Techniques for Program Support
Helping Students With
Disabilities Understand What
Mathematics Means
Joey is a new second-grade student in
Ms. Abemathy's class. According to
Joey's IEP, one of his instructional goals
is to master basic addition and subtrac-
tion facts. Ms. Abemathy decided to
assess Joey's perfonnance on these skills
so that she could plan appropriate
instruction.
The first pan of the assessment
involved a written assignment that con-
sisted of 10 addition facts (with sums 0
to 9) and 10 subtraction facts (with dif-
ferences 0 to 9). Joey scored 70% on this
assignment. He knew all the addition
facts and four of the subtraction facts.
In the second part of the assessment.
Joey used plastic cubes to represent and
solve five basic-fact addition problems
and five basic-fact subtraction problems.
Joey correctly represented the addition
problems—he counted cubes to represent
the first number, counted cubes to repre-
sent the second number, and counted all
the cubes together to determine the
answer. When it came to subtraction.
28 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
however, Joey did all five problems incor-
rectly. Instead of counting cubes to rep-
resent the first number (that is. the total
number) and then removing the number
of cubes represented by the second num-
ber. Joey used the same process to
demonstrate subtraction facts that he
had used to demonstrate addition facts.
Ms. Abemathy realized that Joey needed
further instruction to promote his con-
ceptual understanding of subtraction.
Many students with disabilities contin-
ue to struggle with understanding what
mathematics means. Like Joey, they
memorize basic facts or step-by-step
mathematical procedures without
understanding the underlying concepts
related to the problems. Thus, instruc-
tion designed to help students under-
stand the meaning of the mathematics
that they are learning in school is very
important (see box "Why Do Students
Need a Conceptual Understanding of
Mathematics?"].
Susan P. Miller
Pamela J. Hudson
This article will share five evidence-
based guidelines for implementing
mathematics instruction designed to
promote conceptual understanding (see
box "Guidelines for Implementing
Mathematics Instruction Designed to
Promote Conceptual Understanding"}.
The use of these guidelines can facilitate
the acquisition, retention, and general-
ization of many mathematics objectives
and ultimately enhances students' abili-
ties to see and understand the relation-
ships and connections among important
mathematical concepts.
Guideline 1 : Use Various
Modes of Representorion
Mathematics instruction intended to
promote conceptual understanding
needs to include a variety of modes of
representation. Educators should repre-
sent concepts in multiple ways to
ensure meaningfulness and generaliza-
tion of the concept {Cathcart, Pothier,
Vance, & Bezuk, 2000; NCTM, 2000;
Tlicker, Singleton, & Weaver, 2002}.
The concrete-representational-
abstract instructional process is an
effective method for promoting concep-
tual understanding of mathematics by
using various modes of representation
(Butler, Miller, Crehan, Babbitt, &
Pierce, 2003; Gagnon & Maccini, 2001;
Harris, Miller, & Mercer, 1995; Mercer &

