1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
The birth of wireless communications dates from the late 1800s, when M.G. Marconi did the pioneer work establishing the first successful radio link between a land-based station and a tugboat. Since then, wireless communication systems have been developing and evolving with a furious pace. The number of mobile subscribers has been growing tremendously in the past decades. The number of mobile subscribers throughout the world increased from just a few thousand in the early 20th century to close to 1.5 billion in 2004.The early wireless systems consisted of a base station with a high-power transmitter and served a large geographic area. Each base station could serve only a small number of users and was costly as well. The systems were isolated from each other and only a few of them communicated with the public switched telephone networks. Today, the cellular systems consist of a cluster of base stations with low-power radio transmitters. Each base station serves a small cell within a large geographic area. The total number of users served is increased because of channel reuse and also larger frequency bandwidth. The cellular systems connect with each other via mobile switching and directly access the public switched telephone networks. The most advertised advantage of wireless communication systems is that a mobile user can make a phone call anywhere and anytime. RC... r/c... remote control... radio control... they all mean the same thing, FUN! One of the hottest segment of the hobby, and companies are scrambling to produce their own wireless communication systems. In this project you will learn how to build your own wireless communication between multiple system.

1.2. Necessity
It is surprisingly easy to design a system that is logically completely secure using VPNs and firewalls, but that, in practice, leaks like a service. This situation can occur if some of the machines are wireless and use radio communication, which passes right over the firewall in both directions. The range of 802.11 networks is often a few hundred meters, so anyone who wants to spy on a company can simply drive into the employee parking lot in the morning, leave an 802.11enabled notebook computer in the car to record everything it hears, and take off for the day.

1.3. Objective
To deal with wireless technology it is desired that the transmission and reception of data should be accurate enough to have error free transmission and reception. High bandwidth, wide area wireless networks are mostly used now a days. The initial focus is high speed wireless internet access from homes and business by passing the telephone system. This service is often called local multipoint distribution service.

1.4. Theme
It is desired to provide digital data transmission and reception between multiple system such as computer communication, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi etc. To deal the data transmission and reception the TRANSMITTER and RECEIVER are the basics of wireless technology. For wireless communication, we can transmit data, between various frequencies, but above 30MHz charges are provided by International standard organization.

1.5. Organization
How does an RF communication system works? Imagine an RF transmitter wiggling an electron in one location. This wiggling electron causes a ripple effect, somewhat akin to dropping a pebble in a pond. The effect is an electromagnetic (EM) wave that travels out from the initial location resulting in electrons wiggling in remote locations. An RF receiver can detect this remote electron wiggling. The RF communication system then utilizes this phenomenon by wiggling electrons in a specific pattern to represent information. The receiver can make this same information available at a remote location; communicating with no wires.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Traditional information source/wireless appliance relationship.
Consumer exigency for ubiquitous connectivity is widely recognized as the demand whose fulfillment will unleash the next industrial revolution beginning in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Such a revolution will be predicated upon the promise to endow these consumers with the ability to achieve universal access to information. The consumers demanding this connectivity, as well as their information needs, are rather diverse. On the one hand, there are individuals, who exploit wireless access for such things as location determination, conversation, personal information management (e.g., calendar of appointments, contact list, address book), checking bank balances, booking movie tickets, finding out about the weather, and money management. On the other, there are businesses, whose information needs may include fleet location, events and status notification, information management, Scheduling and dispatch, real-time inventory control, and order and resource management. Until recently, it was straightforward to associate a single wireless appliance with each one of the various types of information sources (see Figure 2.1). For instance, cell phones were associated with voice, digital cameras with video, laptop computers with broadband data, pagers with messaging, global positioning receivers (GPS) with navigation, and Web appliances with the Internet. The evolution in wireless standards elicited by the growth in

Figure 2.1 Traditional information source/wireless appliance relationship. 3

consumer demands, however, indicates that expectations from these wireless appliances are getting more and more exacting (see Table 1.1). For example, while the appliances of the first-generation (1G) provided single-band analog cellular connectivity capabilities, those of the second generation (2G) had to provide dual-mode, dual-band digital voice plus data, and now those of the third (3G) and fourth (4G) generations have to provide multimode (i.e., analog/digital), multiband (i.e., various frequencies), and multi-standard performance capabilities.(Various standards include Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).a leading digital cellular system that allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency; Digital European Cordless Telecommunications (DECT).a system for the transmission of integrated voice and data in the range of 1.88 to 1.9 GHz; cellular digital packet data (CDPD).a data transmission technology that uses unused cellular channels to transmit data in packets in the range of 800 to 900 MHz; General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).a standard for wireless communications that runs at 150 Kbps; and code division multiple access (CDMA).A North American standard for wireless communications that uses spread-spectrum technology to encode each channel with a pseudo-random digital sequence.) The key question then becomes: Will it be possible to realize the wireless appliances

embodying this convergence of functions and interoperability (Figure 2.2) given the power and bandwidth limitations imposed by conventional RF circuit technology, in the context of ubiquitous connectivity? With this question in mind, we now examine the spheres of influence in which these wireless appliances function, as well as pertinent technical issues, the challenges to enabling power/bandwidth-efficient wireless appliances, and the potential of MEMS technology to enable wireless appliances capable of fulfilling the ubiquitous connectivity vision.

2.2 Spheres of Wireless Activity-Technical Issues

In order to achieve this overarching goal of ubiquitous connectivity by way of all-encompassing and interoperable wireless appliances, it will be necessary to enable seamless, efficient, secure, and cost-effective connectivity for

Figure 2.2(a) Evolution towards total convergence and interoperability wireless appliances. information appliances operating within and among the various spheres of consumer activity (Figure 2.2.(b): (1) the home and the office, (2) the ground fixed/mobile platform, and (3) the space platform.

