GRAMMAR Definition analysis of the function of the word. Noun and verb.

. VERB FORMS It depends on subject and time of action, without which is infinitive form. Tenses: time of action varies the verb form. SIMPLE PRESENT Usage: emotions, habits, unchanging situations, general truths, repeated actions, narrating a story of a novel or a film, instructions, future events (occasionally, if it is fixed, after some conjunctions *1), fixed future constructions, presently happening and directions. Passive: simple present to be past participle. Conjugation: Different personal pronouns with which verb takes a form. Difference between thou and you. Verb to be conjugation with or without contraction. In spoken English, the expression aren't I? is often used as a tag question. However, this is not considered to be grammatically correct in formal, written English. Affirmative I am You are He is She is We are They are It is Constricted Im Youre Hes Shes Were Theyre Its Negative I am not You arent He isnt She isnt We arent They arent It isnt Interrogative Am I Are you Is he Is she Are we Are they Is it Negative Int Am I not Arent you Isnt he Is she Arent we Arent they Isnt it Tag questions Am I not? Arent you? Isnt he? Isnt she? Arent we? Arent they? Isnt it?

Arent I is used in speaking, but not in formal writing. Other than to be verb, it is the bare infinitive form that is used in simple present. Third singular pronoun and It will have verb+s form. y preceded with consonants and vowels are changed with ies and s respectively. o is replaced by es, For hscxz, e is added before s. Pronunciation of hscxz and gcsz are with seperate syllables. Passive: simple present to be + past participle. (for the verb other than to be). Auxiliaries (verb) are used for other than to be, in interrogative, negative and neg interrogative simple present. An auxiliary, but not the verb, agrees to the subject. Other examples of auxiliaries to be, to do and to have.

Present I've you've he's

Past I had You had He had

Future I will have You will have He will have

Present I do You do He does

Past I did You did He did

Future I will do You will do He will do

she's it's we've they've Affirmative I work You work He works She works We work They work It works

She had We had They had It had Negative I dont work You dont work He doesnt work She doesnt work We dont work They dont work It doesnt work

She will have We will have They will have It will have Interrogative Do I work Do you work Does he work Does she work Do we work Do they work Does it work

She does We do They do It does Negative Int Dont I work Dont you work Doesnt he work Doesnt she work Dont we work

She did We did They did It did Tag questions Dont I? Dont you? Doesnt he? Doesnt she? Dont we?

She will do We will do They will do It will do Affirmative I work You work He works She works We work They work It works

Dont they Dont they? work Doesnt it work Doesnt it?

PRESENT CONTINUOUS Usage: Happening at the moment, planned for future, longer action, irritating. Normal verbs, noncontinuous verbs, mixed verbs. Formation: Simple present to be + present participle Present participle: ing added to the verb. ie has to be replaced with y, silent e has to be deleted, One syllable word ending in a single vowel preceded consonant, except w, x, & z, the consonant has to be doubled to retain the short form of pronunciation, Multi-syllable word ending in a single vowel preceded consonant, except w, x, & z, the consonant has to be doubled to retain the short form of pronunciation only if the last syllable is stressed. Affirmative Im working Youre working Hes working Shes working Were working Theyre working Its working Negative Im not working You arent working He isnt working She isnt working We arent working They arent working It isnt working Interrogative Am I working Are you working Is he working Is she working Are we working Are they working Is it working Negative Int Am I not working Arent you working Isnt he working Isnt she working Arent we working Arent they working Isnt it working Tag Am I not? Arent you? Isnt he? Isnt she? Arent we? Arent they? Isnt it?

Passive: Present continuous to be + past participle. [Senses / Perception: feel*, hear, see*, smell, taste Opinion assume, believe, consider, doubt, feel (= think), find (= consider), suppose, think*Mental states forget, imagine, know, mean, notice,

recognise, remember, understand. Emotions/desires: envy, fear, dislike, hate, hope, like, love, mind, prefer, regret, want, wish. Measurement: contain, cost, hold, measure, weigh. Others*1] PRESENT PERFECT Usage: It is the link between past and present, where the result is important. Actions started before now that is being continued or finished/just finished, actions for which time is not important, actions repeated in a time period before now, that is being continued for future or finished. It is like saying, "I have the experience of... change over time, accomplishments: We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. An uncompleted action you are expecting, multiple actions at different times. You cannot mention a specific time."Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect. Never, ever, Nothing......ever, already, and yet are different ex. Since can only be used with perfect tenses, for can also be used with the simple past. Passive: present perfect to be + past participle. Formation: Present form of to have is added + past participle. Past participle for regular verbs: verb + ed. y preceded with consonants and vowels are changed with ied and s respectively silent e has to be deleted, One syllable word ending in a single vowel preceded consonant, except w, x, & z, the consonant has to be doubled to retain the short form of pronunciation, Multi-syllable word ending in a single vowel preceded consonant, except w, x, & z, the consonant has to be doubled to retain the short form of pronunciation only if the last syllable is stressed. Pronunciation of the past participle with d or t preceded ed is with a separate syllable for ed Affirmative I have worked You have worked He has worked She has worked We have worked They have worked It has worked Negative I havent worked You havent worked He hasnt worked She hasnt worked We havent worked They havent worked It hasnt worked Interrogative Have I worked? Have you worked? Has he worked? Has she worked? Have we worked? Have they worked? Has it worked? Negative Int Havent I worked? Havent you worked? Hasnt he worked? Hasnt she worked? Havent we worked? Havent they worked? Hasnt it worked? Tag Haven't I? Haven't you? Hasnt he? Hasnt she? Haven't we? Haven't they? Hasnt it?

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Usage: The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just finished. Actions started in the past and continued up until now. "For five minutes", for two weeks" and "since Tuesday" Recently, Lately. If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

Formation: Present perfect to be + present participle.

Affirmative Ive been working Youve been working Hes been working Shes been working Its been working Weve been working Theyve been working Negative Have I been working? Have you been working? Has he been working? Has she been working? Has it been working? Have we been working? Have they been working? Interrogative I havent been working You havent t been working He hasnt been working She hasnt been working It hasnt been working We havent been working They havent been working Negative Int Haven't I been working? Haven't you been working? Hasn't he been working? Hasn't she been working? Hasn't it been working? Haven't we been working? Haven't they been working? Tag Haven't I? Haven't you? Hasnt he? Hasnt she? Haven't we? Haven't they? Hasnt it?

Active/Passive: Present perfect form of to be + present participle of the verb to be + past participle of the verb. Be clever enough to use appropriate form of continuous, perfect, perfect continuous form of Present form of the verb. (*1) Ex: I've wanted to visit China for years. She's known Robert since she was a child. I've hated that music since I first heard it. I've heard a lot about you recently. We've understood everything we've heard this morning. SIMPLE PAST Completed action before now without any importance to the time. Completed actions, a series of completed actions, duration in past, habits in the past, & past facts or generalizations Conjugation of the verb to be Affirmative I was You were He was She was We were They were It was Constricted Is Youre Hes Shes Were Theyre Its Negative Is not You werent He wasnt She wasnt We werent They werent It wasnt Interrogative Was I Were you Was he Was she Were we Were they Was it Negative Int Wasnt I Werent you Wasnt he Wasnt she Werent we Werent they Wasnt it Tag questions Wasnt I? Werent you? Wasnt he? Wasnt she? Werent we? Werent they? Wasnt it?

Verbs other than to be. Negative, interrogatory and negative interrogatory are used with a past form of auxiliary of to do verb, with the same rule as that in simple present. Formation: Simple past. Affirmative I worked you worked he worked she worked it worked we worked they worked Negative I didnt work You didnt work He didnt work She didnt work It didnt work We didnt work They didnt work Interrogative Did I work? Did you work? Did he work? Did she work? Did it work? Did we work? Did they work? Negative Int Didn't I work? Didn't you work? Didn't he work? Didn't she work? Didn't it work? Didn't we work? Didn't they work? Tag questions Didn't I? Didn't you? Didnt he? Didnt she? Didn't we? Didn't they? Didnt it?

There are four types of verb tense in English: the Simple, the Continuous, the Perfect, and the Perfect Continuous. Each type of tense has a Present, a Past, and a Future form, as well as other modal forms. The Present Continuous, Past Continuous, and Future Continuous tenses are all used to express continuous, ongoing actions; and are all formed from the verb to be followed by the present participle. The differences are that the Present Continuous is formed with the Simple Present of the verb to be, and is used mainly to express present actions; the Past Continuous is formed with the Simple Past of the verb to be, and is used to express past actions; and the Future Continuous is formed with the Simple Future of the verb to be, and is used to express future actions. Passive: Past to be + past participle. THE PAST CONTINUOUS Usage: The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past. Interrupted Action in the Past, Specific Time as an Interruption, Parallel Actions, Atmosphere, Repetition and Irritation with "Always" and While vs. when. Certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past. The simple past is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. Duration is not important. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past. Formation: Simple Past of the auxiliary to be + the present participle of the verb. Passive: Past continuous to be + past participle. Affirmative I was working You were working He was working She was working It was working We were working They were working PAST PERFECT Usage: The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now, with context to the past. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. Again, we are more interested in the result. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first. Completed action before something in the past, duration before something in the past (non-continuous verbs), important specific times with the past perfect unlike with the present perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the past perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary. Moreover, If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct. However, If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time but referring to an experience, Past Perfect is not optional. Negative I wasnt working You werent working He wasnt working She wasnt working We werent working They werent working It wasnt working Interrogative Was I working Were you working Was he working Was she working Were we working Were they working Was it working Negative Int Wasnt I working Werent you working Wasnt he working Wasnt she working Werent we working Werent they working Wasnt it working Tag Wasnt I? Werent you? Wasnt he? Wasnt she? Werent we? Werent they? Wasnt it?

Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used. Ex: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct Formation: The Past Perfect tense is formed from the Simple Past of the auxiliary to have, followed by the past participle of the verb. The Simple Past of to have is had. In spoken English, the auxiliary had is often contracted to d.

Passive: Past perfect to be + past participle. Affirmative Id worked Youd worked Hed worked Shed worked Wed worked Theyd worked Itd worked Negative I hadnt worked You hadnt worked He hadnt worked She hadnt worked We hadnt worked They hadnt worked It hadnt worked Interrogative Had I worked? Had you worked? Had he worked? Had she worked? Had we worked? Had they worked? Had it worked? Negative Int Hadnt I worked? Hadnt you worked? Hadnt he worked? Hadnt she worked? Hadnt we worked? Hadnt they worked? Hadnt it worked? Tag Hadn't I? Hadn't you? Hadnt he? Hadnt she? Hadn't we? Hadn't they? Hadnt it?

