type changed to .dis. Example *OUTPUT FILE grass.dis *PHYLIP FORMAT (Dist) Description This directive causes the taxon names to be interleaved with the rows of the distance matrix, as required by the program Phylip (Felsenstein 1993). General form *PHYLIP FORMAT Default The taxon names and distance matrix are output as separate files.
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7. The Interactive Identification Program Intkey

7.1 Introduction
Intkey is an interactive program for identifying a specimen by comparing its attributes with stored descriptions of taxa. The program can also be used to interrogate the stored data. Complete documentation is available within the program. Intkey offers better and more comprehensive features than any similar program. These features include: entry and deletion of attributes in any order during an identification; calculation of the best characters for use in identification; the ability to allow for errors (whether made by the user or in the data); the ability to express variability or uncertainty in attributes; optional display of notes on characters; direct handling of numeric values, including ranges of values and non-contiguous sets of values; the ability to alter the treatments of unknowns, inapplicables and overlapping values, as required for different applications (flexibility in this respect being particularly significant in relation to identification versus information retrieval); retrieving free-text information (that is, information not encoded in terms of character states or numeric values); freedom to carry out operations in any order (for example, displaying taxon descriptions or differences during the course of an identification); automatic handling of characters that become inapplicable when other characters take certain values; restricting operations to subsets of characters or taxa; defining keywords to represent subsets of characters and taxa; locating characters by included words, and taxa directly by name; no limits on numbers of taxa, characters, and character states; no limits on lengths of taxon names and character definitions; specifying character reliabilities appropriate for particular purposes; obtaining lists of taxa possessing or lacking particular attributes or combinations of attributes; preparing lists of taxa uncoded for particular characters or sets of characters; listing similarities or differences between taxa, with the ability to vary the interpretations of similarity and difference; describing taxa in terms of nominated sets of characters; generating diagnostic descriptions for specimens or taxa, to specified degrees of redundancy; coalescing descriptions (e.g. to generate accurate generic descriptions from species descriptions); user-definable toolbar buttons to represent any command or sequence of commands; input of complex or lengthy sequences of commands from files; selective output of results to files; generating files suitable for input to other DELTA programs (for example, to highlight diagnostic features in printed descriptions); screen display of illustrations of characters and taxa; no limit on size or number of colours in illustrations; scaling and scrolling of illustrations; simultaneous viewing of several illustrations; overlaying text on illustrations;
Users Guide to the DELTA System selection of character states from illustrations; complete on-line help; normal and advanced modes of operation; acceptable response times with large sets of data.
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The data files used by Intkey are created from DELTA-format data by the TRANSLATE INTO INTKEY FORMAT directive of Confor (see Section 3.5). All of the program messages and help are in a separate file (rather than being embedded in the program itself). Some foreign-language versions are supplied with the program. Please contact the authors if you are interested in producing other translations (no knowledge of programming is needed).
7.2 Accessing data and images over the Internet

Intkey can access its data and image files over the Internet. To do this, the data-set index file (see Introduction in the Intkey online help) or a link in a Web page must point to a special startup file, with extension (type) .ink or .intkey. The startup file tells Intkey where the data set and its associated images are to be found, and the name of the intialization file to use. When Intkey is installed, it configures itself as a helper application for Web browsers. When a person using a browser clicks on a link to an Intkey startup file, the browser activates Intkey and passes it a copy of the startup file. Intkey itself then retrieves the actual data set from the Web, extracts its contents, and begins the identification. Note that Intkey runs only under Windows 95/NT or later. Even with Web-based data sets, users will not be able to use Intkey on Macintosh or Unix computers (unless they use a Windows emulator). However, only the computer in which the Web browser is running needs to be running under Windows; the Web server that provides the data set can be any sort of platform. Here is the procedure to follow to make an Intkey data set available over the Web. 1. Generate and test an Intkey data set on a Windows-based PC. Be sure that it does what you want on your PC before you consider putting it on the Web. 2. Assemble together all the files that Intkey requires to use your data set. This will typically include the following: (a) the data files ichars and iitems (not your original chars and items files); (b) the initialization file, usually named intkey.ink; (c) any Intkey input files, e.g. the file toolbar.inp defining a custom toolbar; (d) any special .bmp files used in the custom toolbar (those already provided with the Intkey distribution need not be included); (e) any Contents files (usually contents.ind) and the files they reference (usually *.rtf). Do not include image files for characters, taxa, keywords, or startup at this stage (you actually may do so if you wish, but a more efficient mechanism is provided for the retrieval of images on an asneeded basis). You can find the required files by examining your initialization file (intkey.ink) and contents file (contents.ind). Determine what files are referenced either directly or indirectly from these files, and include them all. 3. Put the files from step 2 into a single zip file. 4. Determine where you will later place the data set (and any associated images) on a Web server. You will need to know the full URL that the data set will have once it is on the server. You may need to consult with the manager of your Web server about this. Create a startup file specifying five different values, each having the general form keyword=value. Use the extension .ink (or .intkey) when naming this file, and save it as a plain text file. Comments are preceded by semicolons. Here is an example.