Figure 2.2(b) Spheres of wireless activity. With mobility and portability as the common themes, the plans for these 3G mobile wireless telecommunications services call for supporting mobile and fixed users who employ a wide variety of devices, including small pocket terminals, handheld telephones, laptop computers, and fixed-receiver appliances operating at frequencies that take advantage of the excellent properties of radio waves below 3 GHz. Complete success in bringing this vision to fruition, however, may well depend on our ability to harness two scarce currencies, namely, power and bandwidth. Power is essential due to the overt conflict between increased levels of sophistication and functionality demanded of the mobile information appliances, and the limited battery power available.Bandwidth, on the other hand, is crucial because of the large population of wireless devices already operating below 3 GHz. We will show that microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology, as applied to these information appliances, is poised as the source capable of generously supplying these two key resources. Thus, it is the main goal of this book to provide the background necessary to exploit MEMS technology in the design of the RF circuits that will enable the fulfillment of this vision in the context of a wireless paradigm. We begin this exposition with an examination of the various realms of wireless activity and their respective information appliances and performance needs. Then we introduce the fundamental circuit and systems elements whose performance level is key to determining the success 6

of the wireless paradigm. Finally, we point out the intrinsic features of MEMS technology that make it the ideal candidate to enable the realization of these circuit and system functions, together with a number of specific early examples that validate our expectations of the power of MEMS to enable the wireless vision.

2.2.1 The Home and the Office

The advent and perfecting of the microprocessor that began in the 1970s and 1980s enabled the conception of ever more powerful and intelligent stand-alone home appliances for example, television sets, microwave ovens, stereo systems, telephones, lighting control, surveillance cameras, climate control systems, and the personal computer (PC). The office environment, on the other hand, motivated by the pursuit of increases in productivity and cost efficiency, saw the massive deployment in the early 1990s of wired networks to link office appliances for example, PCs, servers, workstations, printers, and copiers. Finally, with the explosion in the late 1990s of consumer appetite for access to information, brought about by home-PC enabled Internet access, the conception and deployment of products and services revolving around the ubiquitous retrieval, processing, and transport of information has made the home an important part of the global communications grid. Thus, the home market, which lagged behind the office in adopting local area networks, is now the battlefield of competing networking technologies that aim at enabling a new level of connectivity by exploiting emerging networking-ready appliances and the infrastructure already present in the home (e.g., voice-grade telephone wiring, twisted pairs, power lines, and, increasingly, wireless links). Wireless short-range links are particularly attractive because, in addition to being a convenient medium for voice, video, and data transport, they can provide inexpensive networking solutions in the home or small home-office environment. In fact, an examination of the evolution in home-networked households in the United States reveals a steady increase in the migration from wired networks, based on phone and power lines, to wirelessbased networks. Anticipating the potential home wireless networking market, various standards are under development: (1) Bluetooth. a short-range radio technology that supports only voice and data, and that is aimed at simplifying communications among networked wireless appliances and other computers, and (2) Home RF. a short-range

radio technology that supports computer/ peripheral networking and wireless Internet access. Both operate at 2.4 GHz. Although electronic appliances in this sphere are connected to the power grid (i.e., they are stationary), the issues of power consumption and bandwidth limitations are still critical. The following technical issues must be dealt with to successfully implement these standards: (1) reducing home load to the utilities power grid, due to the great number of power-consuming electronic appliances, which in areas like California is outstripping the available capacity; and (2) reducing the intrinsic signal loss of frequency-selection passive circuits, due to the characteristically low radiated signal powers typical of indoor environments. 2.2(b) The Ground Fixed/Mobile Platform Since consumers are no longer satisfied with home-PC-based Internet access, demand for ubiquitous wireless access to information while on the move has elicited a plethora of new products and services [e.g., location-aware navigation guides, finance applications, wireless ID cards, freight and fleet management, telemetry, smart-phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and laptop computers that cater to these demands. In this context, because the ability to move seamlessly between independently operated Internet Protocol (IP) networks (e.g., between various countries) will be extremely important, appliances must be equipped to operate over a wide variety of access and network technologies and standards, such as GSM, DECT, CDPD, GPRS, and CDMA. Thus, unlike conventional wireless devices, next-generation information appliances will have to include multimode, multiband capabilities, along with the concomitant processing overhead associated with function management. In order to successfully integrate these capabilities, two key technical issues must be dealt with: (1) lowering the required power consumption, given the already limited (battery) power source available and (2) minimizing the mass (weight) of the appliances so as to not hinder their portability.

2.2.3 The Space Platform

The last sphere of activity that enables the global ubiquitous communications vision is the space segment. Indeed, to achieve worldwide access to, and distribution of, the large volumes of integrated voice, video, data, and multimedia information generated in the home/office and ground fixed/mobile realms, space-based platforms (satellites) must be tapped. Unfortunately, the demands for higher capacity and flexibility that this vision imposes on conventional satellites are in direct conflict with 8

the inherent limitations posed by the prohibitive mass and power consumption needed to satisfy these requirements. In particular, meeting these requirements necessitates satellite architectures capable of multiuser, multidata rate, and multilocation links (while exhibiting, for some applications, very small latency). These capabilities, in turn, dictate the utilization of low-loss/low-power-consumption switch matrices and phasedarray (electronically steerable) antennas. Thus, to enable this segment of the wireless communications grid, it will be necessary to deal with two key technical issues: (1) the limited on-board power source available, and (2) the conflict posed by the direct relation between capacity and functionality on the one hand, and power consumption and mass on the other.

2.3 Wireless Standards, Systems, and Architectures

2.3.1 Wireless Standards The implementation of wireless connectivity is predicated upon the definition of so-called wireless standards, of which GSM, DECT, CDPD, GPRS, and CDMA are examples. Each of these standards embodies the precise set of parameters that dictate the architecture and software design of wireless systems operating under the standard to effect intelligible communication with other systems also operating within the standard. The parameters defining a given standard may be classified into those that pertain to the air interface (or front-end) of the system, and those that pertain to the subsequent signal processing (or baseband) part. Among the parameters defining the former, we have multiple access, frequency band, RF channel bandwidth, and duplex method; among those defining the latter, we have modulation, forward and reverse channel data rate, channel coding, interleaving, bit period, and spectral efficiency. Of particular interest to us in this book are the RF-related air interface parameters, shown in Tables 1.2 to 1.4 for a representative sample of standards, as they dictate the nature of the transceiver architectures implementing them. 2.3.2 Conceptual Wireless Systems As indicated in the previous section, at the core, wireless information appliances may be conceptualized as shown in Figure 2.3.2. They comprise an antenna and frontend and baseband sections. The antenna effects either detection or emission of electromagnetic signals; the front-end selects, amplifies, and down-converts the

received signal, or up-converts, amplifies, and filters the signals to be transmitted. Thus, the antenna and front-end embody

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the air interface (i.e., that part of the system responsible for its wireless ability). The baseband section, on the other hand, effects demodulation and processing of the received carrier signal to extract its information, or modulation of the carrier signal to be transmitted with the information to be communicated. Thus, the baseband section personalizes or defines the function performed by the wireless system (e.g., it makes it a telephone or a pager).