Why Do Students Need a
Conceptual Understanding
of Mathematics?
Developing conceptual understand-
ing is one of the primary goals of
mathematics instruction. According
to the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics [NCTM, 2000, p. 4),
the "need to understand and be able
to use mathematics in everyday life
and in the workplace has never been
greater and will continue to
increase." Students with conceptual
knowledge understand the deep
meaning of abstract mathematical
symbols and operations. Conse-
quently, they are much more likely to
meet the mathematical demands that
they encounter during their school
years. Such demands include passing
mathematics courses and passing
minimum competency exams
required for high school graduation.
Students with conceptual knowledge
also are more likely to be successful
when they use mathematics in such
postsecondary settings as jobs, insti-
tutions of higher education, and var-
ious facets of independent living.
Mathematics educators agree that
all students—including those with
disabilities—benefit from rich con-
ceptual understanding and subse-
quent abilities to apply mathematics
concepts in flexible ways when solv-
ing complex problems (Butler,
Beckingham, & Lauscher, 2005).
Thus, carefully crafted instruction
that emphasizes conceptual under-
standing is very important.
Miller, 1991-1994). Figure 1 is a diagram
of the concrete, representational, and
abstract levels.
The teacher begins instruction at the
concrete level. He or she may demon-
strate specific mathematical concepts by
having students dramatize the concept
or by using three-dimensional objects.
Dramatization involves having students
role-play or physically experience,
through movement in space, mathemat-
ics problems and related concepts. It is
a powerful medium that can help stu-
FIgura 1 . Concrele-R*pr«Mnlatlonal-AbBtract
Concrete Pictorial
3 a c3 n 6 / / / /
1 "
1 4
dents understand a problem situation
and become actively engaged in experi-
encing the concept (Bley & Thornton,
1995; Cathcart et al., 2000). For exam-
ple, in a study that involved teaching
the concept of perimeter to middle and
high school students with learning dis-
abilities, the teacher used dramatization
(that is, students walking around the
classroom close to the walls) to demon-
strate and reinforce the concept. This
concrete demonstration showed stu-
dents that perimeter means the distance
around the boundaries of a room (Cass,
Cates, Smith, & Jackson, 2003). Observ-
ing and participating in math-related
dramatization motivates students and
helps them visualize important con-
cepts. The physical actions help clarify
the relationships among problem com-
ponents.
Developing conceptual
understanding is one of the primary
goals of mathematics instruction.
After the class has represented a
mathematics problem through dramati-
zation, the teacher and students can use
manipulative devices to demonstrate
and model the concept. In the previous
example, after students had dramatized
the concept of perimeter by walking
around the classroom, they used
geoboards to find the perimeter of vari-
ous shapes.
Unifix cubes (plastic cubes that link
together) or base-10 blocks can repre-
sent problems and their meaning during
conceptual instruction that focuses on
teaching the basic operations of addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN •
Abstract
5
zA
1
division. Figure 2 shows how Unifix
cubes can represent a variety of opera-
tional concepts.
When students have mastered a con-
cept at the concrete level, the teacher
can move instruction to the representa-
tional level. At this level, instruction
involves using two-dimensional pic-
tures, drawings, or tallies to demon-
strate the same mathematical concept
that students began to learn by using
manipulative devices. The teacher
either constructs the drawings or uses
instructional materials that provide the
drawings. Additionally, students learn
to draw their own pictures or tallies to
represent and solve problems, as shown
in Figure 3.
After students have mastered a con-
cept at the concrete and representation-
al levels, the teacher can gradually
remove manipulative devices and picto-
rial representations so that students
learn to solve the problem at the
abstract level, that is, by using numbers
only. During instruction at the abstract
level, the teacher expects students to
memorize procedures and facts with
Guidelines for implementing
Mathematics Instruction
Designed to Promote
Conceptual Understanding
• Use various modes of representa-
tion.
• Consider appropriate structures
for teaching specific concepts.
• Consider the language of mathe-
matics.
• Integrate real-world applications.
• Provide explicit instruction.
SEPT/OCT 2006 • 29
Figure 3. Using Unfflx Cubes for Concrete-Level liutructton
3 CI, a
±2 a a
fluency to promote efficient problem
solving.
The concrete-representational-
abstract instructional process ensures
that educators integrate various modes
of representation into mathematics
instruction for teaching important con-
cepts. Regardless of the mode of repre-
sentation that the teacher selects for a
particular lesson (manipulative models,
pictures, or tallies), he or she also dis-
plays written number symbols to ensure
that students make a connection
between the conceptual and abstract
representations. For example, if a
teacher is using Unifix cubes to demon-
strate the concept of subtraction, stu-
dents should see the numerical repre-
sentation of the problem (e.g., 8 - 3
= ), as well as the cubes. To ensure
that students pay attention to the
numerical representations in addition to
the manipulative or pictorial models,
students should read the problem aloud
before and after they build the concrete
or pictorial model to represent and solve
the problem.
Figure 3. Using i>t<ffures or Tniiies for Reprasenttrtlonai-Level
instruction
5 5
±2
4 _ L_
30 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
D D
10-5-
Guideline 2: Consider
Appropriate Sflructures for
TecKhing Specific Concepts
One of the most important aspects of
planning and implementing instruction
intended to teach mathematical con-
cepts is determining the appropriate les-
son structures to use with a specific
concept. The lesson structure is the
framework, or the way that the teacher
will demonstrate the concept and the
way that the students will practice it to
increase their conceptual understand-
ing. Although educators agree that
using manipulative devices, pictures,
and diagrams to represent mathematical
concepts is beneficial (Miller, Butler, &
Lee, 1998), teachers must also consider
the best way to use these materials.
Different concepts seem to lend them-
selves to particular conceptual lesson
structures. Included among these struc-
tures are comparing and contrasting,
examples and nonexamples, and step-
by-step processes (Hudson & Miller,
2006).
1 1 1 i i example, if the instruction focuses on
S^4 =
The Compare-and-Contrast
Lesson Structure
The compare-and-contrast lesson struc-
ture is helpful when students need to
recognize similarities and differences
while they learn the target concept. This
lesson structure is particularly useful
when teaching geometry, numbers and
operations, and measurement standards
(Kamii & Clark, 1997; NCTM, 2000). For
example, a teacher who is explaining
the concept of weight can demonstrate
by holding one object in each hand and
comparing the weight of the two objects
(e.g., "Hmm, which is heavier?"). The
teacher can let students handle the
objects, which should have distinctly
different weights. After the demonstra-
tion, students can work in pairs to
weigh the objects, compare them, and
identify the heaviest object in a set of
objects.
The compare-and-contrast lesson
structure is also useful when teaching
such fraction concepts as equivalent
fractions (NCTM, 2000). Fraction bars
and plastic fraction pies, as well as
number lines, are concrete and pictorial
materials that allow students to com-
pare fractions and identify equivalent
fractions. At the concrete level, students
can stack fraction foam pieces to
observe the representation of equiva-
lence, such as 4/8 = 2/4 = 1/2, as
shown in Figure 4. The teacher can also
use a fraction number line to show
equivalence.
The Example-ond-Nonexompie
i.esson Structure
The example-and-nonexample lesson
structure is another way to teach a con-
cept. The teacher provides multiple
examples of the concept, along with
nonexamples that allow the student to
discriminate and identify representa-
tions of the concept (NCTM, 2000). For
the concept of a polygon, the teacher
begins by showing many examples of
polygons of different sizes and shapes,
as well as examples of polygons in dif-
ferent positions. The teacher points out
the characteristics of a polygon and
then elicits these characteristics from
the students. When students are consis-
tently able to identify the concept's
characteristics in the examples, the Figure 4 . Compare-and-Contrast Lesson Structure
teacher begins to intersperse nonexam-
ples, that is, shapes that are not poly- = _2_ = 1
gons, as shown in Figure 5. & 4 2