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M. J. Dallwitz, T. A. Paine and E. J. Zurcher ; To run the Intkey identification package from this file, ; you need Intkey5 and Windows 95/NT or later. ; InkFile=http://delta-intkey.com/ffl/ffl.ink ; Name of this file DataFile= http://delta-intkey.com/ffl/ffli.zip ; Name of the compressed data file InitializationFile=intkey.ink ; Name of the Intkey initialization file within the compressed data file ImagePath= http://delta-intkey.com/ffl/images ; Image path InfoPath= http://delta-intkey.com/ffl/info ; Image path
The value for InkFile specifies a fully qualified URL at which the startup file itself can be found. This enables Intkey to re-locate the data set in a later session without the help of a Web browser. This entry is mandatory. The value for DataFile specifies a fully qualified URL pointing to the zip file created in step 3. This entry is mandatory. The value for InitializationFile tells Intkey the name of the file within the data set archive to use as its initialization file (usually intkey.ink). This entry is mandatory. The entry for ImagePath is optional, but should be used if your data set contains images that have been associated with the data via the Confor directives CHARACTER IMAGES, TAXON IMAGES, CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES, TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES, and STARTUP IMAGES. It should indicate the URL of a directory from which the various image files can be retrieved. This should normally be a subdirectory images of the directory in which the DataFile is stored on the server. The entry for InfoPath is optional, but should be used if your data set contains external information files that have been associated with taxa via the Confor directives CHARACTER FOR OUTPUT FILES, ITEM OUTPUT FILES, and TAXON LINKS. It should indicate the URL of a directory from which the various information files can be retrieved. This should normally be a subdirectory info of the directory in which the DataFile is stored on the server. 5. Place the files on your Web server. The startup file should go into the location specified by InkFile; the zip file containing the data set should go into the location specified by DataFile; and any image and information files should go into the directories specified by ImagePath and InfoPath. 6. Both the HTTP server and the PC must be able to recognize that the startup file references an Intkey data set. The HTML protocol uses MIME types to distinguish how different files are to be used. Your startup file should be associated with a MIME type of application/x-intkey. This association needs to be set up by the manager of your Web server. The exact method for doing so will depend on the server software in use, but in most cases it will simply involve defining an association between the file extension .ink (or .intkey) and the MIME type application/xintkey. A similar association on the PC is generated automatically by the Intkey installation procedure. 7. You will probably want to create an HTML document pointing to your Intkey data set (see sample file ident.htm). 8. Test to see whether it all works. N.B. The Internet Explorer browser does not need the MIME type to be set on the server, so it is advisable to test with another browser as well, e.g. Mozilla Firefox or Opera. Restricting access to the data There may be circumstances in which you may wish to restrict access to your data set. There are two basic ways this can be done. The first approach is to have the manager of your Web server deal with
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this via the servers security features. The second is to encrypt your zip file when you create it (step 3) and protect it with a password. Intkey will then require that the user enter the correct password before the data set can be used. Your needs will determine which of these approaches is most appropriate. The first approach could be used to restrict access only to PCs located on a universitys campus. The second approach could be used to restrict access to students within a single class, or to world-wide collaborators.
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8. The Image-Annotation Program Intimate

8.1 Introduction
Intimate is a program for use by developers of Intkey data sets. Its purpose is to aid the developer in associating images with particular characters or taxa, and in the placement of various forms of annotation on these images. Primarily this annotation takes the form of text boxes small, scrollable windows, which overlay the image itself and contain textual information. We shall use the term illustration to denote an image plus its annotation. The syntax used to describe the annotation is given in detail in Section 8.8. Although the syntax itself is not unduly complex, it does not lend itself well to manual editing. In particular, specifying suitable positions and sizes for text boxes is quite difficult to do well if not done interactively. The role of Intimate is to shield the developer from having to deal with the details of the annotation syntax. It provides a mean of associating images with data, and interactively adding, modifying and positioning annotation. The following Confor directives are associated with the display of illustrations in Intkey. CHARACTER IMAGES for illustrations of characters and their states. TAXON IMAGES for illustrations of particular taxa (items). CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES for illustrations of character keywords. TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES for illustrations of taxon keywords. STARTUP IMAGES for illustrations displayed when the data set is opened. OVERLAY FONTS specifies the fonts to be used in the overlays. This set of directives will be referred to as image directives throughout this chapter. When developing a DELTA data set for use with Intkey, it is recommended that the CHARACTER IMAGES directives be placed in a separate file with the name cimages, the TAXON IMAGES directives be placed in a separate file with the name timages, and the CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES, TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES, and STARTUP IMAGES directives be placed in a separate file with the name kimages. These files may then be accessed via INPUT FILE directives placed in a higher-level directives file (such as toint). Although the use of these file names is completely arbitrary (as is placing of these directives in separate files), most developers find it convenient to adopt this convention. This is also the convention that has been used in the sample data set provided with the programs. Intimate requires the presence of data files in the Intkey format for its operation (these files are normally generated by running confor toint see Section 3.1). The Intimate program then allows the developer to interactively modify the associations of images with data or keywords and to annotate these images. The results of these modifications are then written as new copies of the image directives. Note that Intimate does not modify the Intkey data files directly. To incorporate the updated information and make it available to the Intkey program, these files must be re-generated (by running confor toint again). Note that Intkey and Intimate differ in the ways they obtain information about images. Intkey obtains this information from the Intkey data files. Intimate ignores this source (although it does obtain other information from the Intkey data files), and instead reads information about images from the directives files.
8.2 Program start-up

When Intimate is started, it attempts to read the file intkey.ind in the DELTA directory. This file is expected to contain a list of the available Intkey data sets and the complete path names of the intkey.ini (or other initialization) files associated with them. (See the documentation of Intkey for further information about this file.) The current list of Intkey data sets is presented to the user, who
Users Guide to the DELTA System may then select one on which to work. Provision is also made for modifying, adding, and deleting entries in the list of Intkey data sets.
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Intimate then asks the user to open a directives file; by default, it suggests toint in the same directory as the Intkey initialization file. It reads this directives file, and any other files implicitly included in it via INPUT FILE directives, searching for any image directives.