Figure 2.3.2 Conceptualized wireless information appliance. 2.3.3 Wireless Transceiver Architectures In this section, we present simplified block diagrams of wireless transceiver architectures that implement the PHS, GSM, and DECT standards presented above using conventional RF technology (Figures 2.6 to 2.9). These figures expose the various 11

solutions and compromises forced by technology limitations, which dictate the architectures partitioning between integrated and discrete components.

Figure 2.3.3(a) Simplified PHS transceiver architecture; components inside dashed boxes are located off-chip.

Figure 2.3.3(b) Simplified GSM transceiver architecture.

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Figure 2.3.3(c) Simplified DECT transceiver architecture.

Figure 2.3.3(d) Simplified direct conversion receiver architecture.

2.4 Power- and Bandwidth-Efficient Wireless Systems-Challenges

An examination of the transceiver architectures presented above reveals that, in their implementation, several scenarios are encountered. The depictions in Figure 2.4(a, b) assume omni directional antennas. In these cases low-loss/parasitic-free passive elements (e.g., transmission lines, inductors, capacitors, varactors, switches, and resonators) for minimum insertion loss matching networks, tunability, and filtering are 13

imperative. Because of congested spectrum and communication activity in certain environments, it may be necessary to endow wireless appliances with the ability to spatially filter the received signals by nulling undesired interference, to automatically account for poor propagation characteristics, and to maintain the link while on the move. In this case the ability to incorporate phase shifting, summing, and weighting, while introducing minimum loss, is invaluable [Figure 2.4(c)]. On the other hand, since a long battery life is highly desirable, it is clear that increasing the dc-to-RF conversion efficiency by minimizing insertion loss during transmission mode must also be addressed. For example, overcoming losses in the antenna, filtering, and switching circuits would drive the efficiency from 25% to 40%.

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Figure 2.4 Front-end variations: (a) antenna-matching network-T/R switch-duplexer; (b) antenna-matching network-duplexer; (c) smart antenna-transceiver. The next block met by the received signal is the receiver (Figure 2.4.1). Here, the signal is amplified by a low noise amplifier (LNA), filtered, an applied to a mixer, which is driven by a low-phase noise oscillator. Low-loss performance of the passives is crucial for minimizing transceiver power dissipation. In particular, the quality factor of inductors either to increase the gain of LNAs while keeping their current consumption down, or to improve the phase noise of oscillators. must be as high as possible. On the transmit mode, it is well documented that the power amplifier dominates power consumption. In fact, lossy substrates give rise to high-loss inductors in matching networks, which in turn results in reduced output power and efficiency. The root causes limiting the ultimate power/bandwidth performance of wireless appliances in all spheres may be traced to substrate parasitic as embodied in its resistivity and dispersion. Low resistivity, in the case of silicon wafers, is responsible for low quality factor, which affects inductors, or high insertion loss, which affects transmission lines. Similarly, in the case of control and tunable elements (e.g., switches and varactors), it is the nature of the semiconductor wafer process that gives rise to high insertion loss and bandwidth-limiting reactive coupling.

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Figure 2.4.1 Simplified transceiver diagram.

2.5 MEMS-Based Wireless Appliances Enable Ubiquitous Connectivity

MEMS technology, with its versatility to integrate both electronic (2-D) and micromechanical (3 D) devices, is poised as the rich source capable of generously supplying the two key resources on which the wireless paradigm hinges, namely, low power consumption and bandwidth. Indeed, by judiciously combining its surface micromachining, bulk micromachining, and LIGA fabrication techniques, it is entirely possible to realize virtually parasitic-free RF components. Figure 2.12 shows the arsenal of high quality components enabled by MEMS. A recent summary of the performance of state-of-the-art RF MEMS components bears out our optimism. In particular, bulk-etched 1nH inductors exhibited measured quality factors Q ranging between 6 and 28 at frequencies between 6 and 18 GHz, while surface micro-machined 2.3-nH inductors exhibited a Q of 25 at 8.4 GHz. Surface micro-machined 2.05-pF varactors exhibited a Q of 20 at 1 GHz, for a capacitance tuning range of 5:1 over a 0 to 4V tuning voltage at a self-resonance frequency of 5 GHz. MEM switches have exhibited a series resistance less than 1 Ohm, insertion loss less than 0.1 dB at 1 GHz, isolation greater than 40 dB at 1 GHz, third16

Figure 2.5 MEMS-enabled RF components. order intercept point (IP3) greater than +66 dBm, actuation voltage between 3 and 30V, and control current less than 10 uA. Micro-machined cavity resonators have demonstrated Qs of 500 at 10 GHz, only 3.8% lower than the unloaded Q obtained from a rectangular cavity of identical dimensions. Microelectromechanical resonators, on their part, have exhibited Qs of 7,450 at 92.5 MHz, while film bulk acoustic resonators (FBARs) have exhibited Qs of over 1,000 at resonance frequencies between 1.5 and 7.5 GHz. Finally, it must be noted that the improvement obtained by bulk etching the substrate to eliminate the parasitics of transmission lines has been remarkable. For instance, insertion loss improvements of 7 dB at 7 GHz and 20 dB at 20 GHz have been attained. In addition to the above results, results on individual components are beginning to appear in the literature, which demonstrate successful production-grade RF MEMS circuits. For instance, Agilent.s 1,900-MHz FBAR 17

duplexer for Personal Communications Services (PCS) handsets is set for high-volume production. The duplexer enables a size 5X reduction with respect to its ceramic counterpart at comparable performance. While there is much excitement as we witness the dawn of the revolution brought about by the potentialities of MEMS in wireless applications, we must keep in mind that it took several decades for the previous revolution brought about by integrated circuit technology. to reach its full potential. Similarly, we must grow through the pains associated with increasing integration levels and demonstrating adequate reliability. In these contexts, much work remains to be done in the development of modeling and circuit-/system-level design methodologies for the multiphysics multi-domain devices characteristic of MEMS, and their proper metrology and reliability assessments.