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Usage: The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time earlier than 'before now'. Again, we are more interested in the result and the process. Duration before something in the past and cause of something in the past. Formation: The Past Perfect Continuous tense is formed from the Past Perfect of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. Passive: Past perfect continuous form of to be + past participle.
Affirmative Id been working Youd been working Hed been working Shed been working Wed been working Theyd been working Itd been working Negative I hadnt been working You hadnt been working He hadnt been working She hadnt been working We hadnt been working They hadnt been working It hadnt been working Interrogative Had I been working? Had you been working? Had he been working? Had she been working? Had we been working? Had they been working? Had it been working? Negative Int Hadnt I been working? Hadnt you been working? Hadnt he been working? Hadnt she been working? Hadnt we been working? Hadnt they been working? Hadnt it been working? Tag Hadn't I? Hadn't you? Hadnt he? Hadnt she? Hadn't we? Hadn't they? Hadnt it?

Future: Simple prediction, Arrangements, plans and intentions, Time-tabled events, Prediction based on present evidence, Willingness, An action in progress in the future, An action or event that is a matter of routine, Obligation, An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon, Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action The simple future

Usage: It is used to express non-continuous actions which will take place in the future. Voluntary expression, promise, plan, & prediction. Formation: The Simple Future of any verb is formed from the auxiliary will or shall, followed by the bare infinitive of the verb. The auxiliary will is often contracted to ll. In informal English, particularly in American English, the Simple Future is usually conjugated entirely with the auxiliary will. The auxiliary will is a modal auxiliary. Modal auxiliaries do not modify, but have the same form, regardless of the subject. For formal English, there is a rule which states that in the Simple Future, the auxiliary shall should be used in the first person, and the auxiliary will should be used in the second person and third person. Like the auxiliary will, the auxiliary shall is a modal auxiliary. Even in informal English, the auxiliary shall is usually used in the first person for questions in which a request for permission is implied. Ex: Shall I call the office? Shall we go to the library? However, the use of will for the first person of the Simple Future is beginning to be considered acceptable in formal English. Thus, except for questions where a request for permission is implied, either will or shall may be used for the first person of the Simple Future. In spoken English, wont is used as contraction. The contracted form of will not is unusual, since it is not only the o of not which is omitted. In addition, the ll of will is omitted, and the i of will is changed to o. The contracted form, won't, is pronounced to rhyme with don't. In addition, shall not is sometimes contracted to shan't. Negative questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the auxiliary. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. Affirmative I'll work (shall) you'll work he'll work she'll work it'll work we'll work (shall) they'll work Negative I wont work You wont work He wont work She wont work We wont work They wont work It wont work Interrogative Will I work? Will you work? Will he work? Will she work? Will we work? Will they work? Will it work? Negative Int Wont I work? Wont you work? Wont he work? Wont she work? Wont we work? Wont they work? Wont it work? Tag Won't I? Won't you? Wont he? Wont she? Won't we? Won't they? Wont it?

The conjugation expressing determination and compulsion In formal English, there is a rule which states that, in order to express determination and compulsion*, the auxiliary will is to be used in the first person, and the auxiliary shall is to be used in the second person and third person. This is the reverse of the use of will and shall found in the Simple Future. The use of will in the first person is supposed to express determination, and the use of shall in the second person and third person is supposed to express compulsion. I will work, you shall work, he shall work, she shall work, it shall work, we will work, they shall work. The rule for expressing determination and compulsion which applies to the Simple conjugation, also applies to the Continuous, Perfect, and Perfect Continuous conjugations. The present continuous of To Go followed by an infinitive. The Present Continuous tense of to go, followed by an infinitive, is often used to refer to an event which is about to happen, or to refer to

an action which someone intends to carry out in the future. The examples below illustrate the use of the Present Continuous tense of to go, followed by an infinitive, to refer to a future event. It is going to rain. I am going to write a letter tonight. They are going to study in France next year. In the first example, the use of the Present Continuous of to go followed by the infinitive to rain indicates that it is about to rain. In the second and third examples, the use of the Present Continuous of to go followed by the infinitives to write and to study indicates that the actions of writing and studying are intended to be carried out in the future. Passive: Future form to be + past participle. THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS Usage: The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than now. To project ourselves into the future and see something happening. certain noncontinuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future. Interrupted Action & Parallel Actions. Formation: The Future Continuous of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb.
Affirmative I'll be working (shall) you'll be working he'll be working she'll be working it'll be working we'll be working (shall) they'll be working Negative I wont be working You wont be working He wont be working She wont be working We wont be working They wont be working It wont be working Interrogative Will I be working? Will you be working? Will he be working? Will she be working? Will we be working? Will they be working? Will it be working? Negative Int Wont I be working? Wont you be working? Wont he be working? Wont she be working? Wont we be working? Wont they be working? Wont it be working? Tag Won't I? Won't you? Wont he? Wont she? Won't we? Won't they? Wont it?

Passive: Future continuous to be + past participle. THE FUTURE PERFECT Usage: The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed sometime later than now. As in present perfect, it might not be completed. It is often used with a time expression using by + a point in future time. Completed action before something in the future & duration before something in the future (non-continuous verbs). It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Perfect with little or no difference in meaning. Formation: The Future Perfect of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to have, followed by the past participle of the verb.
Affirmative I'll have worked (shall) you'll have worked he'll have worked she'll have worked it'll have worked we'll have worked (shall) they'll have worked Negative I wont have worked You wont have worked He wont have worked She wont have worked We wont have worked They wont have worked It wont have worked Interrogative Will I have worked? Will you have worked? Will he have worked? Will she have worked? Will we have worked? Will they have worked? Will it have worked? Negative Int Wont I have worked? Wont you have worked? Wont he have worked? Wont she have worked? Wont we have worked? Wont they have worked? Wont it have worked? Tag Won't I? Won't you? Wont he? Wont she? Won't we? Won't they? Wont it?

Passive: Future perfect form of to be + past participle + by

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS Usage: Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in time and to look back. It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time, that may be unfinished. Duration before something in the future & cause of something in the future. Formation: Future Perfect form of to be + present participle.
Affirmative I'll have been doing (shall) you'll have been doing he'll have been doing she'll have been doing it'll have been doing we'll have been doing (shall) they'll have been doing Negative I wont have been doing You wont have been doing He wont have been doing She wont have been doing We wont have been doing They wont have been doing It wont have been doing Interrogative Will I have been doing? Will you have been doing? Will he have been doing? Will she have been doing? Will we have been doing? Will they have been doing? Will it have been doing? Negative Int Wont I have been doing? Wont you have been doing? Wont he have been doing? Wont she have been doing? Wont we have been doing? Wont they have been doing? Wont it have been doing? Tag Won't I? Won't you? Wont he? Wont she? Won't we? Won't they? Wont it?

Passive: Future perfect continuous to be + past participle. THE AUXILIARY WOULD Uses: future in the past, polite requests & suggestions, wishes pertaining to the future, and in the main clauses of sentences containing false or improbable conditions, willingness, insistence, characteristic activity, hypothetical meaning, and sense of probability. Formation: Conjugation Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Auxiliary Would (d) would be would have would have been Verb Form bare infinitive present participle past participle present participle

Contractions: d is used less frequently and wouldnt is used frequently. It should be noted that adverb and adverb phrases such as tomorrow, yesterday and next year can be used only with reference to present time. When used with reference to past or future time, as in reported speech, these adverbs and adverb phrases must be changed. tomorrow today yesterday the next day, the following day, after one day, day after, that day, the same day the day before, the previous day, before one day,

Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would may be used as a past form of the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would. Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would may be used as a past form of the Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would. The "future in the past" The modal auxiliary would is the past form of the modal auxiliary will. For this reason, the auxiliary would can be used to form what is sometimes called a future in the past. The future in the past is used in reporting statements and questions which pertained to the future at the time they were

made. In the following examples, the verbs in the main clauses are printed in bold type, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are underlined. Simple Present Simple Past I think you will succeed. I thought you would succeed.

In the sentence I think you will succeed, the verb of the main clause, think, is in the Simple Present, and the verb of the subordinate clause, will succeed, is in the Simple Future. If the verb think is changed to the Simple Past, then the verb will succeed must also be put into the past, by using the auxiliary would instead of will. THE SUBJUNCTIVE Uses: to ask to command to demand to desire to insist to propose to recommend to request to suggest to urge It is best It is crucial It is desirable It is essential It is imperative It is important It is recommended It is urgent It is vital It is a good idea It is a bad idea to advise. Formal commands and requests. The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would are used in false or improbable conditions. Each of the past and present tenses in the indicative mood has a corresponding tense in the subjunctive mood. In modern English, most verb tenses in the subjunctive mood are similar or identical to the corresponding tenses in the indicative mood. It should be noted that verbs in the subjunctive mood do not modify, but have the same form regardless of the subject. For any verb, the simple present subjunctive is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb. For any verb except the verb to be, the simple past subjunctive is identical to the simple past indicative. For all of the past and present tenses conjugated with auxiliaries, the subjunctive tenses are formed in the same way as the indicative tenses, except that the subjunctive of the auxiliaries is used. Tense Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Simple Past Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Auxiliary do be have have been Did (were) were had had been Verb Form bare infinitive present participle past participle present participle bare infinitive present participle past participle present participle

Formal commands and requests: the use of the simple present subjunctive in the subordinate clause of a formal command or request is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause. They requested that she arrive early. It is important that they be present at the meeting. The demand that he provide identification will create a delay. Wishes: Earlier

Same

Later

Past Perfect Subjunctive or Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive Ex: I wish it had snowed yesterday. Simple Past Subjunctive or Past Continuous Subjunctive Ex: I wish it were snowing now. Simple conjugation with would Ex: I wish it would snow tomorrow.

Use of the auxiliary could in expressing wishes The auxiliary could forms conjugations in the same way as the auxiliary would. Simple past used for present and future; past perfect used for past. Ex: I wish I could help you tomorrow. I wish I could help you now. I wish I could have helped you yesterday. Present Real Conditional Form: [If / When ... Simple Present ..., ... Simple Present ...], [... Simple Present ... if / when ... Simple Present ...]. Both "if" and "when" are used in the Present Real Conditional. Using "if" suggests that something happens less frequently. Using "when" suggests that something happens regularly. Ex: If I go to a friend's house for dinner, I usually take a bottle of wine or some flowers. When I have a day off from work, I often go to the beach. If the weather is nice, she walks to work. Past Real Conditional Form: [If / When ... Simple Past ..., ... Simple Past ...] Ex: If I went to a friend's house for dinner, I usually took a bottle of wine or some flowers. I don't do that anymore. When I had a day off from work, I often went to the beach. Now, I never get time off. Both "if" and "when" are used in the Past Real Conditional. Using "if" suggests that something happened less frequently. Using "when" suggests that something happened regularly. Future Real Conditional Form: [If / When ... Simple Present ..., ... Simple Future ...], [... Simple Future ... if / when ... Simple Present ...]. Notice that there is no future in the if- or when-clause. Use: The Future Real Conditional describes what you think you will do in a specific situation in the future. It is different from other Real Conditional forms because, unlike the present or the past, you do not know what will happen in the future. Although this form is called "real", you are usually imagining or guessing about the future. It is called "real" because it is still possible that the action might occur in the future. Carefully study the following examples and compare them to the Future Unreal Conditional examples further down the page. Imp: If / When. Both "if" and "when" are used in the Future Real Conditional, but the use is different from other Real Conditional forms. In the Future Real Conditional, "if" suggests that you do not know if something will happen or not. "When" suggests that something will definitely happen at some point; we are simply waiting for it to occur. Ex: If I go to my friend's house for dinner tonight, I will take a bottle of wine or some flowers. I am still not sure if I will go to his house or not. When I have a day off from work, I am going to go to the beach. I have to wait until I have a day off. Future Unreal Conditional is same as Present Unreal Conditional. Conditions which are false or improbable: Conditions are most often expressed in subordinate clauses beginning with the word if.