8.3 The File menu

This menu contains options for opening and saving data sets, as well as for exiting the program. These are as follows. New Directives Start a new set of image directives. Normally used only the first time a particular data set is edited, as it discards any information read from already existing directives. Open Directives Open and read a Confor directives file containing image directives. Files implicitly included via INPUT FILE directives are also read. Save All Directives Write new copies of all applicable images directives (incorporating any changes made to the images used and to their annotation), making new versions of the files from which they were read (or of the files to which they were most recently saved). Any other directives present in the original files are copied without modification. The original files are saved as backup copies with the extension .bak, and any old backup copies are deleted. Save A Directive Write a new copy of one of the images directives (selected from a submenu), making a new version of the file from which it was read (or of the file to which it was most recently saved). Any other directives present in the original files are copied without modification. The original file is saved as a backup copy with the extension .bak, and any earlier backup copy is deleted. Save A Directive As Write a copy of one of the images directives (selected from a submenu) to a file with a name specified by the user (for newly created directives, the program suggests the name cimages for character images, the name timages for taxon images, and the name kimages for character keyword images, taxon keyword images, and startup images). If a file with the specified name already exists, the user is presented with a choice of completely overwriting the file; of appending the directive to the end of the file (or of replacing the directive if it is already found within the file); of selecting a different file name; or of cancelling the operation. If an existing file is overwritten or modified, the original file is saved as a backup copy with the extension .bak, and any earlier backup copy is deleted. New Data Set Select a new Intkey data set on which to work. The user may choose from the list of available data sets listed in the file intkey.ind in the DELTA directory. Provision is also made for modifying, adding, and deleting entries in the list of Intkey data sets. When a new data set is opened, any information read from earlier data sets is discarded; if the earlier data set has been modified, the user is given a final opportunity to save the files. Set Imagepath Modify the directory path which will be searched for images. By default, the program will use the value set by the SET IMAGEPATH directive in the Intkey initialization file (usually intkey.ink) or, if that is not found, will use the current directory.
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Terminate the program. If any modifications have been made, the user is given a final opportunity to save the files.
8.4 The Illustrate menu

This menu is used to select the type of image association which is to be defined or modified. For character and taxon images, the first character or taxon to be worked on is also selected. Character Presents a dialog box for selection of a character for which an illustration is to be added, previewed, or modified. The dialog box presents a list of character numbers and their associated feature descriptions. Those characters which already have an associated illustration are distinguished by being listed in a bold font. The list of characters may be restricted to show only illustrated or unillustrated characters by ticking the appropriate checkbox. The Find box near the bottom of the dialog allows the user to search for a character based on its feature description text. For example, entering the word culm will advance the character selection bar to the next character in the list for which the string culm appears in the feature description. The Find Next button moves the pointer forward to the next such character, looping back to the start of the list if necessary. Once a character has been selected, and the OK button pressed, the first illustration associated with that character will appear in its own window. If no illustrations have yet been associated with the character, the user will be prompted for the name of an image file to associate with the character. Item Presents a dialog box for selection of a item (taxon) for which an illustration is to be added, previewed, or modified. The dialog box presents a list of item numbers and their item names. Those items which already have an associated illustration are distinguished by being listed in a bold font. The list of items may be restricted to show only illustrated or unillustrated items by ticking the appropriate checkbox. The Find box near the bottom of the dialog allows the user to search for an item based on its name. For example, entering the string Poa will advance the character selection bar to the next character in the list for which the string poa appears in the item name (case is ignored). The Find Next button moves the pointer forward to the next such item, looping back to the start of the list if necessary. Once an item has been selected, and the OK button pressed, the first illustration associated with that item will appear in its own window. If no illustrations have yet been associated with the item, the user will be prompted for the name of an image file to associate with the item. Startup Allows the user to specify illustrations to be displayed when the data set in opened in Intkey. If startup images have already been defined, the first illustration will appear in its own window. If no illustrations have yet been associated with startup, the user will be prompted for the name of an image file to use. Character Keywords Allows the user to specify illustrations for character keywords. If character keyword images have already been defined, the first illustration will appear in its own window. If no illustrations have yet been associated with character keywords, the user will be prompted for the name of an image file to use. Taxon Keywords Allows the user to specify illustrations for taxon keywords. If taxon keyword images have already been defined, the first illustration will appear in its own window. If no illustrations have yet been associated with taxon keywords, the user will be prompted for the name of an image file to use.
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8.5 The Image menu

This menu provides options for browsing images, adding, deleting, or substituting image associations, emulating screen resolutions, and setting fonts for overlays. Browse Presents a dialog box for selection of an image file. When a file has been selected, it is displayed in a window of its own. This does not associate the image in any way with characters, items, etc. It merely provides a mechanism for previewing image files prior to their use. Emulate resolution Restricts images to the selected size. This is intended to allow developers to see how their images and overlays might appear when viewed on a system with a lower screen resolution than their development system. Choose font Presents a dialog box for selection of overlay fonts. A submenu allows specification of: Default font used in all overlays, except as specified in Button font or Feature font. Button font used in button overlays (OK, Cancel, etc.). Feature font used in Feature overlays in character images. Insert new after, Insert new before Presents a dialog box for selection an image file to be associated with the current entity (the character, item, keyword, or startup currently referenced by the topmost window). When a file is selected, it becomes associated with the current entity, and the image is displayed in the current topmost window. Insert new after places the new image after the current image, and Insert new before places the new image before the current image. Substitute Presents a dialog box for selection of the name of an image file to be used instead of the image file currently associated with the current entity. Subject text Presents an edit box for modification of the text used to label the image in the Subject menu of image windows. This text is also placed in the caption above an image when it is displayed. If no text is provided, the file name is used. Sound Presents a dialog box for selection of a sound file to be associated with the current illustration. The dialog box allows the sound to be previewed before it is selected. Cut Deletes the current image association, and saves a copy of the illustration (including annotation) in the image paste buffer. Copy Places a copy of the current illustration (including annotation) in the image paste buffer. Paste after, Paste before Associates the illustration in the image paste buffer with the current entity (the character, item, keyword, or startup currently referenced by the topmost window), and displays in the topmost window. Paste After places the new image after the current image, and Paste Before places the new image before the current image.