2.6 Mobile Data Standards

Although this paper is about innovations for telecom companies, it is important to give an overview of different communication standards in the past, next to the standards in the present and the future. The overview of these standards gives an appropriate perspective from which to view the innovations and help to understand how they will be developed. It will be easier to understand where we are going if we understand where we have been. To help in that understanding, this chapter will give an overview of mobile data standards and different generations. Because there has been, and still is a large amount of different standards all over the world, only the standards that we think are relevant will be discussed. We have also tried not to focus too much on the technical details of the mobile standards, otherwise it would become too extensive. For extra information it is possible to take a look at the sources in the last chapter of this paper. Before we had cellular phones there used to be mobile radio telephones like MTS (Mobile Telephone System), launched in 1946, and IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System), launched in 1962. Contrary to normal closed radio telephones, like radio telephones used by the police or emergency services, these phones were connected to the public switched telephone network and had their own telephone number. Using this system was very exclusive. IMTS had waiting lists of three years for those who wanted to make use of this service. These potential users were literally waiting for other users to disconnect their subscription in order to get a mobile telephone number and mobile phone service. This resulted in low sales of IMTS phones 18

and therefore they were very expensive: 2000 to 4000 dollars. The price of phone calls varied from 0.70 to 1.20 dollar and the monthly subscription charge started at 100 dollars. These phones are typically called the zero generation (0G) of mobile telecommunication. The mobile radio telephones were mainly used by estate agents and celebrities. In the early 1980s the first analog cellular phone made its entry, the beginning of the first generation (1G). It could only carry voice traffic. However, each country developed its own system. In America AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was developed, and in some European countries, such as the UK and Ireland, TACS (Total Access Communication System) was being used. But in many countries the developed system was incompatible with the system abroad. Once European inhabitants realized this, they started the Conference of European Post and Telegraphs (CEPT) in 1982. During this conference they formed a study group called Group Spcial Mobile (GSM). This group had the mission to develop a mobile system that was compatible in Europe. Later on the acronym GSM would be changed in Global System for Mobile communications. 2.6.1 2G As stated in the introduction of this chapter, GSM study group was formed to develop a pan- European mobile service. The system had to meet certain criteria such as support, compatibility, low costs, speech quality and more. The first public operation of GSM started in 1991 and this introduced the second generation (2G) or in full: Second Generation Wireless Telephone Technology. The main difference between 1G and 2G is that 1G uses analog networks and 2G uses digital networks. Because of the digital networks, voice data could be compressed in a much more effective way compared to analog networks. Also did the digital systems emit less power from the phones, which not only made it possible to create smaller cells, with antennas and electronic communications equipment, but made phones also use less energy and cause less health concerns. Some other advantages of digital networks are digital error checking and the possibility to send and receive SMS and e-mail next to 2G also the terms 2.5G and 2.75G have come up, but these terms are not officially defined. 2.5G services enable data transfer over upgraded existing 2G networks because they use package switched domains, which is normally used in 3G services, in addition to the circuit switched domain. GPRS is an example of 2.5G. A protocol like EDGE is technically a 3G

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network technique, but referred to as 2.5G or sometimes even 2.75G[6] because it has a data rate of over 144 kbps but has slower network speed than usual 3G services. 2.6.2 GPRS GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a mobile data service which improves wireless access to networks like the Internet. Data packages are efficiently being transferred between mobile phones and external data networks. GPRS data rates can go up to 128 kbps, so it is much faster than conventional GSM which has a rate for data transmission restricted to 14.4 kbps[7]. GPRS is a package switched service, so the data transfer is charged per kilobyte, contrary to the circuit switched services which is charged per second. This means that the user can be online for a long time and will only be billed for the transmitted data. 2.6.3 EDGE EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Evolution) has an increased data transmission rate and reliability. It provides up to three times the data capacity of GPRS, namely 384 kbps. It allows for example downloading video and music clips and e-mail on the move. Basically it is an add-on for GPRS networks that is why it is sometimes called EGPRS (Enhanced GPRS). Each phone with GPRS can also use EDGE, but beyond GPRS, EDGE looks a bit more like UMTS. The difference between GPRS and EDGE is that EDGE has a new modulation technique and new channel coding which improves throughput and capacity, so higher data rates are possible. 2.6.4 3G 3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology. The first 3G services were Introduced in 2002 in Japan and in Europe in March 2003. Because in many countries the 3G network did not have the same frequency as the 2G network there were a lot of problems: many countries had to build new networks and license new frequencies. A user should now be able to have a wireless connection with the following rates: 144 kbps for vehicular traffic (driving speed) 384 kbps for pedestrian (walking speed) 2048 kbps for fixed environment (indoors)

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The EV-DO, W-CDMA (including UMTS) and HSDPA are the major technologies in use. With the introduction of 3G also the IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications for the year 2000) has been set up by ITU (International Telecommunications Union). It provides a framework which makes worldwide wireless access available by linking different systems. It combines mobile technologies and fixed and mobile wireless systems. W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is used in the UMTS system. It expands CDMA, but is faster and supports more users. These systems are also unified in the IMT-2000. 2.6.5 UMTS UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems) is faster than previously mentioned services. UMTS enables Internet, e-mail, fax, e-commerce, music, video clips, and videoconferencing, although user demand for video calls does not seem to be very high. Due to the high speed rate this sometimes has a quality comparable to normal Internet. To enable worldwide coverage there is wireless telephone for at home, on the office and satellite communication. The 3GPP (third generation partnership project) have standardized different classes for four types of traffic, sometimes referred to as Quality of Service (QoS) classes: Conversational class (voice, video telephony, video gaming) Streaming class (multimedia, video on demand, webcast) Interactive class (web browsing, network gaming, database access) Background class (email, SMS, downloading) The 3GPP explains the operation of the classes as follows: The main distinguishing factor between these QoS classes is how delay sensitive the traffic is: Conversational class is meant for traffic which is very delay sensitive while Background class is the most delay insensitive traffic class. Conversational and Streaming classes are mainly intended to be used to carry real-time traffic flows. The main divider between them is how delay sensitive the traffic is. Conversational realtime services, like video telephony, are the most delay sensitive applications and those data streams should be carried in Conversational class. Interactive class and Background are mainly meant to be used by traditional Internet applications like WWW, Email, Telnet, FTP and News. Due to looser delay requirements, compare to conversational and streaming classes, both provide better 21