The Step-by-Step Lesson Structure

Teachers can use the step-by-step lesson
structure to teach many concepts in
mathematics. The explicitness of follow-
ing specified steps in sequence is partic- _L
JL.
ularly helpful for students with memory 2 4
or organizational-thinking deficits.
When the teacher uses this structure
to leach the concept of multiplication,
he or she explains, for example, that
3 x 2 means three groups of two. The
teacher can use paper plates to repre-
sent the groups and cubes to represent
the number of objects in each group have severe difficulties acquiring, ally, teachers should select terms that
(Mercer & Miller, 1994). The first step in retaining, and generalizing important they will use in a consistent manner
solving an equation such as 3 x 2 is to concepts (Bielenberg & Fillmore, during instructional demonstrations.
represent the first number, or group, 2004/2005; Williams, 2006).
with three paper plates. The second step Examples of vocabulary choices include
When a teacher plans instruction
is to represent the objects in each group the following:
intended to teach mathematical con-
by counting out two cubes onto each
cepts, he or she should consider the stu- • Times or multiplied by.
paper plate. The third and final step
dents' current vocabulary knowledge
involves counting the total number of • Regroup or rename.
and their language abilities (Bley &
cubes and writing the answer to the
equation, as shown in Figure 6. The Thornton, 1995). The teacher may need • Minus, subtract, or take away.
teacher can also use the step-by-step to plan learning activities that relate to
• Sum, total, or answer.
lesson structure when teaching such mathematics vocabulary before begin-
concepts as division, regrouping, sim- ning the concept instruction. Addition- • Ones place or ones column. .
plifying fractions, and measurement.
Regardless of the lesson structure
Figure 5. Exomple-and-Nonexampie Lessen Structure
that the teacher selects, he or she first
provides a definition of the concept
being taught and then discusses the
characteristics of the concept. He or she
follows this introduction by using one of
the structures to develop the students'
further understanding of the concept.

Guideline 3: Consider the

Language of Mathematics
The language that teachers use during \ \
mathematics instruction is very impor- This is a This is a This is not
tant, especially when they teach new polygon. polygon. a polygon.
concepts. Moreover, language is an
important part of the thinking process
that students use when they solve math-
ematics problems. The language of
Point to the polygon:
mathematics is unique and sometimes
creates problems for students. Students
with language disabilities or English
language learners may have particular
difficulties interpreting Ihe language of
mathematics and may consequently