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Deletes the current image association. The illustration is not saved in the image paste buffer.
8.6 The Overlay menu

This menu provides options for the insertion, modification, and deletion of annotations (primarily in the form of text boxes) on the current image. RTF marks (see Section 3.4) may be typed directly into the overlay text. There is currently no other mechanism for including these marks. Currently, only \par{} and \line{} are interpreted by Intkey: both produce a line break. However, other marks are interpreted when included in natural-language descriptions (see CHARACTER FOR TAXON IMAGES in Section 3.5), and will be interpreted by a future version of Intkey. We therefore suggest that you include appropriate marks, particularly \i{}\i0{} to specify italics for species names. The position and dimensions of an overlay box can be manipulated by dragging the whole box, its borders, or corners. They can be also specified numerically in Add overlay or Modify overlay dialogs. In these dialogs, the position and dimensions are normally specified in image units one thousandth of the width or height of the image. The top left-hand corner of the image has the coordinates (0,0), and the bottom right (1000,1000). Insert new above, Insert new below Provides a submenu of annotation features to be placed over the current image. An image may have any number of overlays associated with it, and they are stored in a specific order. This order matters only when overlays overlap one another. When this occurs, the overlay that lies above will obscure portions of any overlay that lies below it. Except for hotspots (see below), Insert new above places the new overlay above the currently selected overlay, and Insert new below places the new overlay below the currently selected overlay. If no overlay is currently selected (i.e., in the edit mode), then only Insert new above is available, and the new overlay as added above all existing overlays. The following types of overlay are available: Text Creates an overlay containing any arbitrary text. Item (taxon) name Creates an overlay containing the name of the taxon as given in the ITEM DESCRIPTIONS directive. This option is available only for taxa. Feature description Creates an overlay containing the textual description of the feature as given in the CHARACTER LIST directive. This option is available only for characters. Feature + All states Creates a series of overlays, containing: the feature description; the character states, together with a hotspot (see below) for each state; OK and Cancel buttons; and a Notes button if notes are present. For numeric characters, an Enter box is created (see below; units are also displayed, if available), rather than overlays for each state. This option is available only for characters. State Creates an overlay containing the textual description of a state of the character as given in the CHARACTER LIST directive. An image may contain only one such overlay for each state.
Users Guide to the DELTA System This option is available only for multi-state characters. Value
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Creates an overlay containing a value or range of values; this value or range must be specified by the author. The overlay can be selected by the Intkey user, instead of entering values in an Enter box. This option is available only for numeric characters. Hotspot Creates a hotspot a rectangular or elliptical region to be associated with a given state (for multi-state characters), value (for numeric characters), or keyword (for character or taxon keywords). Within Intkey, clicking within this hotspot will (in appropriate contexts) cause the associated state to be selected. This option is available only if a state, value, or keyword overlay, or an existing hotspot, is selected. There may be any number of hotspots associated with any given state, value, or keyword. They are always below the associated state, value, or keyword. This option is available only for characters, character keywords, and taxon keywords. Enter Creates an overlay within which the Intkey user may enter a value. Only one such overlay may be present on an image. This option is available only for characters. Units Creates an overlay containing the units in which a numeric character is expressed. By default, this will be positioned immediately to the left of an Enter overlay, if one already exists. This option is available only for numeric characters. Heading Creates an overlay containing the descriptive heading of the data set (see HEADING in Section 3.5). This option is available only for startup. Keyword Creates an overlay containing a textual description associated with one or more character or taxon keywords. This option is available only for character keywords and taxon keywords. OK Creates a default push-button containing the text OK. Pressing this button within Intkey will close the image window, applying any states, values or keywords that may have been selected. Cancel Creates a push-button containing the text Cancel. Pressing this button within Intkey will close the image window, and discard any state, value or keyword selections. Notes Creates a push-button containing the text Notes. Pressing this button within Intkey will cause any explanatory notes for the character to be displayed. This option is available only for characters with character notes.