Sometimes the word if is omitted from a subordinate clause expressing a condition. When the word if is omitted, the verb (in the case of the Simple tenses of to be), or the first auxiliary, must be placed before the subject. Referring To Present or future time Past time Verb in Main Clause Simple conjugation with would or Continuous conjugation with would Ex: If you started now, you would arrive on time. Perfect conjugation with would or Perfect Continuous conjugation with would Ex: If you had started yesterday, you would have arrived on time.

It should be noted that, in the case of the verb to be, in informal English, the Simple Past Indicative is often used instead of the Simple Past Subjunctive. For instance, the following pair of examples shows how the same idea might be expressed in formal and informal English. Ex: If it snowed, I would ski in the park. If he were here, I would give him the books. Forms of the verb used in the subordinate clause Referring To Present or future time Past time Verb in Subordinate Clause Simple Past Subjunctive or Past Continuous Subjunctive Ex: If you started now, you would arrive on time. Past Perfect Subjunctive or Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive Ex: If you had started yesterday, you would have arrived on time.

Use of the auxiliary Could in sentences containing false or improbable Conditions It should be noted that the auxiliary could can be used in either the main clause or the subordinate clause of a sentence containing a false or improbable condition. The first pair of examples illustrates the use of the auxiliary could in the main clause. The second pair of examples illustrates the use of the auxiliary could in the subordinate clause. The Simple conjugation with could may be used to refer to present or future time; whereas the Perfect conjugation with could may be used to refer to past time Ex: If they studied hard, they could pass the exam next year. If they had studied hard, they could have passed the exam last year. If you could see me now, you would not recognize me. If you could have seen me yesterday, you would not have recognized me. MODAL VERBS can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous modal auxiliary modal auxiliary + be modal auxiliary + have modal auxiliary + have been bare infinitive present participle past participle present participle

Questions: To form a question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject. Negative statements: To form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the first auxiliary can't, couldn't, mightn't, mustn't, shan't, shouldn't, won't, wouldn't

Negative questions: To form a negative question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. Present can may must shall will Can and Could The modal auxiliary can is most often used in the Simple conjugation. Could can be used in either the main clause or the subordinate clause of a statement expressing a false or improbable condition. The most important meaning of can and could is to be able to. Like the auxiliary would, could can be used in polite requests and suggestions. In informal English, can is often used with the meaning to be allowed to. However, in formal English, it is considered more correct to use the auxiliary may in such situations. Ex: He can walk thirty miles a day. When she was young, she could swim across the lake. He says I can take the day off. Can I have some more soup? He says I may take the day off. May I have some more soup? Can + would = could. May + would = might. Shall + would = should. May, might & must One of the meanings of may and might is to be allowed to. The auxiliary must is a stronger form of may and might. One of the meanings of must is to be obliged to or to have to. It should be noted that the meaning of must not is to be obliged not to. Like could and would, might can be used in polite requests and suggestions. The auxiliaries could, would and might can be used to express differing degrees of politeness. Ex: You must provide proper identification in order to cash a check. They must work harder if they are to succeed. You must not leave. He must not speak. somewhat polite quite polite very polite Degree of Probability somewhat probable highly probable could would May/might Auxiliary may, might must Past could might must should would

In the following examples, the Perfect conjugations with may, might and must are used to express differing degrees of probability relating to past events. Rupert might have taken the money, but it seems unlikely. It is possible he may have called while we were out. It must have rained last night, because the streets are wet. Should

In British English, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary should is often used in subordinate clauses stating conditions. This construction is usually used to refer to events that may occur by chance. Should is also used with the meaning ought to. This is the most common use of should in American English. Ought is said to be a defective verb, since it has no infinitive, or present or past participle. It does not modify, but has the same form, regardless of the subject. You ought to take an umbrella with you Ex: If I should see him, I will tell him what I think. You should take an umbrella with you, in case it starts to rain. I should answer his letter as soon as possible. He ought to stop smoking. They ought to drive more carefully. Pronunciation: "haz", "hav", "hass", "haff" Short answers & Ellipsis: In the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be, the verb itself is used; in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used. Is he ready? Yes, he is. No, he isn't. Were you finished? Yes, I was. No, I wasn't. Do you know them? Yes, I do. No, I don't. Did we win? Yes, we did. No, we didn't. Has he left? Yes, he has. No, he hasn't. Will they need help? Yes, they will. No, they won't. Could you help me? Yes, I could. No, I couldn't. and so and neither She is tired, and I am tired too. She is tired, and so am I. They like ice cream, and we like ice cream too. They like ice cream, and so do we. He wrote a letter, and I wrote a letter too. He wrote a letter, and so did I. You had worked all night, and I had worked all night too. You had worked all night, and so had I. You should get more sleep, and we should get more sleep too. You should get more sleep, and so should we. She is not ready, and you are not ready either. She is not ready, and neither are you. They do not own a car, and he does not own a car either. They do not own a car, and neither does he. We have not forgotten, and she has not forgotten either. We have not forgotten, and neither has she. They couldn't find it, and we couldn't find it either. They couldn't find it, and neither could we. The imperative mood The Imperative Mood is used for giving commands. Like the Simple Present Subjunctive, the Imperative Mood of a verb is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb. The Imperative Mood can be used only in the second person. As shown in the first three examples above, the subject of the sentence is often omitted when the Imperative Mood is used. In such sentences, the subject you is said to be "understood". In written English, when the subject of the verb is omitted from a command, the command is often followed by an exclamation mark:! Ex: Work! Work harder! Be more alert! You be ready to come with us. ADVERBS

Words modifying verbs, adjectives and adverbs. I often visit the library. It is surprisingly hot today. The train travels very quickly. POSITION: Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs usually immediately precede the words they modify. The package is extremely large. We experienced relatively few difficulties. Buses depart quite regularly. The adverbs ago and enough are exceptional, since they usually follow the adjectives or adverbs they modify. That happened long ago. He is old enough to make his own decisions. We ran fast enough to catch the bus. Intensifiers: fairly, quite, rather, so, too, very & really. The following table gives examples of six different types of adverb which can be used to modify verbs.

Frequency always ever frequently generally never often rarely seldom sometimes usually

Manner carefully correctly eagerly easily fast loudly patiently quickly quietly well

Location ahead back forward here high low near outside somewhere there

Time again early late now sometime then today tomorrow tonight yesterday

Connecting also consequently furthermore hence however moreover nevertheless otherwise therefore thus

Negative barely hardly little never not nowhere rarely scarcely seldom

Frequency: how often? 3 positions. First position will stress the adverb. End position can have multi adverbs. Mid positions: one word adverb. An adverb in the end position occurs after an intransitive verb, or after the direct object of a transitive verb. They follow the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be. They precede the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be. They follow the first auxiliary, in tenses which have auxiliaries. They precede the first auxiliary, or the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, in short answers. Have to be followed. In Interrogatory and negative interrogatory with nt, it follows the subject. In negative interrogatory with not and negative, it follows not. Ex: We are always on time. He rarely makes a mistake. I have often wondered about that. Have you seen this movie before? No, I never have. I surely am. Does he not usually know the answers? They do not often miss the bus. Is it always this cold in February? Doesn't he usually know the answers? Adverb phrases and clauses: Adverb phrases and clauses of frequency usually occupy either the beginning or end position of a clause. It should be noted that except in the case of commonly used adverbs such as now, then, today, tomorrow, sometimes, usually, maybe and perhaps, adverbs and adverb phrases at the beginning of a clause must usually be followed by commas. Ex: Once in a while, I like to try something new. We visited the museum as often as we could. Adverbs of time: when? Position: occupy either the beginning position or the end position of a clause. Ex: Today I will go to the library. I will go to the post office tomorrow. In the end position, adverbs of time usually follow

adverbs of manner and adverbs of location. With a few exceptions such as now, then and once, most adverbs of time may not occupy the middle position of a clause. The adverbs now, then and once may occupy any of the three positions in a clause. For instance, in the following examples, now occupies the first position, the middle position, and the end position of a clause. e.g. Now it is time to leave. It is now time to leave. It is time to leave now. It should be noted that sometimes is an adverb of frequency, whereas sometime is an adverb of time. Ex: I sometimes see him in the park. I would like to read that book sometime. Adverb phrases and clauses of time usually occupy either the beginning or end position of a clause. Ex: At nine o'clock, the train will leave. I will call you when I am ready. Adverbs of manner: How? It will usually have ending ly. It most often occupies the end position of a clause, where they follow an intransitive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb, may be placed at the beginning of a clause, in order to emphasize the idea expressed by the adverb, or in the middle position of a clause, particularly when the clause contains no adverb of frequency. In informal English, adverbs of manner are often placed immediately after the word to of an infinitive. When this is done, the infinitive is referred to as a split infinitive. Adverb phrases and clauses of manner usually occupy the end position of a clause, or sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for emphasis. Ex: We waited patiently for the play to begin. Patiently, we waited for the show to begin. Quickly, I sold the strawberries. Adverbs of manner are often placed e.g. I slowly opened the door. I have carefully considered all of the possibilities. I wanted to carefully consider the situation. e.g. We arrived on foot. We finished the work as quickly as we could. As quickly as we could, we finished the work. Connecting adverbs Adverbs such as however, nevertheless and therefore are often used to connect the ideas expressed by the clauses in which they occur to ideas expressed in previous clauses. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type. Connecting adverbs are often placed at the beginning of a clause. e.g. I would like to go skiing. However, I have too much work to do. She was very busy; nevertheless, she found time to go swimming. Many connecting adverbs may be placed in the middle position of a clause. This is often done when the clause contains no adverb of frequency. e.g. I am, nevertheless, anxious to continue. We thus had no difficulty finding the motel. We have, therefore, decided to do it. The adverb however may occupy any of the three positions in a clause. As illustrated in the following examples, a connecting adverb is usually separated by commas from the rest of the sentence. e.g. However, it has stopped snowing. It has, however, stopped snowing. It has stopped snowing, however. It should be noted that the adverb instead is often placed at