error rate by means of channel coding and retransmission. The main difference between Interactive and Background class is that Interactive class is mainly used by interactive applications, e.g. interactive Email or interactive Web browsing, while Background class is meant for background traffic, e.g. background download of Emails or background file downloading. Responsiveness of the interactive applications is ensured by separating interactive and background applications. Traffic in the Interactive class has higher priority in scheduling than background class traffic, so background applications use transmission resources only when interactive applications do not need them. This is very important in wireless environment where the bandwidth is low compared to fixed networks. 2.6.6 Pre-4G 4G, an acronym for Fourth Generation Communications System denotes the next generation of wireless communications. 4G will be the generation of wireless networks that will replace 3G networks some time in the future. Although there is no formal definition of 4G, it is clear that it will provide voice, data and streamed multimedia at any place and any time with higher data rates than before. One of the terms used to describe 4G is MAGIC: Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global mobility support, Integrated wireless solution, and Customized personal service. Because 3G is having some trouble getting deployed and meeting its promised performance, 4G is developed by academic R&D labs to move beyond the limitations of 3G. 4G will consist of various networks using IP as common protocol. It will have broader bandwidth, higher data rate and the main concept is integration with all of the existing mobile technologies. Adaptability of the applications and being highly dynamic are the main features for users. Some of the pre-4G technologies are: UMTS revision 8, with LTE and HSOPA being part of it, and WiMAX. 2.6.7 WiMAX WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), a radio technology, is a new standard, based on IEEE 802.16. It has recently (19 October 2007) been approved as an IMT- 2000 technology by ITU. The decision to approve WiMax as an IMT-2000 technology creates opportunities for global implementation, to deliver mobile Internet. There are two different versions: D and E. The D version is the fixed version, and is used to connect UMTS masts and Wi-Fi hotspots wireless to a fixed 22

network. In ideal circumstances it can reach a distance of 10 to 15 kilometers. The E version, also called mobile WiMAX, has a reach of only a few kilometers, but if more consumers are living in one area, more masts are installed to offer good quality. It also creates the possibility to travel more freely than with the fixed version, receiving it on a phone, PDA or computer without losing the connection. Just like with phone calls it is possible to enjoy uninterrupted communication in a moving car or train WiMAX is not yet applied on a large scale. There are some experiments running but there are no large scale networks yet. On the countryside in Knegsel, between Eindhoven and the Belgian border the first public network has been launched in May 2007. Earlier on the Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam a commercial system was being used. Once the WiMAX market matures, WiMAX and UMTS will be direct competitors. Consumers will have a wide range of broadband services that offer an unlimited reach, such as mobile internet, VoIP and mobile television. The first product that uses WiMAX has been made available. This is the Venture Fetish by Venturi Automobile from Monaco

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3. SYSTEM DESIGN
This project deals with wireless communication based on RF. In this project responsibility of the brain is handle by Microcontroller that is going to take the action by handling its Transmitting and Receiving part. It is handled by wireless control hardware. The P89V51RD2 is derivative chip of an 80C51 micro controller with 64 KB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM. The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial In-System Programming (ISP). ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed in the end product under software control.

3.1 General Description of P89V51RD2

The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 micro controller with 64 KB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM. A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design engineer can choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice the throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from this feature is to keep the same performance by reducing the clock frequency by half, thus dramatically reducing the EMI. The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial In-System Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang programming at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed in the end product under software control. The capability to field/update the application firmware makes a wide range of applications possible. The P89V51RD2 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is running.

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Features
80C51 Central Processing Unit 5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz KB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming) and IAP (In-Application Programming) Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or ISP SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM and Capture/Compare functions Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each) Three 16-bit timers/counters Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT) Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels Second DPTR register Low EMI mode (ALE inhibit) TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels. Brown-out detection Low power modes Power-down mode with external interrupt wake-up Idle mode PDIP40, PLCC44 and TQFP44 packages.

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Fig 3.1.1 Block Diagram of 80C51

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Fig 3.1.2 Pin Description of P89V51RD2

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3.2 RF transmitter module

Wireless transmitter module 433.92MHZ:

Fig 3.2.1 RF Transmitter

Fig 3.2.2 Pin diagram of RF Transmitter

PIN 1
PIN 2 PIN 3 PIN 4

RF OUT DATA IN GROUND VCC

Table 3.2 Pin description 28

Radio frequency (RF) transmitters are widely used in radio frequency communications systems. With the increasing availability of efficient, low cost electronic modules, mobile communication systems are becoming more and more widespread.

3.3 RF receiver module

Fig 3.3.1 RF Receiver Dimension of RX-3304: 44 mm X 11 mm

Fig 3.3.2 Pin description of RF Receiver

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Features
Low power consumption Easy for application. Operation temperature range:-10C~+60C. Operation voltage: 5Volts. Available frequency at 434MHz.

This is the radio frequency receiver module, which can facilitate the OEM designers to design their remote control applications in remote control in the quickest way. The circuit is designed with SMD components and the module size is small enough to be able to be fitted in almost any application.

Pin Definition
PIN 1: GND PIN 2: Digital Output PIN 3: Linear Output (For Testing) PIN 4: VCC (5V DC) PIN 5: VCC (5V DC) PIN 6: GND PIN 7: GND PIN 8: ANT

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3.4 Recommended Antenna

Suitable antennas are required to the success of low-power wireless application. There are some key points on applying the antennas:

A, Antenna should be placed on the outside of the product. And try to place the antenna on the top of the product.

B. Antenna cant be placed inside a metal case because of its shielding effect.

C. Antenna design involves expensive test equipments such as vector network analyzer and calibrated test antenna. Unless you have access to these equipments, the use to an antenna consultant is recommended.

D. In most indoor locations, dead spots can be found where reception is difficult. These dead spots are due to multiple transmission paths existing between two points because of reflections off metal objects such as steel beams or metal doors. They happen when the path lengths effectively differ by an odd half-wavelength. This explains the phenomenon when you find that at some locations the reception effect is very poor, but beyond that the reception becomes normal.

E. 50-Ohm antenna is recommended for the best matching. F. For 433.92MHz application, antenna length = 17 cm.

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3.5 Selection of hardware

Micro controller IC P89v51rd2, Serial Communication IC Max 232, Printed Circuit Board, voltage step down Transformer (230vac to 12vac/1amp), Regulator IC 7805, Circuit works in +12v, +5v

3.6 Background Information for serial communication

One of the most commonly used serial communication interfaces is the RS 232 (Recommended Standard). RS-232 was first defined by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) in 1962 and developed in the late 1960s. It specified signal voltages, signal timing, signal function, a protocol for information exchange, and mechanical connectors. RS-232 has been modified three times during the last 40 years where the most recent was the EIA232E standard introduced in 1991(3) Work.