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Creates a push-button containing the text Notes, and allows specification of the text to be displayed when this button is pressed within Intkey. This button is an alternative to a text overlay. It should not be used to specify notes about a taxon (such information should be stored in text characters). The intended use is for information about taxon images (e.g. the name of the photographer). This option is available only for taxon, startup, and keyword images. Modify Properties Presents a dialog box for modification of the properties of the overlay. This includes the text appearing within the box (other than text obtained directly from an item, feature, state, character, or keyword description); the position of the box; whether text ought or ought not to be centred within the box; whether a character state (or other) description ought to include comments; and whether the height of a box ought to be automatically adjusted so as to always contain a specified, integral number of lines of text (even when the image is scaled). Note that when the latter option is selected, box height is given in terms of numbers of lines of text, rather than in image units. Default Properties Presents a dialog box for modification of the properties assigned by default to newly created overlays. These are: whether text is to be centred within a box; whether a character state description is to include comments; whether the description text is to be omitted entirely for state and value boxes; and whether the height of a text box is to be rounded so as to always display an integral number of lines of text. Pressing the OK button causes the new set of properties to be applied for the remainder of the current session. Pressing the Save button causes a copy of the properties to be saved in an external file, and be applied automatically to later sessions. Pressing the Restore button reads properties from the external file. Pushbutton Alignment Presents a submenu providing the options Align vertically, Align horizontally, and Dont align. This affects the way in which OK, Cancel, and Notes push-buttons are positioned. When alignment is enabled (whether horizontally or vertically), any newly created push-buttons are aligned with those already in existence, and maintained in the order OK, Cancel, Notes. Additionally, any changes made in the position of a push-button (whether by dragging or by the Modify Properties dialog) affects all the push-buttons as a block, rather than just the currently selected push-button. Cut Deletes the current overlay, and save a copy of it in the overlay paste buffer. Copy Places a copy of the current overlay in the overlay paste buffer. Paste above, Paste below Places the contents of the overlay paste buffer (see Cut and Copy) on the current image. The distinction between Paste above and Paste below is the same as that between Insert new above and Insert new below (see above). Clear Deletes the current overlay. The overlay is not saved in the overlay paste buffer. Clear All Deletes all overlays from the current image. This command requires additional confirmation from the user, as once the overlays are deleted, they cannot readily be recovered.
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8.7 The image window and manipulation of overlays

The images are displayed in windows that resemble the appearance they will have within Intkey, except that hot-spots associated with character states or values are visible by default. Also, the menus above the window are similar to the ones in Intkeys Advanced Mode. If the same illustration is opened in more than one window, changes made in one are not reflected in the other, and only the last of the windows to be closed will actually have its contents reflected in the output files. This situation should therefore be avoided. The way that hot-spots are drawn may sometimes cause difficulty. The boundary lines are drawn by inverting the colours of the display. Inverting the colours a second time restores the original colours. Hence when hot-spot boundary lines exactly overlie one another, they disappear from view. This is a particularly serious difficulty when a hot-spot has been copied to the paste-buffer, then pasted back onto the image. As it is placed exactly over the original hot-spot, both the old and new hot-spots appear to vanish completely. They are actually there; its just that one is directly on top of the other. Moving the topmost will reveal this. Overlays may be re-sized or re-positioned by use of the mouse. Click on an overlay to select it. Its border will change to a wide double line. (The innermost of the double lines corresponds to the border of the normal overlay window.) When the cursor is positioned over this border, it changes to a doubleheaded arrow, indicating that the overlay window may be re-sized by holding down the left mouse button and moving the mouse. (The OK, Cancel, and Notes push-buttons are exceptions to this they cannot be resized.) To move the selected overlay window, but retain its size, position the cursor in the middle of the window and hold down the left mouse button. The cursor will change to a hand, and moving the cursor will move the window to a new position. An overlay is not permitted to extend beyond the boundaries of the image window. Double-clicking the left mouse button within a selected overlay will open a dialog box for modification of the properties of the overlay (this is equivalent to choosing Modify Properties from the main windows menu see the description above). A selected overlay may be returned to normal by selecting another overlay, or by clicking on some portion of the image where there is no overlay.
8.8 Syntax of directives Introduction

Intkey allows image files to be associated with particular characters, taxa and keywords, and can display images when a data set is started. All these images may have annotation overlaid on them, primarily in the form of text boxes. This Section describes the syntax used to specify the images and their annotation. The supported image formats are: GIF (Graphics Interchange Format); JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format; usually called simply JPEG format); BMP (Windows device-independent bitmap); and AVI (Video for Windows) Still images (GIF, JPEG, and BMP) can be linked to sound files in either RIFF WAV format (the standard format for sound files in MS-Windows) or MIDI format (the standard format for synthesized music). Within Intkey, the sound will be played immediately after the image is displayed. AVI files are played, then frozen on the last frame of the video prior to the display of the annotation. Note that the playing of sound files and the audio component of AVI files requires the presence of suitable audio hardware and software. Examples of image directives can be found in the sample data files supplied with the programs.
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Definitions and general syntax

Annotation and comments may optionally be associated with image files. The annotation consists of annotators, each starting with @, and enclosed, individually or collectively, in angle brackets (<>). Each @ must be preceded by a space or <. Comments are arbitrary text enclosed in angle brackets. An annotator consists of a keyword and parameters. The keyword immediately follows the @, and defines the type of annotator. Parameters are single characters. Some are followed by = and a value. (The = may be omitted, but its inclusion is recommended for clarity.) A hot spot is a rectangular or elliptical region associated with a state, value, or keyword. If the Intkey user clicks in this region, the corresponding state, value, or keyword is selected (or de-selected if already selected). Text will be wrapped to fit within its overlay box, and a scroll-bar added if necessary. In Intkey (and in Preview mode in Intimate), the size of the box is automatically increased to accommodate at least one line of text, and the longest word.
Parameters
Position and size of overlay x=x y=y w=w h=h x and y are respectively the x and y coordinates of the top-left corner of the overlay box, w is the width of the box, and h is the height of the box. The parameters may be in any order. The values are normally specified in image units one thousandth of the width or height of the image. The top left-hand corner of the image has the coordinates (0,0), and the bottom right (1000,1000). If h is negative, its absolute value specifies the height in multiples of the height of a line of text. Centring If parameter m is specified, text will be centred in its box. Otherwise, it will begin in the upper-left hand corner of the box. Including comments If parameter c is specified, comments within text obtained from the main data (for example, feature descriptions and taxon names) are included; otherwise they are omitted. Omission of default text If parameter n is present, text normally obtained from the main data (for example, feature descriptions and taxon names) is omitted. This would usually be used in conjunction with the t parameter see below. Text t=t This parameter specifies arbitrary text t. The text is terminated by the end of the enclosing comment, or the start of the next annotator, whichever occurs first. This parameter must therefore be the last parameter of the annotator. Additional (optional) text t=t This parameter specifies additional text t to be placed after (or instead of) text obtained from the main data (for example, feature descriptions and taxon names). The text is terminated by the end of the enclosing comment, or the start of the next annotator, whichever occurs first. This parameter must therefore be the last parameter of the annotator.