the end of a clause. e.g. Because there was no meat, I bought fish instead. Connecting adverb phrases are most often placed at the beginning of a clause. For example: As a result, I decided to study hard. Adverb phrases and clauses of purpose Why? Adverb phrases and clauses of purpose usually occupy the end position of a clause, and follow any other adverbs, or adverb phrases or clauses. e.g. I went to the store yesterday to buy a coat. I need to buy a new coat soon because my old one is worn out. Adverb phrases or clauses of purpose are sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for emphasis. e.g. To reach the airport on time, we had to complete the trip in two hours. Because it was such a beautiful day, I decided to go for a walk. Adverbs of location Where? NOUNS A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Whatever exists, we assume, can be named, and that name is a noun. Proper nouns (also called proper names) are the words which name specific people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter. Ex: person's, companies, organisations, title, trademarks, Given or pet names of animals, names of cities and countries and words derived from those proper nouns, (London - New York - England English), geographical and celestial names, monuments, buildings, meeting rooms, historical events, documents, laws, months, days of the week, period, holidays, religions, deities, scriptures, awards, subjects, vehicles, vehicle models and names, brand names. Capitalisation: for all proper nouns and possessive adjectives, and subjects in ethnic, geographical, or language related aspects. Common noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas. They are not the names of a single person, place or thing. A common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. Ex: People (man, girl), animals (cat) things (book, table) places (school, city) and ideas (love). Countable nouns are nouns which can form a plural, and which can be preceded by a, an, or a number. A bus is coming. You may need an umbrella. Here are two books. Twenty students are present. In general, when a countable noun refers to two or more things, it must be put into the plural. In English, the plural of most countable nouns is formed by adding s. When the subject of a verb is a singular noun, the verb must be in the third person singular. When the subject of a verb is a plural noun, the verb must be in the third person plural. Ex: The book is interesting. The books are interesting. A duck was flying overhead. Two ducks were flying overhead. One student lives here. Three students live here. Formation of plurals: a. Adding s, b. Adding ies for y preceding with consonants; for proper nouns, it is similar except for y, c. Adding s or es for o. Exceptions, d. Adding es for hscxz, e. Adding es or s for o. Pronunciation of gcsz,

f. g. h. i. j. k.

Adding ves to f or fe. Exceptions, Foreign words, Hyphenated words, Numbers, Irregular nouns, Exceptions.

DETERMINERS WITH SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUNS Singular countable nouns must be preceded by a word such as a, the, each or every. The words a, the, each, and every, are examples of a group of words which can be referred to as determiners. Singular countable nouns must usually be preceded by determiners even when the nouns are also preceded by various descriptive words. The meanings of the words a and the are less specific than the meanings of the other determiners. A and the are sometimes referred to as articles. They are the determiners most frequently used with singular countable nouns. The Indefinite Article: A and An The form a is used before words which begin with a consonant sound, before words which begin with vowels, but which are pronounced with an initial consonant sound. Ex: euphonium, utensil, one-way, ubiquitous, unanimous, unicorn, unification, unified, uniform, union, unique, unison, unit, united, university, uranium, use, useful, useless, usual, usurper, utensil, utility, Utopia. The word an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound and before the following words which begin with a silent h heir, heirloom, honest, honor, honorable, honorarium, honorary, honorific, hour, hourglass, hourly. A weakened form of One: I would like a cup of tea. Naming a profession She is an artist. Making a general statement: A bank account can provide a good means of saving money. Referring to something not mentioned before: Where can I find a telephone? A or An with the meaning of Per: once a week One new general per profession. The Definite Article: The The Old English word from which the is derived was used as a demonstrative pronoun, with a meaning similar to that of the modern English words this and that. In modern English, the word the is usually used with a noun when the speaker or writer feels that there will be no doubt about which particular thing is meant. Referring to something mentioned before: Here is the book I mentioned to you last week. Referring to something unique: I have found the answer. Expressions such as middle of and top of are generally preceded by the, since it is considered that there can be only one middle or one top of something. There is a car stopped in the middle of the road. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant: The house needs to be painted. Referring to something as a class: The telephone is a modern convenience. It should be noted that the is not used when the word man represents the human race considered as a class. Man has invented many things. Obvious known unique class.

DETERMINERS WITH PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS A & An The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns Making a general statement A general idea can often be expressed either by means of a singular countable noun preceded by a or an, or by means of a plural countable noun not preceded by a determiner. For instance, in each of the following pairs of sentences, both sentences in the pair have the same meaning. Ex: Musicians must practise a great deal. A musician must practise a great deal. Newspapers can contain valuable information. A newspaper can contain valuable information. Larches are conifers. A larch is a conifer. Referring to something not mentioned before Plural countable nouns are generally not preceded by a determiner when referring to something not mentioned before. Ex: Branches blocked our path. Naming a profession When a sentence such as the following is used to name a profession practised by two or more people, the name of the profession is in the plural and is not preceded by a determiner. Ex: They are doctors. New general professional. The Referring to something mentioned before Ex: Fallen leaves covered the ground. The leaves rustled as we walked. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant Ex: The stars are shining brightly. Adjectives referring to classes of people Ex: The blind attend special schools. Names of nationalities When the name of a nationality ends in the sound of ch, s, sh or z. Ex: The Irish are known as poets and songwriters. Argentinians like to eat beef. Obviously known new class. THE USE OF THE WITH PROPER NOUNS NAMES OF PEOPLE In English, determiners are not used for names of people, when a title precedes a person's name, but used for plural names the. Ex: Washington was the first president of the United States. Doctor Defoe has a good reputation. The Smiths live in that house.

Names of places In English, the is usually used before the following types of place name: canal, desert, ocean, river, sea, plural place names, and place names containing the word of. Ex: the Panama Canal, the Mojave Desert, the Atlantic Ocean, the St. Lawrence River, the Beaufort Sea the United States, the British Isles, the Great Lakes, the Rocky Mountains the Gulf of Mexico, the Cape of Good Hope, the Bay of Biscay, and the Isle of Wight But its not used in these: lake, island, mountain, park, city, street, country, state, province, and county. The is also used with Nouns used only in the plural. If it is desired to refer to such objects individually, the expression pair of is often used. The verb must agree with the noun. Ex: jeans, pajamas, pliers, scissors, Jeans are fashionable. A pair of jeans is expensive. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS It cannot form a plural or be preceded by a, an or a number. Types: 1. Intangible things: honesty, courage, impatience, 2. Tangible things: butter, milk, sand, 3. Groups of things: furniture, luggage, news, 4. Names of languages: English, German, Spanish Group low quality products. An uncountable noun takes a singular verb. Ex: Honesty is a virtue. Butter tastes good. Furniture was provided. The absence of a determiner before uncountable nouns Making a general statement Ex: Information is often valuable. Butter is fattening. Courage and honesty are admirable qualities. Sunlight and water are usually required for plants to grow. Referring to something not mentioned before Ex: Rain was forecast for the next day. However, thunder and lightning were not expected. Our breakfast consisted of bread, honey and marmalade. New General. The use of The before uncountable nouns Referring to something mentioned before The is used with uncountable nouns referring to things previously mentioned. Ex: We were served bread and cheese. The bread was somewhat stale, but the cheese was delicious. Gold was discovered in the Klondike. The gold attracted thousands of prospectors. Furniture and clothing are being sold at the flea market. The furniture is reasonably priced, and the clothing is cheap. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant

The is used with uncountable nouns when the speaker or writer considers it obvious which particular thing is meant. Ex: The weather is fine. The butter is hard. The music is too loud. The is often used before uncountable nouns followed by descriptive phrases, since such phrases tend to make it clear to which particular things the uncountable nouns are referring. Ex: The warmth of the sun causes water to evaporate. The coal mined in Germany is used in making steel. The milk which they produce is marketed locally. Obviously known To refer to individual things Uncountable nouns can be used to refer to individual things by being preceded by a countable noun and the word of. Ex: chess, a game of chess, hockey, a game of hockey or a hockey game Ex: a piece of information, a grain of wheat, a glass of milk and a patch of sunlight Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable Differences in meaning: Cake and ice cream is my favorite dessert. This afternoon we baked two cakes. Referring to a type of something:. He has an honesty which is rare nowadays. The wheats of Canada differ from those of India. Referring to places used for specific activities: Because I was tired, I stayed in bed. Please help me to move the bed. She goes to church. She likes to photograph churches. The word television and the names of meals such as breakfast, lunch, dinner and supper are used as uncountable nouns when it is desired to emphasize the activity being carried out. Ex: They are watching television. We are eating breakfast. Infinitives & Gerunds Subject Definition Verb form Preceded by the Infinitive Partially uncountable noun Singular Verb No Gerund Present participle sometimes as uncountable noun Singular verb Yes, for known things

Ex: Skating is good exercise. They like jogging. To ski well is one of my goals. They plan to call us. The skiing was excellent. He went hunting. The hunting was good.

PRONOUNS Personal pronoun The subjective case: used as the subject of a verb. The pronoun I is used to refer to the speaker or writer. The pronoun you is used to refer to one or more persons or things which are being addressed by the speaker or writer. The pronoun we is normally used to refer to the speaker or writer together with one or more other people. Agreement of personal pronouns with their antecedents: The antecedents of pronouns usually precede the pronouns. However, a pronoun may also stand for a noun which follows the pronoun,

provided that it is obvious to what the pronoun is referring. Male and female antecedents, Singular and plural antecedents & Human and non-human antecedents. A pronoun should not be used to stand for a noun, unless it is obvious to which noun the pronoun is referring. Ex: My friend was there with her mother. She was wearing a blue dress. Singular I you he, she, it Plural we you they Gender Human Non-human I, we You he, she he, she he, she, it, they he she it they singular, male, usually human singular, female, usually human singular, non-human plural

I II III

Special uses of It The pronoun it can be used without an antecedent in sentences referring to general conditions such as the weather or the time expressions Ex: It is raining. It has been a wet summer. It is too hot here. It is the twenty-fourth of April. It is seven o'clock. It is Friday. It would be a good idea to attend the meeting. It is not necessary to buy tickets in advance. It will be easy to find the right house. It was clever of you to think of that. Attending the meeting would be a good idea. Buying tickets in advance is not necessary. Finding the right house will be easy. Thinking of that was clever of you. I you he she it we they my you him her it us them me your his her its our their mine yours his hers its ours theirs Myself yourself/ves Himself Herself itself ourselves themselves

The objective case: you and it have the same form in the objective case as in the subjective case It should be noted that the verb to be does not take an object. However, in informal English, this rule is usually ignored. It is I. That was he. This is she. Those are they. As well as being used as the objects of verbs, personal pronouns in the objective case are used as objects of prepositions. Possessive personal pronouns: Except for the pronoun mine, all of the possessive pronouns end in s. The possessive personal pronouns are not spelled with an apostrophe. Care should be taken not to confuse the possessive form its with the contraction it's. The rules for the agreement of personal pronouns with their antecedents also apply to the corresponding possessive adjectives Possessive adjectives: As shown in the preceding table, the personal pronouns have two possessive forms. One form shows possession by preceding a noun. A personal pronoun in this form may be referred to as a possessive adjective, since, like an adjective, it describes the thing to which the noun refers. In formal English, when a gerund is preceded by a personal pronoun, the pronoun must usually be in the form of a possessive adjective. Reflexive Pronouns: They are used when the verb is directed toward the thing referred to by the subject of the verb. Reflexive pronouns can also be used when it is desired to emphasize a personal pronoun. Indefinite pronouns: Indefinite pronouns may be used without antecedents.