3.7 Description of MAX 232

Work with 5V and 3.3V Power. This converter provides two-way RS232 serial communications signal conversion between the TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) output to and from a personal computer RS232 serial COM port.This converter can be used on any Micro controller - PIC, Atmel or other. It has TTL serial communications that needs to be converted to RS232. The 3-pin jumper selects power from the PC or an external power source. When you want to use the MAX232 you have to connect the RX to the TX of the device, and the TX of the MAX232 to the RX of the device. The only way to make the MAX work - the lines between the device and the MAX must be crossed.

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3.7.1Connection between IC Max 232 to target board i.e Microcontroller

Fig 3.7.1 Connection between MAX 232 and Target board 3.6.2 Schematic Diagram of MAX 232

Fig 3.7.2 Schematic diagram of MAX 232

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3.8 Data Transmission

One of the major features that RS-232 provides is the use of asynchronous communication method. That is, a clock signal is not sent with the data. Each word is synchronized using its start bit and an internal clock on each side, so the transmitter and the receiver do not explicitly coordinate each data transmission.RS-232 uses two different states to represent both logic 0 and logic 1. Logic 0 is represented by the Space State, which has the range of +3 to +12 Volts and logic 1 is represented by the Mark State, which has the range of -3 to -12 Volts. Any voltage in between +3 and -3 Volts is undefined. Therefore, this signal is put through a RS-232 Level Converter (1). Figure 2 explains the bits transmission process. The RS-232 line is in Mark State when it is idle. A transmission starts with a start bit, which is in Space State. Then each bit is sent down the line, one at a time starting with least significant bit followed by a Stop Bit (Mark State) to make up the transmission (1).

Fig 3.8 Frame showing start-stop bit

3.9 Regulated Power Supply for 8051

There is a simple power regulator circuit you can solder together in a few minutes from common components (available at Radio Shack). It will take the output of a standard AC adapter that produces DC from 8 to 12 volts and turn that into a regulated 5 volts. For other voltages, other versions of the main part (the 7805) can be used to provide other voltages, as long as the input voltage is around half again as much as the rated voltage of the device. You need a 7805, and a pair of 0.1uF capacitors (RS #272-131), and some source of 9 to 12V power. That could be an AC adapter that puts out 9 to 12 volts DC (e.g. RS #273-1774 or any of the ones you have laying around) or a battery, set of solar panels, etc. And you need a soldering iron and solder, or some really tiny screw 34

terminals. You can try just wrapping the leads around each other tightly and then bending the result over to keep it from unwrapping. Here is how to wire up the parts without a circuit board, kit or whatever. Here is the schematic diagram:

Fig 3.9 Regulated Power Supply for 8051 Depending on what you are powering, you may find that the 7805 gets hot. If it gets hot enough to cause a burn, shut it down and try adding a heat sink to the back of the unit, bolted to the large metal tab. There is already a hole in the tab for a bolt and nut to hold it tightly to the heat sink. Your heat sink can be just about any substance that will conduct away the heat from the 7805, but some things work (much) better than others. Usual metal is better than any other material. DC This section describes how to generate +5V and +12V power supply.

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Fig 3.9.1 Schematic diagram for Power Supply The power supply section is the important one. It should deliver constant output regulated power supply for successful working of the project. A 0-12V/500 mA transformer is used for this purpose. The primary of this transformer is connected in to main supply through on/off switch& fuse for protecting from overload and short circuit protection. The secondary is connected to the diodes to convert 12V AC to 12V DC voltage. And filtered by the capacitors, which is further regulated to +5v, by using IC 7805.

3.10 System Requirements

a) Selection of software and language b) Software tool used Integrated Development Environment (Keil / SPJ) Software language used: Embedded C and or Assembly

3.11 Selection of IDE and language

Vision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and debug embedded programs. A unique feature of the Keil Vision3 IDE is the Device Database, which contains information about more than 400 supported 36

micro controllers. When you create a new Vision3 project and select the target chip from the database, Vision3 sets all assembler, compiler, linker, and debugger options for you. The only option you must configure is the memory map. The version is 3v3.62v It encapsulates the following componentsA project manager

A make facility Tool configuration Editor A powerful debugger The Programming language used is combination of 8051 assembly language and Embedded C.

3.12 Flash Magic

NXP Semiconductors produce a range of Micro controllers that feature both on-chip Flash memory and the ability to be reprogrammed using In-System Programming technology. Flash Magic is Windows software from the Embedded Systems Academy that allows easy access to all the ISP features provided by the devices. These features include, Erasing the Flash memory (individual blocks or the whole device) Programming the Flash memory Modifying the Boot Vector and Status Byte Reading Flash memory Performing a blank check on a section of Flash memory Reading the signature bytes Reading and writing the security bits Direct load of a new baud rate (high speed communications) Sending commands to place device in Boot loader mode Flash Magic provides a clear and simple user interface to these features and more as described in the following sections. Under Windows, only one application may have access the COM Port at any one time, preventing other applications from using the COM Port. Flash Magic only obtains access to the selected COM Port when ISP 37

operations are being performed. This means that other applications that need to use the COM Port, such as debugging tools, may be used while Flash Magic is loaded. Note that in this manual third party Compilers are listed alphabetically. No preferences are indicated or implied.

3.13 Minimum Requirements

Windows NT/2000/XP/Vista Mouse COM Port or Ethernet interface 16Mb RAM 10Mb Disk Space

3.14 Selection of hardware

Micro controller IC P89v51rd2, Driver IC L293D, Serial Communication IC Max 232, Printed Circuit Board, key board, voltage step down Transformer (230vac to 12vac/1amp), Regulator IC 7805, Circuit works in +12v, +5v.

3.15 Transmit Power

Transmit power refers to the amount of RF power that comes out of the antenna port of the radio. Transmit power is usually measured in Watts.

3.16 Receiver sensitivity

Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum level signal the radio can demodulate. It is convenient to use an example with sound waves; Transmit power is how loud someone is yelling and receive sensitivity would be how soft a voice someone can hear. Transmit power and receive sensitivity together constitute link budget. The link budget is the total amount of signal attenuation you can have between the transmitter and receiver and still have communication occur.

3.17 RF communications and data rate

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Data rates are usually dictated by the system how much data must be transferred and how often does the transfer need to take place. Lower data rates, allow the radio module to have better receive sensitivity and thus more range. In the RF modules the 9600 baud module has 3dB more sensitivity than the 19200 baud module. This means about 30% more distance in line-of-sight conditions. Higher data rates allow the communication to take place in less time, potentially using less power to transmit.