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When displayed in Intkey, or in the preview mode of Intimate, the contents of t are separated from the default text (for example, a feature description) by a space, unless the first character of t is a punctuation character (period, comma, semi-colon or exclamation). Elliptical hotspot If parameter e is specified, the associated hotspot is elliptical; otherwise it is rectangular. Pop-up hotspot By default, hotspots are invisible in Intkey. If parameter p is specified, the associated hotspot is a pop-up hotspot its boundary becomes visible when the cursor is moved over it. Colour of pop-up hotspot f=bgr By default, the colour of the boundary of a pop-up hotspot is obtained by inverting the background colour, that is, by subtracting the red, green, and blue values from FF (hexadecimal). (Note that the colour obtained in this way is invisible against a mid-grey background.) The parameter f specifies the colour of a pop-up hotspot. b, g, and r are respectively the intensities of the blue, green, and red components of the colour. They are specified as hexadecimal numbers in the range 00 to FF. For example, f=0080FF specifies orange.
Directives
*CHARACTER IMAGES This directive specifies information on character images and associated annotation for use with Intkey. Within Intkey, the images can be displayed to illustrate the characters, and character states can be selected from the images screens (instead of from text screens). *CHARACTER IMAGES #c 1 . f 1 1 a 1 1 f 1 2 a 1 2 f 1 j a 1 j #c 2 . f 2 1 a 2 1 f 2 2 a 2 2 f 2 j a 2 j #c i . f i 1 a i 1 f i 2 a i 2 f i j a i j where c i is a character number, f i j is the name of an image file, and a i j is optional annotation and comments associated with f i j . (Although the annotation is formally optional, it is highly desirable). The annotation consists of annotators, each starting with @, and enclosed, individually or collectively, in angle brackets (<>). Each @ must be preceded by a space or <. Comments are arbitrary text enclosed in angle brackets. The available annotators are as follows. Text @text x=x y=y w=w h=h [m] t=t (The square brackets enclose an optional part.) Places any arbitrary text t within a box. Feature @feature x=x y=y w=w h=h [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the feature description of the character and additional text t (if specified) within a box.. State @state s x=x 1 y=y 1 w=w 1 h=h 1 [x=x 2 y=y 2 w=w 2 h=h 2 [e] [p [f=b 2 g 2 r 2 ]] x=x i y=y i w=w i h=h i [e] [p [f=b i g i r i ]] ] [c] [n] [m] [t=t]
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(The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the character state number s, the state description, and additional text t (if specified) within a box. The first box contains the text, and the remaining boxes specify hot spots. This option may only be used in conjunction with multistate characters. Value @value v x=x 1 y=y 1 w=w 1 h=h 1 [x=x 2 y=y 2 w=w 2 h=h 2 [e] [p [f=b 2 g 2 r 2 ]] x=x i y=y i w=w i h=h i [e] [p [f=b i g i r i ]] ] [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the value or range of values given in v, the units (if any) in which the character is measured, and additional text t (if specified) within a box. The first box contains the text, and the remaining boxes specify hot spots. This option may only be used in conjunction with numeric characters. Units @units x=x y=y w=w h=h [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the units of the character and the additional text t (if specified) within a box. The size and position of the box are specified in the usual way, except that the tilde character (~) may used to specify x and y (the x and y coordinates, respectively). This indicates that the values to use are the coordinates of the upper-right corner of the enter box for the character. It is an error to use the tilde if no enter box is defined for the character. This annotation may only be used in conjunction with numeric characters for which units have been specified. Enter @enter x=x y=y w=w h=h [t=t] (The square brackets enclose an optional part.) Creates an EDIT control into which the user may enter values. The contents of t, if specified, are used to initialize the contents of the control. This annotation may only be used in conjunction with numeric characters. OK @ok x=x y=y Creates a push-button control, containing the label OK. This is a default push-button, so that pressing the Enter key will cause it to be activated, unless a different push-button has been selected. In Intkey, activation of the button, either by pressing Enter or clicking on it, causes any currently selected states or values for the figure to be chosen, and closes the window containing the image. Only the position of the upper-left corner of the box can be specified; its height and width are calculated from the size of the font used. Cancel @cancel x=x y=y Creates a push-button control, containing the label Cancel. In Intkey, activation of the button closes the window containing the image and cancels any state or value selections which have been made (pressing the Escape key will also have this effect). Only the position of the upper-left corner of the box can be specified; its height and width are calculated from the size of the font used.