One anyone everyone [no one] someone

ones anybody everybody nobody somebody

oneself anything everything nothing something

Unlike most of the personal pronouns, the indefinite pronouns have the same form in the objective case as in the subjective case. The indefinite pronouns which refer to persons form possessive adjectives by adding 's. The indefinite pronoun one is used in formal English to make general statements. In informal English, the personal pronoun you is usually used in making general statements. Occasionally, the pronoun we is used in general statements. This use of the pronoun we is most likely to occur in formal speeches. Ex: One should prepare oneself to deal with any emergency. You should prepare yourself to deal with any emergency. We should prepare ourselves to deal with any emergency. one, one, one's, oneself. In formal English, it is considered grammatically correct to use the adjective his to agree with indefinite pronouns such as anyone and everyone. However, it is considered less discriminatory to use a phrase such as his or her to agree with such pronouns. In informal English, the problem of gender is often avoided by the use of the plural adjective their. However, this use of their is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English. Ex: Everyone took his seat. Everyone took his or her seat. Everyone took their seat. Reciprocal pronouns: each other for two persons, one another for more than two. Demonstrative pronouns The words this, that, these and those are used to indicate specific persons or things. In the following examples, the words this, that, these and those are used independently, and can be referred to as demonstrative pronouns. The words this, that, these and those can also be used immediately preceding a noun, in which case they can be referred to as demonstrative adjectives. Ex: This is an apple pie. Those trees are maples. Location Indicated Close to speaker or writer Close to speaker or writer Distant from speaker or writer Distant from speaker or writer Singular or Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

This These That Those

Interrogative pronouns: In a direct question, when the interrogative pronoun is the subject of a verb, the verb follows the subject. When the interrogative pronoun is the object of the verb or the object of a preposition, inverted word order must be used, with the first auxiliary preceding the subject of the verb. In the case of verbs in the Simple Present or Simple Past, the auxiliary do or did must be used. Ex: What has happened? Who has been invited? What do you mean? Which did she choose? What is he doing? To what can one attribute their success? Whom did you see downtown? To whom did you send the invitations?

The pronoun who usually refers only to persons. Unlike the other interrogative pronouns, who changes its form depending on the case, as shown in the following table. Subjective Case who Objective Case Whom Possessive Case Whose

It should be noted that when who is used with the verb to be, or with verbs in the Passive Voice, the subjective case must usually be used, since such verbs cannot take an object. In formal English, when the pronoun who is the object of a verb or the object of a preposition, the objective form whom must be used. In informal English, the form who is often used for the objective as well as for the subjective case. However, this use of who is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English. The form whose can be used either as a possessive adjective followed by a noun, or as a possessive pronoun. The possessive form whose expresses the idea of belonging to. Ex: Who opened the door? Who is it? Who was the fastest runner? Who will be there? Who has been elected? Whom did you see downtown? To whom did you send the invitations? Who did you see downtown? Who did you send the invitations to? Whose books are these? Whose are these? Whose books are these? could also be expressed by the sentence: To whom do these books belong? What and which can be used either as interrogative pronouns, or as interrogative adjectives followed by nouns. When used as interrogative adjectives or as interrogative pronouns, what and which can refer to either persons or things. However, it should be noted that when used as a relative pronoun, which can refer only to things. Which as an adjective or interrogative pronoun usually implies a choice of one or more things from a limited number of alternatives. In contrast, what as an adjective or interrogative pronoun is usually used in order to ask for general information. What can also be used in exclamations. For instance, the exclamation What! In written English, an exclamation must be followed by an exclamation mark:! It should be noted that exclamations often do not contain verbs. As illustrated above, when an exclamatory what precedes a singular, countable noun, the word what must be followed by a or an. Ex: What is that? Which is his sister? What time is it? Which woman is his sister? What nonsense! What a shame! What a beautiful day! Word order of Direct and Indirect Questions beginning with What, Which and Who Direct Questions Type of Question The interrogative word is the subject of the verb, or modifies the subject of the verb The interrogative word is the object of a verb or preposition, or modifies the object of a verb or preposition Word Order Subject precedes verb. Examples: Who told her? Which boy did it? Subject follows the first auxiliary: What has he done? To whom shall we send it? Which questions did she answer? For which child did you buy it? The verb to be precedes its complement: Who are their friends? What was that? What time is it? Which book was it? Which is the right answer?

The verb to be is accompanied by a noun or pronoun complement

Indirect Questions Type of Question In all cases Word Order Subject precedes verb. Examples: I wonder who told her. You asked which boy did it. She wants to know what he has done. He wonders to whom we shall send it. I wonder which questions she answered. Please tell me for which child you bought it. The verb to be usually follows its complement. He will ask who their friends are. I wonder what that was. Do you know what time it is? Please tell me which book it was. However, in the case of which, the verb to be often precedes a noun complement. I wonder which is the right answer.

The verb to be is accompanied by a noun or pronoun complement

Relative Pronoun A pronoun which is used to begin a subordinate clause can be referred to as a relative pronoun, since it indicates the relationship of the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. A subordinate clause which is introduced by a relative pronoun is often referred to as a relative clause. Defining and non-defining relative clauses: Relative clauses can be divided into two types: those which merely give a description of the object to which they refer; these clauses must be placed between commas, and those which define or identify the object to which they refer. That defining clause only persons or things Which defining or non-defining things only who/whom/whose defining or non-defining persons only Ex: The door, which was bright red, was very conspicuous. The people that were here yesterday will return in a month. The suitcase which we purchased last week is very strong. The sack, which was full of rocks, was too heavy to lift. The child who runs the fastest will receive a prize. My sister, who is studying German, wants to travel to Switzerland. The boy whom we visited is her nephew. Mr. Henry, whom we will meet tomorrow, will be our guide. The boy whom we visited is her nephew. The woman whose house was sold will retire to the country. My cousin, whose family lives in Europe, will visit us for a few weeks. The girl to whom you sold your skis lives in the next block. His uncle, to whom we send a birthday card every year, is ninety-one years old. (whom has the antecedents girl and uncle, and is the object of the preposition to.) In informal English, whose at the beginning of a clause is occasionally used to refer not only to persons, but also to things, in order to make a simpler sentence. The tree, whose branches overhung the street, was covered with blossoms. The tree, the branches of which overhung the street, was covered with blossoms

In the case of defining relative clauses, that may be used to replace who, whom or which. That, whom and which can generally be omitted when they act as the object of the verb in a relative clause. Ex: The boy whom we saw is her brother. The hat which you are wearing is rather large. The boy that we saw is her brother. The hat that you are wearing is rather large. The boy we saw is her brother. The hat you are wearing is rather large. It should be noted that when whom or which is the object of a preposition, the preposition immediately precedes the relative pronoun. The boy to whom we sent the message was excited. The room to which you will be conducted has beautiful furniture. However, when the relative pronoun that is the object of a preposition, the preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause. For instance, if that is used, the second example must be rewritten as follows: The room that you will be conducted to has beautiful furniture. Relative pronouns such as what, whatever and whoever are normally used without antecedents. When used as a relative pronoun, what has the meaning the thing or things that. Whatever has the meaning no matter what, or anything which. Whoever has the meaning no matter who, or anyone who. Ex: What you say is true. You can tell me whatever you like. Let in whoever comes to the door. SUBJECT The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something. "Who or what 'verbs' or 'verbed'?" and the answer to that question is the subject. Ex: The computers in the Learning centre must be replaced. The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations, is the morality of the nation. What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes In English, the subject of a command, order, or suggestion you, the person being directed is usually left out of the sentence and is said to be the understood subject. Ex: [You] Step lively there or I'll leave you behind. Before assembling the swing set, [you] read these instructions carefully. For purposes of sentence analysis, the doer or the initiator of action in a sentence is referred to as the agent of the sentence. In an active sentence, the subject is the agent. Ex: The Johnsons added a double garage to their house. The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter. In a passive sentence, the agent is not the subject. In fact, sometimes a passive sentence will not contain an agent. Ex: The dean's report was reviewed by the faculty senate. Three cities in the country's interior were bombed. Subject-Verb Inversion The normal English order of subject-verb-completer is disturbed only occasionally but under several circumstances. Burchfield* lists about ten situations in which the subject will come after the verb. The most important of these are as follows: In questions (routinely): "Have you eaten breakfast yet?" "Are you ready?" In expletive constructions: "There were four basic causes of the Civil War." "Here is the book." In attributing speech (occasionally, but optionally): "'Help me!' cried Farmer Brown."

To give prominence or focus to a particular word or phrase by putting the predicate in the initial position: "Even more important is the chapter dealing with ordnance." When a sentence begins with an adverb or an adverbial phrase or clause: "Seldom has so much been owed by so many to so few." In negative constructions: "I don't believe a word she says, nor does my brother. Come to think of it, neither does her father." After so: "I believe her; so does my brother." For emphasis and literary effect: "Into the jaws of Death, / Into the mouth of Hell / Rode the six hundred."**

Predicates A predicate is the completer of a sentence. The subject names the "do-er" or "be-er" of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb. A compound predicate consists of two (or more) such predicates connected. Ex: The glacier melted. The glacier has been melting. The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea. The glacier began to slip down the mountainside and eventually crushed some of the village's outlying buildings. A complete predicate consists of the verb and all accompanying modifiers and other words that receive the action of a transitive verb or complete its meaning. With an intransitive verb, objects and complements are included in the predicate. (The glacier is melting.) With a transitive verb, objects and object complements are said to be part of the predicate. (The slow moving glacier wiped out an entire forest. It gave the villagers a lot of problems.) With a linking verb, the subject is connected to a subject complement. (The mayor doesn't feel good.) A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and tells us something about the subject: E.g. Ramonita is beautiful. His behavior has been outrageous. That garbage on the street smells bad. A predicate nominative follows a linking verb and tells us what the subject is: E.g. Dr. Couchworthy is acting president of the university. She used to be the tallest girl on the team. Direct and Indirect Objects A direct object is the receiver of action within a sentence, as in "He hit the ball." Be careful to distinguish between a direct object and an object complement: They named their daughter Natasha. In that sentence, "daughter" is the direct object and "Natasha" is the object complement, which renames or describes the direct object. The indirect object identifies to or for whom or what the action of the verb is performed. The direct object and indirect object are different people or places or things. Ex: The instructor gave his students A's. Grandfather left Rosalita and Raoul all his money. Jo-Bob sold me her boat. Incidentally, the word me (and similar object-form pronouns such as him, us, them) is not always an indirect object; it will also serve, sometimes, as a direct object. Bless me/her/us! Call me/him/them if you have questions. In English, nouns and their accompanying modifiers (articles and adjectives) do not change form when they are used as objects or indirect objects, as they do in many other languages. "The radio is on the desk" and "I borrowed the radio" contain exactly the same word form used for quite different functions. This is not true of pronouns, however, which use different forms for different functions. (He [subject] loves his grandmother. His grandmother loves him [object].) (See, also, pronoun cases.)