3.18 Selection of Components

3.18.1 Power Supply Design Power supply is the first & the most important part of our project. For our project we require +12V regulated power supply with maximum current rating 500mA. Following basic building blocks are required to generate regulated power supply.

Power supply design Step down Transformer Step down transformer is the first part of the regulated power supply. To step down the mains 230V A.C. we require step down transformer. Following are the main characteristics of electronic transformer. Power transformers are usually designed to operate from source of It is required to construct with sufficient insulation of necessary Transformer ratings are expressed in volt-amp. The volt-amp of each low impedance at a single frequency. dielectric strength. secondary winding or windings is added to the secondary VA. To this are added the load losses. Temperature rises of a transformer is decided on two well known factors i.e. losses on transformer & heat dissipating or cooling facility provided in the unit. 39

Rectifier unit Rectifier unit is a circuit which converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. Generally semiconducting diode is used as a rectifying element due to its property of conducting current in one direction only. Generally there are two types of rectifier: Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier. In half wave rectifier only half cycle of mains A.C. is rectified so its efficiency is very poor. So we use full wave bridge type rectifier, in which four diodes are used. In each half cycle, two diodes conduct each at a time & we get maximum efficiency at the output. Following are the main advantages & disadvantages of a full wave bridge rectifier circuit. Advantages: Need of centre tapped transformer is eliminated. Output is twice that of center tap circuit for the same secondary voltage. PIV rating of diode is half of the center tap circuit. Disadvantages: It requires four diodes. As during each half cycle of A.C. input, two diodes are conducting therefore voltage drop in internal resistance of rectifying unit will be twice as compared to center tap unit. Filter Circuit Generally a rectifier is required to produce pure D.C. supply for using at various places in the electronic circuit. However, the output of rectifier has pulsating character that is if such a D.C. is applied to electronic circuit it will produce a hum i.e. it will contain A.C. & D.C. components. The A.C. components are undesirable & must be kept away from the load. To do so, a filter circuit is used which removes the A.C. components reaching the load. Obviously, a filter circuit is installed between rectifier & voltage regulator. In our project we used capacitor filter because of its low cost, small size & little weight & good characteristics. Capacitors are connected in parallel to the rectified output because it passes A.C. but doesnt pass D.C. at all. 40

Three Terminal Voltage Regulator A voltage regulator is a circuit that supplies constant voltage regardless of change in load current. I.C. voltage regulators are versatile & relatively cheaper. The 7800 series consists of three terminal positive voltage regulator. These I.C.s are

designed as fixed voltage regulator & with adequate heat sink, can deliver output current in excess of 1 A. this devices do not require external component. This I.C. also has internal thermal overload protection & internal short circuit & current limiting protection. For our project we used 7805 voltage regulator I.C. Design of Step down Transformer The following parameters must be considered before designing step down transformer: Power output Operating voltage Frequency range Efficiency & regulation. Size of core Size of core is one of the first considerations in regard of weight & volume of transformer. This depends on type of core & winding configuration used. Generally following formula is used to find area or size of core. Ai = (P1/0.87) Where, Ai= area of cross section in sq. cm. & 41

P1= primary voltage. In transformer P1=P2 For our project we require +12v regulated output. So transformer secondary rating is 12V, 500mA. So secondary power wattage is, P2=12*500*10-3 W = 6W So, low iron losses & compact size. So Turns per volt Turns per volt of transformer are given by relation, Turns/volt= 10,000/(4.44fBmAi) Where F is frequency in Hertz Bm is flux density in Wb/m2 Ai is net area of cross section. Following table gives the value of turns /volt for 50 Hz frequency. Generally lower the flux density better the quality of transformer. Flux Wb/m2 Turns/volt Density 1.14 40/Ai 1.01 45/ Ai 0.91 50/ Ai 0.83 55/ Ai 0.76 60/ Ai Ai= 2.88 Ai= (6/0.87) = 2.62 Generally 10% of area should be added to core to accommodate all turns for

Value of turns/volt For our project, for 50 Hz frequency, the turns per volt for flux density of 0.91 Wb/m2, from the above table is Turns/volt= 50/ Ai
=

50/2.88 42

=17. Thus for primary winding =220*17=3800 & for secondary winding = 12*17=204 Wire size As stated above size depends upon the current to be carried out by the winding, which depends upon current density of 3.1 A/mm2. For less copper losses 1.6 A/mm2 or 2.4 A/mm2 may be used. Generally even sized gauge of wires are used.

Rectifier design RMS secondary voltage at secondary of the transformer is 12 V. so maximum voltage Vm across secondary is given by Vm = RMS voltage*2 = 12*2 = 16.97 D.C. output voltage at rectifier output is Vdc = 2Vm/ = (216.97)/ = 10.80 V PIV rating of each diode is given by PIV = 2Vm = 216.97 =34 V & maximum forward current which flow from each diode is 500 mA. So from above parameters we select diode IN 4007 from diode selection manual. Design of filter capacitor Formula for calculating filter capacitor is C = 1/(43rfRL) Where r = ripple present at output of rectifier (This is maximum 0.1 for full wave rectifier) f = frequency of mains A.C. 43

RL= input impedance of voltage regulator I.C. C= 1/(430.15028) =1030 F Approx. 1000F And voltage rating of filter capacitor is double of VDC i.e. rectifier output which is 20 V. so we choose 1000F/25V filter capacitor

IC 7805 (Voltage regulator IC)

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IC 7805 (Voltage Regulator IC) Specifications: Available output D.C. voltage = +5V Line regulation = 0.03 Load regulation = 0.5 Vin maximum = 35 V Ripple rejection = 66 80 dB Selection of current limiting resistance for LED:

Selection for current limiting resistance for LED D.C. If we directly connect LED to microcontroller then very high current flows through it because internal resistance of LED is very small, about 5 8 . So there is possibility of damaging the LED, so we need current limiting resistance R in series with diode. The value of this resistance is calculated from Ohms Law. V = R/I Where As output of microcontroller is equal to supply voltage that is +5 V

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I = safe forward current following through LED which glows with normal intensity & has a value 8 10 mA. Hence 5 = R8 mA R = 625 . So we select resistance of value near about 680 .