Users Guide to the DELTA System Notes @notes x=x y=y
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Creates a push-button control, containing the label Notes. In Intkey, activation of the button opens a new window displaying the character notes. Only the position of the upper-left corner of the box can be specified; its height and width are calculated from the size of the font used. Subject @subject t Uses t as a label for the image. This label appears within the caption of the image when it is displayed, and also is used as an entry in the Subject menu. Only one such label may be associated with a given image. If no label is provided, the file name of the image is used instead. Sound @sound s Plays a sound file following display of the image. s specifies the name of the sound file. *TAXON IMAGES This directive specifies information on taxon images and associated annotation for use with Intkey and in natural-language descriptions. Within Intkey, the images can be displayed to illustrate the taxa. *TAXON IMAGES #t 1 . f 1 1 a 1 1 f 1 2 a 1 2 f 1 j a 1 j #t 2 . f 2 1 a 2 1 f 2 2 a 2 2 f 2 j a 2 j #t i . f i 1 a i 1 f i 2 a i 2 f i j a i j or *TAXON IMAGES #n 1 / f 1 1 a 1 1 f 1 2 a 1 2 f 1 j a 1 j #n 2 / f 2 1 a 2 1 f 2 2 a 2 2 f 2 j a 2 j #n i / f i 1 a i 1 f i 2 a i 2 f i j a i j where t i is a taxon number, n i is a taxon name, f i j is the name of an image file, and a i j is optional annotation and comments associated with f i j . The annotation consists of annotators, each starting with @, and enclosed, individually or collectively, in angle brackets (<>). Each @ must be preceded by a space or <. Comments are arbitrary text enclosed in angle brackets. The annotators @text, @subject, @sound, @ok, and @cancel are available and work in the same way as with character images. (The remaining annotators used for characters do not make sense in the context of taxon images, and so are not permitted.) In addition, the following annotators are available. Item @item x=x y=y w=w h=h [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the name of the item and the additional text t (if specified) within a box. ImageNotes @imagenotes x=x y=y t=t Creates a push-button control, containing the label Notes. In Intkey, activation of the button opens a new window displaying the associated text-string. Only the position of the upper-left corner of the box is specified; its height and width are calculated from the size of the font used.
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*CHARACTER KEYWORD IMAGES and *TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES These directives specify information on character and taxon keyword images and associated annotation for use with Intkey. They allow selection of keywords from image screens (instead of from text screens). *TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES f 1 a 1 f 2 a 2 f j a j and *TAXON KEYWORD IMAGES f 1 a 1 f 2 a 2 f j a j where f i is the name of an image file, and a i is optional annotation and comments associated with f i . The annotation consists of annotators, each starting with @, and enclosed, individually or collectively, in angle brackets (<>). Each @ must be preceded by a space or <. Comments are arbitrary text enclosed in angle brackets. Annotation of keyword images is accomplished in a method similar to that for character or taxon images. The @text, @subject, @sound, @ok, @cancel and @imagenotes annotators are available and work in the same way as with character or taxon images. The remaining annotators used for characters and taxa do not make sense in the context of keyword images, and so are not permitted. In addition, the following annotator is available. Keyword @keyword ["]k["] x=x 1 y=y 1 w=w 1 h=h 1 [x=x 2 y=y 2 w=w 2 h=h 2 [e] [p [f=b 2 g 2 r 2 ]] x=x i y=y i w=w i h=h i [e] [p [f=b i g i r i ]] ] [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the keyword list given in k, and the additional text t (if specified) within a box. The first box contains the text, and the remaining boxes specify hot spots. k should be a text string that Intkey can interpret as a keyword or list of keywords. Note that if k contains spaces, the entire string must be contained within quotation marks ("). Any spaces contained within the separate Intkey keywords should be removed. Hence a keyword string containing the two Intkey keywords habit and vegetative form would appear as "habit vegetativeform" *STARTUP IMAGES This directive specifies illustrations to be displayed when the data set is opened in Intkey. *STARTUP IMAGES f 1 a 1 f 2 a 2 f j a j where f i is the name of an image file, and a i is optional annotation and comments associated with f i . The annotation consists of annotators, each starting with @, and enclosed, individually or collectively, in angle brackets (<>). Each @ must be preceded by a space or <. Comments are arbitrary text enclosed in angle brackets. Annotation of startup images is accomplished in a method similar to that for character or taxon images. The @text, @subject, @sound, @ok, @cancel and @imagenotes annotators are available and work in the same way as with character images. The remaining annotators used for characters, taxa, or keywords do not make sense in the context of startup images, and so are not permitted. In addition, the following annotator is available. Heading @heading x=x y=y w=w h=h [c] [n] [m] [t=t] (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) Places the heading text for the data (see HEADING in Section 3.5) and the additional text t (if specified) within a box.
Users Guide to the DELTA System *OVERLAY FONTS
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This directive specifies the fonts to be used in image overlays. If the directive is omitted, the system font is used. *OVERLAY FONTS #1. [<r 1 >] f 1 #2. [<r 2 >] f 2 #3. [<r 3 >] f 3 (The square brackets enclose optional parts.) r i is a comment, and f i describes the font to be used. f 2 specifies the font used on buttons, f 3 specifies the font used for feature descriptions, and f 1 specifies the font used for all other text. f i consists of a series of six numeric values, followed by the name of the font, for example, 8 7 0 2 2 0 Trebuchet MS The six values map directly to aspects of the logical font description used internally by Windows, and are as follows. 1. The size of the characters, in points (if viewed on a system with 120 logical pixels per inch vertically.) 2. The weight, or boldness, of the font, on a scale from 1 to 9. A value of 4 is normal, 7 is bold, and 0 is a special value indicating don't care. 3. A value indicating whether the font should be italicized. 0 indicates that italics should not be used, and any other value (usually 1) indicates that the font should be italicized. 4. The pitch of the font (in effect, whether monospaced or proportional). Possible values are: 0 = default; 1 = fixed; 2 = variable. 5. The family of the font. Possible values are: 0 = dont care; 1 = Roman (serifed); 2 = Swiss (sans serif); 3 = Modern (constant stroke width); 4 = Script (cursive); 5 = Decorative. 6. The character set. Possible values are: 0 = ANSI; 1 = default; 2 = symbol; 255 = OEM (that is, the DOS or IBM character set). Any or all of the numeric values may be omitted, in which case they default to 0. The font name is Microsofts name for the typeface to be used. Common examples are: Arial, Times New Roman, MS Sans Serif, Courier New, or System. It is generally best to use one of the fonts supplied with Windows. If the specified font is not available, Windows will substitute a similar font, with unpredictable effects on the layout of text in the overlays (for example, whether or not a scroll bar is required).