Complements A complement (notice the spelling of the word) is any word or phrase that completes the sense of a subject, an object, or a verb. A subject complement follows a linking verb; it is normally an adjective or a noun that renames or defines in some way the subject. Adjective complements are also called predicate adjectives; noun complements are also called predicate nouns or predicate nominatives. E.g. A glacier is a huge body of ice. Glaciers are beautiful and potentially dangerous at the same time. This glacier is not yet fully formed. (verb form acting as an adjective, a participle) See predicates, above. An object complement follows and modifies or refers to a direct object. It can be a noun or adjective or any word acting as a noun or adjective. E.g. The convention named Dogbreath Vice President to keep him happy. The clown got the children too excited. A verb complement is a direct or indirect object of a verb. E.g. Granny left Raoul all her money. Verb Complement: Direct ob PREPOSITION A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened. Personal pronoun following a preposition must be in the objective case. Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it. Ex: You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk. All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].

Those words in bold are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.

ADJECTIVE Words which are used to modify nouns or pronouns are usually referred to as adjectives. It should be noted that adjectives can be formed from two or more words combined by the use of hyphens. Most English adjectives have the same form for the singular as for the plural. Ex: Large trees could be seen. They are happy, the three-month-old baby, a ninety-dollar jacket a two-hour trip As illustrated in these examples, the nouns in such hyphenated expressions are generally in the singular. Thus, the singular forms of the nouns month, dollar and hour are used. Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. In English, proper adjectives must begin with a capital letter. The proper adjectives in the following sentences are underlined. Ex: The French town has an interesting history. Many of my friends are American. This house is a fine example of Victorian architecture. American, Canadian, German, Mexican, Georgian, Victorian, English, French, Chinese. Attributive adjectives those which precede the noun they modify. Usual Order of Attributive Adjectives 1. certain determiners such as all, both and half 2. determiners including the articles a, an and the; a. possessive adjectives e.g. my, his, her, our and their; b. demonstrative adjectives e.g. that, these, this, and those; and c. certain other determiners such as another, any, each, either, enough, every, neither, no, some, what and which 3. cardinal numbers e.g. one, two, three; and certain other determiners such as few, many and several 4. determiners such as fewer, fewest, least, less, more and most 5. general descriptive adjectives, often in the following order: a. adjectives indicating size e.g. large, long, narrow, b. adjectives indicating weight e.g. heavy, light c. participles and other adjectives e.g. clever, excited, interesting d. adjectives indicating temperature e.g. cold, hot, warm e. adjectives indicating humidity e.g. dry, damp, wet f. adjectives indicating age e.g. new, six-month-old, young g. adjectives indicating shape e.g. barrel-shaped, round, square 6. adjectives indicating colour e.g. blue, grey, white 7. adjectives indicating materials e.g. cloth, leather, metal 8. proper adjectives e.g. American, Victorian 9. defining adjectives, usually indicating purpose, method of operation, location, time or categories of people. Determiners

The usual order of different types of determiner is indicated in the first four categories of the table above. 1. The determiners in the first category, all, both and half, usually precede other attributive adjectives. Alternatively, before the article the, the words all, both and half may be used as pronouns, followed by the word of. Ex: all three tables, both the students, half the red roses, all of the tables, both of the students, half of the red roses 2. The determiners in the second category of the table above include articles, possessive adjectives, demonstrative adjectives, and the determiners another, any, each, either, enough, every, neither, no, some, what and which. A noun can usually be modified by only one of the attributive adjectives in this category. Possessive adjective combined with another adjective. Ex: this black horse of mine, a book of yours In a somewhat similar way, the determiners another, any, each, either, enough, neither, some and which may be combined with other members of the second category of adjective by being used as pronouns followed by of. any of my dresses, either of these white flowers. Since the determiners every and no cannot be used as pronouns, the expressions every one and none must be used. For instance, the ideas expressed in the phrase these children, combined with the determiner every; and the phrase their opinions, combined with the determiner no may be conveyed as follows: e.g. every one of these children, none of their opinions. It should be noted that other usually precedes a cardinal number when an article or possessive adjective is present, but usually follows a cardinal number when no article or possessive adjective is present. e.g. the other three chairs, my other two cousins, three other chairs, two other cousins. General descriptive adjectives: more flexible. In modern English, most adjectives indicating the materials from which objects are made have the same form as the corresponding nouns. Proper adjectives may sometimes precede adjectives indicating materials, as in the following examples. This occurs when the adjective indicating a material is used as a type of defining adjective Ex: Mexican straw hats, an American pearl necklace, When a word preceding a noun does not merely describe the object being referred to, but helps to define or identify the type of object meant, the word preceding the noun can be called a defining adjective. Ex: birthday party, telephone directory Ordinal adjectives Attributive adjectives such as next, last, first, second, third and so on, are sometimes referred to as ordinal adjectives, since they indicate the order in which things occur. When they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the property of modifying any following attributive adjectives together with the accompanying noun. For this reason, the position of an ordinal adjective relative to other attributive adjectives can affect the meaning of a phrase. Ex: the first reluctant witness, the reluctant first witness Punctuation used with attributive adjectives As already indicated, general descriptive adjectives, including adjectives indicating size, weight, temperature, humidity, age and shape are usually separated from one another by commas. Ex: the long, winding road, a heavy, awkward box. In contrast, determiners, possessive adjectives, adjectives representing cardinal numbers, and ordinal adjectives are usually not followed by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these

types are underlined. Ex: those large chairs, my new shirts, two narrow paths, the first tall building. In addition, defining adjectives, proper adjectives, and adjectives indicating colour and materials are usually not preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined. Ex: a large egg carton, a beautiful Chinese vase, elegant black boots, a dilapidated stone building. However, it should be noted that in some cases, proper adjectives and adjectives indicating shape, colour and materials may or may not be preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined. Ex: a beautiful Japanese necklace or a beautiful, Japanese necklace a small square tower or a small, square tower a thin grey cat or a thin, grey cat a black leather briefcase or a black, leather briefcase When such adjectives are not preceded by commas, there is an implication that the adjectives are used to help identify the object being described. However, when such adjectives are preceded by commas, there is an implication that the adjectives are provided only for purposes of description, and are not being used to help identify the object being described. There is also a distinction in meaning associated with the presence or absence of commas following ordinal adjectives. When followed by commas, ordinal adjectives function similarly to general descriptive adjectives, and modify only the accompanying noun. Ex: the last, lonely outpost, the first, faint morning light. DETERMINERS Singular countable nouns cannot be used alone, but with A, each, & every like determiners. A and the are less specific, and are called articles.

The indefinite article a and an: Consonants a, eu, vowel followed by a single consonant and a vowel, Vowels an, & silent h. One, profession, general things, things not mentioned before, & per. Definite article the: Unique, something mentioned before, & a class (exception) SENTENCE A sentence ought to express a thought that can stand by itself. Ex: Go. SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such phrases, but it's still lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an independent clause. It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself. Ex: In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice. Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat. Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester. Remember that an -ing verb form without an auxiliary form to accompany it can never be a verb. Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.

run-on sentences, comma splices A Run-On sentence (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected. When two independent clauses are connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence that is called a comma-splice. When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so). Ex: The sun is high, put on some sunblock. The sun is high, so put on some sunscreen. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in the prior independent clause: This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right away. (We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon might also work there.) When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression (conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless. Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, he has sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty bakery. (Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period and started a new sentence or a semicolon.) When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects it to the first independent clause. This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual. (Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.) The trouble is that many writers, unsure of themselves, are leery of long sentences because they fear the run-on, that troll under the bridge, forgetting that it is often better to risk imperfection than boredom. Allow the complexity of a longer sentence to develop after the verb, not before it. Repeated Terms One of the scariest techniques for handling long sentences is the repetition of a key term. It feels risky because it goes against the grain of what you've been taught about repetition. When properly handled, though, repetition of key words and phrases within a sentence and then within a paragraph not only holds things together but creates a rhythm that provides energy and drives the meaning home. The Swiss watchmakers' failure to capitalize on the invention of the digital timepiece was both astonishing and alarming astonishing in that the Swiss had, since the beginnings of the industrial revolution in Europe, been among the first to capitalize on technical innovations, alarming in that a tremendous industrial potential had been lost to their chief competitors, the watchmakers of Japan. Repeated Terms One of the scariest techniques for handling long sentences is the repetition of a key term. It feels risky because it goes against the grain of what you've been taught about repetition. When properly handled, though, repetition of key words and phrases within a sentence and then within a paragraph not only holds things together but creates a rhythm that provides energy and drives the meaning home.

The Swiss watchmakers' failure to capitalize on the invention of the digital timepiece was both astonishing and alarming astonishing in that the Swiss had, since the beginnings of the industrial revolution in Europe, been among the first to capitalize on technical innovations, alarming in that a tremendous industrial potential had been lost to their chief competitors, the watchmakers of Japan. Parallel Form The principle of parallel construction requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese In spring, summer, or in winter It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. A time not for words, but action Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. My income is smaller than my wife. REPORTED SPEECH

Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) The ceremony was both long and tedious. A time not for words, but for action You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. My income is smaller than my wife's.

Statementspronouns
present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift)

Example She says, My mum doesnt have time today. She says that her mum doesnt have time today.

Tenses
No backshift
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Present (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).

Example He says, I speak English. He says that he speaks English.

Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift.

Example He said, I am happy. He said that he was happy. Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present

Simple Past

Present Progressive

Past Progressive

Simple Past

Past Perfect Simple

Present Perfect Simple

Past Perfect Simple

Past Progressive

Past Perfect Progressive

Present Perfect Progressive

Past Perfect Progressive

Future I (going to)

was / were going to

Future I (will)

Conditional I (would)

Conditional I (would)

The verbs could, should, would, might, must, neednt, ought to, used to do not normally change.