3.19 Circuit Diagram of the Wireless Communication

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6.CONCLUSION

Fig 3.19 Block diagram of project

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4. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
4.1 P89V51RD2
The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 kB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM. A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design engineer can choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice the throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from this feature is to keep the same performance by reducing the clock frequency by half, thus dramatically reducing the EMI. The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial In-System Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang-programming at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed in the end product under software control. The capability to field/update the application firmware makes a wide range of applications possible. The P89V51RD2 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is running. 80C51 Central Processing Unit 5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz 64 kB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming) and IAP (In-Application Programming) Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or ISP SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM and Capture/Compare functions Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each) Three 16-bit timers/counters Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT) Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels Second DPTR register Low EMI mode (ALE inhibit) TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels 48

 Brown-out detection Low power modes i) ii) Power-down mode with external interrupt wake-up Idle mode

PDIP40, PLCC44 and TQFP44 package

4.1.1 Block diagram

Fig 4.1.1 Block diagram P89V51RD2

4.1.2 Recommended operating conditions

AC conditions of test

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DC electrical characteristics

4.2 LED Driver

The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited for interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry (such as TTL, CMOS or PMOS/NMOS) and the higher current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer hammers or other similar loads for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All devices feature opencollector outputs and freewheeling 50

clamp diodes for transient suppression. The ULN2803 is designed to be compatible with standard TTL families while the ULN2804 is optimized for 6 to 15 volt high level CMOS or PMOS. MAXIMUM RATINGS (TA = 25C and rating apply to any one device in the Package, unless otherwise noted.)

RqJA = 55C/W Do not exceed maximum current limit per driver. ORDERING INFORMATION

4.3 3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator

The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

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Absolute Maximum Ratings

Electrical Characteristics (MC7805/LM7805) (Refer to test circuit ,0C < TJ < 125C, IO = 500mA, VI = 10V, CI= 0.33F, CO= 0.1F, unless otherwise specified)

4.4 MAX 232

The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply TIA/EIA-232-F voltage levels from a single 5-V supply. Each receiver converts TIA/EIA-232-F inputs to 5-V TTL/CMOS levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V, and can accept 30-V inputs. Each driver converts TTL/CMOS input levels into TIA/EIA-232-F levels. The driver, receiver, and voltage-generator functions are available as cells in the Texas Instruments LinASIC library. 52

Recommended operating conditions

Electrical characteristics over recommended ranges of supply voltage and operating free-air temperature

4.5 In-System Programming

In-System Programming (ISP) is a process whereby a blank device mounted to a circuit board can be programmed with the end-user code without the need to remove the device from the circuit board. Also, a previously programmed device can be erased and reprogrammed without removal from the circuit board. In order to perform ISP operations the microcontroller is powered up in a special ISP mode. ISP mode allows the microcontroller to communicate with an external host device through the serial port, such as a PC or terminal. The microcontroller receives commands and data from the host, erases and reprograms code memory, etc. Once the ISP operations have been completed the device is reconfigured so that it will operate normally the next time it is either reset or power removed and reapplied. The ISP function uses five pins: TxD, RxD, VSS, VCC, and VPP . Only a small connector needs to be available to interface your application to an external circuit in order to use this feature. The VPP supply should be decoupled and VPP not allowed to exceed datasheet limits.

Fig 4.5 In-System Programming 53

5. CONCLUSION
Wireless connectivity is fast becoming a feature of choice for many applications, today. Radio Frequency (rf) transmission uses radio waves like radio or television signals to transmit audio via a carrier from a transmitter to a receiver. Like a radio station transmitter the transmitter has an antenna usually attached to the transmitter unit which needs to be positioned to adequately cover the listening area. Wireless communication involves the electromagnetic spectrum, which has many unique qualities. Radio waves propagate according to the spectrums wavelength. Antennas provide an impedance match to the airwaves. There is an abundant selection of wireless devices on the market. The choices of which to use depend on frequency, modulation, and data encoding. This project we can enhance by including Small hand held portable transmitter usually with have a built-in antenna.

5.1: Future Scope

The wireless communication revolution is bringing fundamental changes to data networking, telecommunication, and is making integrated networks a reality. By freeing the user from the cord, personal communications networks, wireless LAN's, mobile radio networks and cellular systems, harbor the promise of fully distributed mobile computing and communications, anytime, anywhere. Numerous wireless services are also maturing and are poised to change the way and scope of communication. Wireless Networks focuses on the networking and user aspects of this field. It provides a single common and global forum for archival value contributions documenting these fast growing areas of interest. The journal publishes refereed articles dealing with research, experience and management issues of wireless networks. Its aim is to allow the reader to benefit from experience, problems and solutions described.

5.2 Application
It is used in automotive remote entry systems, Automotive alarm systems, gate and garage door openers, wireless data transmission, electronic door locks, burglar alarm systems. This RF receiver is sensitive to RF noise in the pass band because the desired transmitter signals are at very low power levels. Some common noise sources are microprocessors, brush-type motors and high-speed logic circuits. If the rise time and fall time of the clock in a microprocessor are fast enough to produce harmonics in 54

the frequency range of the receiver input and the harmonics fall within the pass band of the receiver, then special care must be taken to reduce the level of the harmonic at the antenna port of the receiver. Based on above analysis, the following actions have to be taken: A. Microprocessor choice: Choose those microprocessors which have lowest rise time and lowest fall time, if available.

B. Brush-type motor choice: Choose those brush-type motors, which has spark suppression built in or better not to use such type of motors.

C. Logic circuits choice: High-speed logic circuits generate noise similar to microprocessors. Thus better to choose those circuits with the lowest rise time and the lowest fall time, if available.

D. Place the receiver and its antenna as far from the noise source as possible. E. During PCB layout, keep line lengths at a minimum that carry high-speed logic signals or supply brush type motors. Such lines work like antennas that radiate the unwanted noise. F. If possible, enclose the noise source in a grounded metal box and use RF-decoupling on the input/output lines.

G. It is advisable to use separate voltage regulator for the RF receiver. If the same voltage regulator has to be used for cost purpose, then a decouple circuit is recommended so that high frequency noise can be screened.

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H. The ground path from the receiver module should go directly to the power ground, in between, no other ground paths can join in, otherwise, noise will be introduced in and receiver function will be greatly influenced.

5.3 Advantages
1) Cost of installation is reduced. 2) Uses reliable communication, such as satellite communication. 3) Communication in remote area is possible using wireless communication. 4) High-speed wireless internet access from home and business, bypassing the telephone system.

5.4 Limitations
1) Requires high maintenance due to which the the noise entering into the system is removed. 2) Weather condition should be fair enough during the transmission and reception of data. 3) Requires a medium such as transmitter and receiver to transfer data from source to destination.

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