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to many colleagues for supplying diverse data and ideas, which have guided the development of the coding system and the associated programs. We particularly wish to thank Leslie Watson.
References and Citation

First published April 1980. Second edition February 1984. Third edition December 1986. Fourth edition August 1993; 4.01 November 1993; 4.02 May 1995; 4.03 July 1995; 4.04 January 1996; 4.05 September 1996; 4.06 November 1996; 4.07 March 1997; 4.08 December 1997; 4.09 April 1999; 4.10 October 1999; 4.11 September 2000; 4.12 December 2000. Subsequent revisions are identified only by the date of publication; if you want to cite the particular version, use 4th edition. Version date., where date is the date at the top of the file. Publications making use of the components of the DELTA system should cite as follows. Components used DELTA Editor Citation Dallwitz 1980 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 1999 DELTA format, Confor, Dist, Intimate Dallwitz 1980 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 1993 Key Dallwitz 1974 Dallwitz 1980 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 1993 Intkey Dallwitz 1980 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 1993 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 1995 Dallwitz, Paine, and Zurcher 2000 Bruhl, J. J., Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. 1992. Genera of Cyperaceae: interactive identification and information retrieval. Taxon 41: 22535. Dallwitz, M. J. 1974. A flexible computer program for generating identification keys. Syst. Zool. 23: 507. Dallwitz, M. J. 1980. A general system for coding taxonomic descriptions. Taxon 29: 416. Also available at http://delta-intkey.com Dallwitz, M. J. 1984. Automatic typesetting of computer-generated keys and descriptions. In Databases in systematics, Systematics Association Special Volume No. 26, pp. 27990. (Eds R. Allkin and F.A. Bisby.) (Academic Press: London.) Dallwitz, M. J., Paine, T. A., and Zurcher, E. J. 1993 onwards. Users guide to the DELTA System: a general system for processing taxonomic descriptions. 4th edition. http://delta-intkey.com Dallwitz, M. J., Paine, T. A., and Zurcher, E. J. 1995 onwards. Users guide to Intkey: a program for interactive identification and information retrieval. http://delta-intkey.com Dallwitz, M. J., Paine, T. A., and Zurcher, E. J. 1999 onwards. Users guide to the DELTA Editor. http://delta-intkey.com Dallwitz, M. J., Paine, T. A., and Zurcher, E. J. 1998. Interactive keys. In Information technology, plant pathology and biodiversity, pp. 201212. (Eds P. Bridge, P. Jeffries, D. R. Morse, and P. R. Scott.) (CAB International: Wallingford.) Dallwitz, M. J., Paine, T. A. and Zurcher, E. J. 2000 onwards. Principles of interactive keys. http://delta-intkey.com
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Dallwitz, M. J., and Zurcher, E. J. 1988. Users guide to TYPSET: a computer typesetting program. 2nd edition. CSIRO Aust. Div. Entomol. Rep. No. 18, 125. Dallwitz, M. J., Zurcher, E. J., and Paine, T. A. 1993. Users Guide to the Text Editor TED. 2nd edition. (CSIRO Division of Entomology: Canberra.) Farris, J. S. 1988. Hennig86. Version 1.5. (Port Jefferson Station: New York) Felsenstein, J. (1993). PHYLIP (Phylogeny Inference Package). Version 3.5c. Distributed by the author. (Department of Genetics, University of Washington: Seattle.) Gower, J. C. 1971. A general coefficient of similarity and some of its properties. Biometrics 27: 857 71. Maddison, W. P., and Maddison, D. R. (1992). MacClade: analysis of phylogeny and character evolution. Version 3. 398pp. (Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, Massachusetts.) Partridge, T. R., Dallwitz, M. J., and Watson, L. 1993 onwards. A primer for the DELTA System. 3rd edition. http://delta-intkey.com Payne, R. W. 1975. Genkey: a program for constructing diagnostic keys. In Biological identification with computers. (Ed. R. J. Pankhurst.) pp. 6572. (Academic Press: London.) Ross, D., Dale, M., Shields, K., and Hulett, C. 1985. Taxon users manual. Edition P4. CSIRO Aust. Div. Comput. Res. CSIRONET Manual No. 6. Swofford, D. L. 1984. Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony. Version 2.2. (Illinois Natural History Survey: Champaign.) Swofford, D. L. 1991. PAUP: phylogenetic analysis using parsimony. Version 3.1. (Illinois Natural History Survey: Champaign.) Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. 1988. Grass genera of the world: illustrations of characters, classification, interactive identification, information retrieval. With microfiches, and floppy disks for MS-DOS microcomputers. (Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian National University: Canberra.) Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. 1992 onwards. Grass genera of the world: descriptions, illustrations, identification and information retrieval; including synonyms, morphology, anatomy, physiology, cytology, classification, pathogens, world and local distribution, and references. http://deltaintkey.com Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. 1994. The grass genera of the world. 2nd edition. 1081 pp. (CAB International: Wallingford.) Watson, L., Dallwitz, M. J., and Johnston, C. R. 1986. Grass genera of the world: 728 detailed descriptions from an automated database. Aust. J. Bot. 34: 22330. Watson, L., Gibbs Russell, G. E., and Dallwitz, M. J. 1989. Grass genera of southern Africa: interactive identification and information retrieval from an automated data bank. S. Afr. J. Bot. 55: 45263.

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2. Characters and Taxon Descriptions