Example: He said, She might be right. He said that she might be right.
James said that he had seen Caroline here today. James said that he had seen Caroline here yesterday. James said that he had seen Caroline at the restaurant on Friday. I met James in a restaurant on Friday and he said that he had seen Caroline there that day. today now that day Then

yesterday days ago last week next year tomorrow here this these

the day before days before the week before the following year the next day / the following day There That Those

Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: pronouns present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift)

As an editor, I am able to see many common mistakes that people tend to make consistently in their writing. Conversational style is great in the tone of the piece, and sometimes grammar does indeed take a back seat to impact and imagery. However, there are certain common errors that are made in writing that do not change impact or imagery and are simply grammar and editing errors. Let's look at one of the most common writing mistakes made. DATES One of the most common mistakes I see in editing appears to be a little known rule about how to properly punctuate and use dates in writing, especially denoting a year. Unfortunately, this is such a common mistake that most people aren't even aware that it is not grammatically correct when they see the error. I've even seen these errors in headlines of major newspapers and magazine, and this error proliferates the internet. When you are writing and have the need to include a date, proper format for writing out the complete date is as follows: Example: October 31, 2006

Now, this is usually written properly, but what happens when you want to include the day of the week? Example: Tuesday, October 31, 2006 Then there is the special circumstance where you might want to write the date like this: Friday the 13th, October 2006 Note that there is no comma before the year when the month immediately precedes it? But these are mostly used correctly, and are included here only for reference. The one that bothers me the most about dates is the use of the year, abbreviated, and how that is often punctuated incorrectly. For example, we often refer to decades by only the last two digits of the year, right? The decade that is 1980-1989 is often referred to as The '80s. Now, note how I wrote - '80s An apostrophe is used for two things in writing - 1) a contraction, meaning that something was removed or left out, and the apostrophe takes the place of the missing item. In the word don't the contraction is short for DO NOT and the apostrophe takes the place of the O in the word NOT 2) an apostrophe is used to denote possession on some words where the word will end with an S. While it isn't used on all words to show possession (the exception most noted being: its), it is for most. Sally's dog Tom's briefcase In the instance of the dates we are referring to, use both of these rules to determine the appropriate way to punctuation the decades. Because the decade of 1980-1989 is abbreviated from the 1980s, the apostrophe belongs at the beginning of the number, and because there is no need to show possession for the decade, there is no apostrophe between the number and the S. Example: '80s, '90s, etc. The decade itself often is used as an adjective, and people sometimes mistake this as being the possessive form, and thus in need of the apostrophe. This is not the case.

Example: The '80s rock band, Duran Duran, had a successful career. (although the opinion is up for debate, the sentence is grammatically correct.) Note that in this example, '80s is an adjective describing the rock band and not a possessive denoting that the rock band is owned, possessed by, or belongs to the decade itself. Just some tips for writers out there about how to properly denote dates and years in professional writing, even though many of the professionals make these same mistakes regularly. Michelle L Devon is a professional freelance editor, providing contract editing and proofreading, ghostwriting and authoring services through her company, Accentuate Services, for publishers, authors, companies, and individuals. For more information, you can visit Ms. Devon's editing services site at www.accentuateservices.com Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Michelle_L_Devon
In answer to the tough question about the most appropriate use of "only" in a grammatically, syntactically and semantically correct sentence, I'll try to concentrate more on how the placement of only in the sentence is meaning controlling. In other words, the use of only as a modifier of a word should be placed directly before the word or clause to be modified. "Only" is so disturbing as a modifier because its placement in the utterance counts much to the meaning you want to convey. Be it an "adjective" or an "adverb", the word "Only" could affect the meaning of what you want to say if you don't carefully use it in your statement. As an adjective, "only" is almost controllable; but all the trouble which comes from "only" is only when it is used as an adverb. "This is my only child": this implies that I have no other children and "only" here is used as an adjective. Thus, there is no problem at all. Still which is correct then: Is it, "IT'S ONLY ME!" or is it, "IT'S ONLY I!"? According to grammarians, it is the second. But most people use the first on the basis that, "A mistaken sentence that makes me understood is better that a correct sentence that makes a jerk of me"; what a mess! Only The use of Oooonlyyyyy youuuuuuuuu : 1. Only Susan drank a cup of tea. This simply indicates that nobody else did but only Susan. Examples: * Only you could solve this problem. * Only Peter is able to use this computer. * Only my mother makes good cakes. * Only Ali is going with us to Marrakech. Though we feel it is final, definite or even exaggerated when "only" precedes the subject intending to modify it, this means that we want our listener or reader to understand that the subject be it (Susan, you, Peter or my mother as in the examples above) could do the deeds (actions) attributed to them but nobody else. 2. Susan only drank a glass of tea.

This means that she didn't do anything else but drank. Examples * She only reads the headlines. * We are only looking at the items. * They only checked their e-mails and left. * Johnny only said "Hello" and sat down. When "only" precedes the verb, this implies that the listener or reader is meant to understand that the subject be it (She, we, They or Johnny as in the examples above) did but only the deeds (actions) stated in the sentences. 3. Susan drank only a glass of tea. which means that she didn't drink another. Examples * Leila played only tennis. * The guests ate only vegetables. * They accepted only signed papers. * Vicky took only one aspirin. When "only" follows the verb, this means that you cannot ask the subject to do something else except the one or ones mentioned after only. Thats to say that you cannot ask Leila to play another game as she plays only but tennis. As well, you wouldnt invite the guests to share your barbeque because they are vegetarians and so on. 4. Susan drank a glass of tea only. which means that she didn't drink a cup of coffee or something else. Examples: * Leila plays tennis only. * The guests eat vegetables only. * They accept signed papers only. * Vicky takes the bus only for her errands. Generally speaking some of the examples above are far fetched and sometimes overstated. Any slight misplacement of only would prompt a disaster as far as meaning is concerned; therefore you should always try to avoid using most of them if you are not sure. There are other ways to say the same thing without too much care for preventing any possible misunderstanding a sentence with 'only' would bring about. I advise you to push 'only' towards modifying the exact word in the sentence as a safe way to make your message clear and void of any ambiguity possible. Be careful as to what word only is used to modify. See what I mean. Can you say which of the following utterances conveys the meaning intended properly?! 3 Annotations I only will come if you invite me. I will come only if you invite me. I am only interested in English grammar. I am interested in English grammar only. This is on one hand; on the other hand you can in some cases replace only with just: I saw her only yesterday. I saw her just yesterday. Ali only put the book on the table in silence and left. Ali just put the book on the table in silence and left. Finally, in order for you to be comprehensible and for your message to be ambiguity-free, please do avoid the misplacement of only in your utterances! Key:

1. d 2. b 3. a 4. c http://madrasati2010.bravehost.com/ Madrasati Abdessalami On_Line4 http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/sentencestruct.htm Comma Use

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand. Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause. a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class. If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).

Having finished the test, he left the room. To get a seat, you'd better come early. After the test but before lunch, I went jogging. The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm. Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning. However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause. Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense? Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence? If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet. Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland. Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential. That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent. The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A. He is dreaming that he can fly. I contend that it was wrong to mislead her. They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

Students who cheat only harm themselves. The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece. The candidate who had the least money lost the election.

Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself. My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room. The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election. Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe. Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow. Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game. It is up to you, Jane, to finish. She was, however, too tired to make the trip. Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment. The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You

can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order? Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate) They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate) She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate) Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are noncoordinate.) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid. The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human. You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you? The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct) Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?) Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct) Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham,Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England. July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC? Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker. (When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow." "I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment." In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.

Comma Abuse

Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses. 12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married. Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect) Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme

COMMA RULE #1 THE COMMA IN A SERIES: Use commas to separate items in a series. What is a series? A series is a list of 3 or more items, the last two of which are joined by and, or, or nor. _____________, ______________, and _____________ EXAMPLES:

Any of these can be put into sentence form.

The important things to remember about using commas in series are these: 1. 2. 3. A series includes 3 or more items of the same type (words or groups of words). The series is connected by and, or, or nor before the last item. A comma separates items in the series, including the final item preceded by and, or, or nor.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1

COMMA RULE #2 THE COMMA WITH COORDINATE ADJECTIVES: Use commas between coordinate adjectives. What are coordinate adjectives? Coordinate adjectives are adjectives placed next to each other that are equal in importance. Two tests to determine whether adjectives are coordinate are the following: 1. 2. See whether and can be smoothly placed between them. See whether the adjectives order can be reversed.

Look at this example.

In this example, a comma belongs between happy and lively because they are coordinate adjectives. Test to make certain: First, try the and test.

And placed between the 2 adjectives sounds smooth. Second, try reversing the adjectives.

When the adjectives are reversed, the sentence still makes sense. Thus, happy and lively are coordinate adjectives in the example and should be separated by a comma.

CAUTION: Not all adjective pairs are coordinate adjectives. Thus, not all adjectives should be separated from one another by a comma. Look at this example.

In this example, no comma belongs between the two adjectives young and golden because they are not coordinate adjectives. How can we know? First, try the and test.

And placed between the two adjectives does not fit smoothly. Second, try reversing the adjectives.

When the two adjectives are reversed, they do not make sense.

Thus, young and golden are not coordinate adjectives and should not be separated by a comma.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2

COMMA RULE #3 THE COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE: Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet to join two independent clauses that form a compound sentence. What is a compound sentence? A compound sentence is a sentence that has 2 independent clauses. An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that expresses a complete thought. It is also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. The two independent clauses in a compound sentence can be joined by: A. Semicolons

OR

B.

A comma and one of the seven joining words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (Taken together, the first letters spell FANBOYS.)

This last type of compound sentence is the one we will concentrate on for comma use. A compound sentence must have two independent clauses not just two verbs, two nouns, or two groups of words that are not independent clauses. Look at this example.

In the above example, two verb groups are being joined by and. The second verb group does NOT have a subject; thus, it is NOT an independent clause. Therefore, NO comma belongs before and. This example is a simple sentence with a compound verb, not a compound sentence. However, we can make this sentence into a compound sentence by simply making the last verb part into an independent clause.

Now we have a bona fide compound sentence. The two independent clauses are separated by a comma and the word and. Here are some other examples which illustrate the difference between compound elements in simple sentences (no comma) and true compound sentences (comma).

Now you are ready to try an exercise. Make certain that you: 1. Know the seven joining words (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). 2. Can distinguish between simple sentences with compound elements (no comma) and compound sentences (comma). Now click on the link below to do exercise 3. LINK TO EXERCISE 3

COMMA RULE #4 THE COMMA WITH INTRODUCTORY WORDS: Place a comma after introductory phrases that tell where, when, why, or how. Specifically . . . use a comma: 1. After a long introductory phrase.

Example:

Usually, it is NOT necessary to use a comma after short introductory prepositional phrases.

Example:

2.

After an introductory phrase made up of to plus a verb and any modifiers (infinitive) that tells why.

Example:

Use a comma even after a short to + verb phrase that answers why. Example:

You can tell you have this kind of introductory to + verb phrase when you can put the words in order in front of the phrase. Example:

Be careful! Not all introductory to phrases tell why.

3.

After an introductory clause that answers when? where? why? how? to what degree?

(A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.) Examples:

NOTE: When such a clause comes at the end of a sentence, do NOT use a comma. Examples:

Now click on the link below to do exercise 4. Link to Exercise 4

COMMA RULE #5 THE COMMA WITH NONESSENTIAL WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES: Separate with a comma any nonessential words or groups of words from the rest of the sentence. 1. Separate interrupter words like however, nevertheless, yes, no, of course, from the rest of the sentence.

Examples:

2.

Separate a renamer (an appositive) from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

Example:

3.

Separate adjective phrases from the essential parts of the sentence. (An adjective describes or limits a noun.)

Examples:

In each instance above, Mary Roberts ran down the street comprises the essential part of the sentence. The adjective phrases are nonessential and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. 4. Separate nonessential adjective clauses from the rest of the sentence. There are two kinds of adjective clauses: - one that is needed for the sentence to be complete (ESSENTIAL) - one that is NOT needed for the sentence to be complete (NONESSENTIAL) The essential adjective clause should NOT be separated from the sentence with commas. The nonessential adjective clause (like other nonessential elements) SHOULD be separated with commas. Two examples illustrate the difference: A.

B.

Look at example A. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, The man was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed the bank), we do not know which man was caught. Thus, the adjective clause is needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this adjective clause is essential. As the rule notes, do not use commas around essential adjective clauses. Now look at example B. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, Sam Spider was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed a bank), we do know which man was caught (Sam Spider). Thus, the adjective clause is NOT needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this clause is nonessential. Following the rule, you should separate this adjective clause from the rest of the sentence.

REMEMBER, there are 4 nonessential elements that should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas: 1. 2. 3. 4. interrupter words like of course, however renamers (appositives) nonessential adjective phrases nonessential adjective clauses

Now click on the link below to do exercise 5. Link to Exercise 5 Now click on the link below to do the post test. Link to the Post Test
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/02/ http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/sentencestruct.htm

Comma Use

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand. Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause. a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class. If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room. To get a seat, you'd better come early. After the test but before lunch, I went jogging. The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.

Well, perhaps he meant no harm. Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning. However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause. Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense? Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence? If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet. Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland. Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential. That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent. The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A. He is dreaming that he can fly. I contend that it was wrong to mislead her. They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

Students who cheat only harm themselves. The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece. The candidate who had the least money lost the election.

Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself. My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room. The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election. Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe. Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow. Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game. It is up to you, Jane, to finish. She was, however, too tired to make the trip. Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment. The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order? Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)

They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate) She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate) Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are noncoordinate.) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid. The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human. You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you? The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct) Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?) Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct) Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham,Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England. July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC? Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker. (When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow." "I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment." In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.

Comma Abuse

Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses. 12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married. Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect) Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme

COMMA RULE #1 THE COMMA IN A SERIES: Use commas to separate items in a series. What is a series? A series is a list of 3 or more items, the last two of which are joined by and, or, or nor. _____________, ______________, and _____________ EXAMPLES:

Any of these can be put into sentence form.

The important things to remember about using commas in series are these: 1. 2. 3. A series includes 3 or more items of the same type (words or groups of words). The series is connected by and, or, or nor before the last item. A comma separates items in the series, including the final item preceded by and, or, or nor.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1

COMMA RULE #2 THE COMMA WITH COORDINATE ADJECTIVES: Use commas between coordinate adjectives. What are coordinate adjectives? Coordinate adjectives are adjectives placed next to each other that are equal in importance. Two tests to determine whether adjectives are coordinate are the following: 1. 2. See whether and can be smoothly placed between them. See whether the adjectives order can be reversed.

Look at this example.

In this example, a comma belongs between happy and lively because they are coordinate adjectives. Test to make certain: First, try the and test.

And placed between the 2 adjectives sounds smooth. Second, try reversing the adjectives.

When the adjectives are reversed, the sentence still makes sense. Thus, happy and lively are coordinate adjectives in the example and should be separated by a comma.

CAUTION: Not all adjective pairs are coordinate adjectives. Thus, not all adjectives should be separated from one another by a comma. Look at this example.

In this example, no comma belongs between the two adjectives young and golden because they are not coordinate adjectives. How can we know? First, try the and test.

And placed between the two adjectives does not fit smoothly. Second, try reversing the adjectives.

When the two adjectives are reversed, they do not make sense.
Thus, young and golden are not coordinate adjectives and should not be separated by a comma.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2

COMMA RULE #3 THE COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE: Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet to join two independent clauses that form a compound sentence. What is a compound sentence? A compound sentence is a sentence that has 2 independent clauses.

An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that expresses a complete thought. It is also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. The two independent clauses in a compound sentence can be joined by: A. Semicolons

OR

B.

A comma and one of the seven joining words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (Taken together, the first letters spell FANBOYS.)

This last type of compound sentence is the one we will concentrate on for comma use. A compound sentence must have two independent clauses not just two verbs, two nouns, or two groups of words that are not independent clauses. Look at this example.

In the above example, two verb groups are being joined by and. The second verb group does NOT have a subject; thus, it is NOT an independent clause. Therefore, NO comma belongs before and.

This example is a simple sentence with a compound verb, not a compound sentence. However, we can make this sentence into a compound sentence by simply making the last verb part into an independent clause.

Now we have a bona fide compound sentence. The two independent clauses are separated by a comma and the word and. Here are some other examples which illustrate the difference between compound elements in simple sentences (no comma) and true compound sentences (comma).

Now you are ready to try an exercise. Make certain that you: 1. Know the seven joining words (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). 2. Can distinguish between simple sentences with compound elements (no comma) and compound sentences (comma). Now click on the link below to do exercise 3. LINK TO EXERCISE 3

COMMA RULE #4 THE COMMA WITH INTRODUCTORY WORDS: Place a comma after introductory phrases that tell where, when, why, or how. Specifically . . . use a comma: 1. After a long introductory phrase.

Example:

Usually, it is NOT necessary to use a comma after short introductory prepositional phrases.

Example:

2.

After an introductory phrase made up of to plus a verb and any modifiers (infinitive) that tells why.

Example:

Use a comma even after a short to + verb phrase that answers why. Example:

You can tell you have this kind of introductory to + verb phrase when you can put the words in order in front of the phrase. Example:

Be careful! Not all introductory to phrases tell why.

3.

After an introductory clause that answers when? where? why? how? to what degree?

(A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.) Examples:

NOTE: When such a clause comes at the end of a sentence, do NOT use a comma. Examples:

Now click on the link below to do exercise 4. Link to Exercise 4

COMMA RULE #5 THE COMMA WITH NONESSENTIAL WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES: Separate with a comma any nonessential words or groups of words from the rest of the sentence. 1. Separate interrupter words like however, nevertheless, yes, no, of course, from the rest of the sentence.

Examples:

2.

Separate a renamer (an appositive) from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

Example:

3.

Separate adjective phrases from the essential parts of the sentence. (An adjective describes or limits a noun.)

Examples:

In each instance above, Mary Roberts ran down the street comprises the essential part of the sentence. The adjective phrases are nonessential and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. 4. Separate nonessential adjective clauses from the rest of the sentence. There are two kinds of adjective clauses: - one that is needed for the sentence to be complete (ESSENTIAL) - one that is NOT needed for the sentence to be complete (NONESSENTIAL) The essential adjective clause should NOT be separated from the sentence with commas. The nonessential adjective clause (like other nonessential elements) SHOULD be separated with commas. Two examples illustrate the difference: A.

B.

Look at example A. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, The man was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed the bank), we do not know which man was caught. Thus, the adjective clause is needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this adjective clause is essential. As the rule notes, do not use commas around essential adjective clauses. Now look at example B. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, Sam Spider was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed a bank), we do know which man was caught (Sam Spider). Thus, the adjective clause is NOT needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this clause is nonessential. Following the rule, you should separate this adjective clause from the rest of the sentence.

REMEMBER, there are 4 nonessential elements that should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas: 1. 2. 3. 4. interrupter words like of course, however renamers (appositives) nonessential adjective phrases nonessential adjective clauses

Now click on the link below to do exercise 5. Link to Exercise 5 Now click on the link below to do the post test. Link to the Post Test
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/02/

Round Brackets for Additional Information

Round brackets are used to insert additional information in text. If you were to remove the brackets and the information inside, the text would still work. For example:

Set in the 17th century, The Three Musketeers ("Les Trois Mousquetaires" in French) is a novel by Alexandre Dumas. Although they are relatively common off Australia, California, South Africa and Mexico, great white sharks usually inhabit coastal waters where the water temperature ranges 12-24 degrees Celsius. They generally hunt by detecting the electrical fields (They can detect less than one billionth of a volt.) emitted by the movements of their prey.

Round Brackets to Denote Singular or Plural

For brevity, round brackets can be used show that a word could be either singular or plural. For example: Please write the name(s) of your guest(s) in the section below. Ensure the rod(s) is(are) aligned with the top section.

Square Brackets to Make the Text Clearer

Square brackets are used to add information that explains the text it follows. (The information is usually added by someone other than the original author.) For example: Hedy Lamarr once said: "Most people save all their lives and leave it [their money] to somebody else." "It [electricity] is really just organized lightning."

Square Brackets to Modify the Original Text

Often, square brackets are used to replace text in a quote to make the quote clearer for the reader. For example: Hedy Lamarr once said: "Most people save all their lives and leave [their money] to somebody else." Alice Cooper famously said that "from the moment [he] leave[s] [his] house or hotel room, the public owns [him]."

Square Brackets: [sic]

The term "[sic]" is used to show that the word it follows featured in the original text. Often, "[sic]" is used to indicate that a grammar error in the text was written by the original author. For example: The minister believed that his statement was "appropriate and did not undermine the moral [sic] of our troops." (should be "morale" not "moral") Your demand for a "full compliment [sic] of men" cannot be met at this time. (should be "complement" not "compliment")

Square Brackets: [...]

Ellipsis is used to show text omitted from a quote. Ellipsis is usually written "..." or "[...]". For example: It's no small irony that the government [...] ends up promoting precisely that which they would most like to repress. (The ellipsis replaces "inevitably and invariably".) Andy Warhol is the only genius...with an IQ of 60. (The ellipsis replaces the words "I've ever known" in this Gore Vidal quote.) grammar monster.