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2006 • 31

Figure 6. Step-by-Step-Concept Lesson Structure cult for students with learning and lan-
guage disabilities who hesitate to partic-
1. Look at the first number and count ipate in class discussions (Baxter,
that many plates to represent the groups. Woodward, & Olson, 2001; Baxter,
Woodward, Voorhies, & Wong, 2002).
Mathematics journals allow these stu-
2. Look at the second number and put dents to communicate their understand-
that many cubes on each plate. ing of concepts through writing rather
than through talking (Baxter, Wood-
ward, & Olson. 2005). Additionally, lan-
3. Count all the cubes to find the total guage dialogue boxes can provide the
and write the answer. support that many students need for
communicating their thoughts (AIlsopp,
Kyger, & Lovin, 2006J. The dialogue box
includes some information, along with
blank spaces in which students place
The teacher must be careful to avoid that they cati apply in multiple settings. additional information related to the
language that is beyond the vocabulary Many teachers use classroom discus- concept being taught. These dialogue
level or cognitive deveiopment of the sions to facilitate communication about boxes reduce the language demand and
learner (Kame'enui & Simmons, 1990). mathematics. They give students oppor- allow students to focus their attention
The complexity of concept acquisition tunities to articulate their ideas, explain on the concept. Figure 7 shows a sam-
necessitates clear explanations in lan- their solutions, and comment on other ple dialogue box.
guage that students can understand. students' ideas (Bielenberg & Fillmore,
When students understand the lan- 2004/2005; Chazan & Ball, 1999).
Guideline 4: Integrofe
guage that the teacher uses, they can
Real-World Applications
focus their attention on understanding
the concept without the interference of The fourth guideline for planning and
unknown terminology. Language is an important part implementing mathematics instruction
designed to promote conceptual under-
Another important aspect of mathe- of the thinking process that standing is to integrate real-world appli-
matical language involves the students'
students use when they solve cations of the concept being taught.
abihties to communicate their under-
Helping students see the relevance of
standing of the concepts being taught. mathematics problems. mathematics concepts in their daily
Such communication strengthens the
lives increases their motivation and
students' abilities to link the new learn-
attention to the lesson, in addition to
ing to previous knowledge and subse- Unfortunately, tbese opportunities promoting generalization (Goldman,
quently construct new understandings for oral discourse are sometimes diffi- Hasselbring, & the Cognition and
Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997).
Teachers can provide applications to
Figure 7. Language Dialogue Bex the real world in a number of ways.
Showing the connections between
mathematics and the world of work is
one way to make important linkages.
The teacher can invite workers from a
This shape has__ eldee. variety of professions as guest speakers
Alltheeidesare. to help highlight the importance of
This shape i s a _ mathematics in specific careers or jobs.
Field trips into the community also give
students opportunities to directly apply
mathematics concepts and skills in real-
world situations. In addition, vignettes,
word problems, and special school proj-
This shape h a s _ sides. ects can deal witb topics of interest to
All the sides are. students. For example, the teacher can
Thisehape l s a _ ask students to identify two items that
they would like to purchase from the
concession stand at the local movie the-
ater and determine the amount of

32 • GouNciL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

money that they would need to cover
the cost of both items, including sales
tax (see Figure 8).
Finally, the class can use technology
to make important linkages between
mathematics concepts and real-world
applications. Problem-solving software
programs simulate real-life or imaginary
situations so that students can experi-
ence complex situations and have the
opportunity to apply their mathematics
skills. These virtual-reality learning
experiences allow students to feel as if
they are actually participating in the
event (Kozma & Schank, 1998).
Similarly, problem-solving software
can give students practice in identifying
problems, selecting strategies, finding
solutions, and evaluating the resuhs of
important decisions (Matbews, Pracek,
& Olson, 2000). Video-based problem
solving has been particularly effective in
giving students opportunities to apply
mathematics concepts and skills to
authentic situations presented in the
video (Bottge & Hasselbring, 1993;
Bottge, Heinrichs, Chan, & Serlin, 2001).
For example, one vignette presented in
the Jasper Woodbury series (Cognition
and Technology Group at Vanderbilt,
1992, 1993, 1997; Williams et al., 1998)
shows students in a school developing
an idea for raising money and then sys-
tematically planning and implementing
the fundraiser. Students work in groups
to solve the mathematics problems that
occur within tbe context of the video
vignette.
Guideline 5: Provide
ExplicH Inslruction
Teaching students to understand mathe-
matics concepts requires carefully
designed lessons with clear and explicit
teacher instruction. The literature relat-
ed to mathematics instruction, as well
as other content area instruction for stu-
dents with disabilities, indicates that
students need explicit instruction to pro-
mote their understanding of difficuh
concepts and related skills (Fuchs,
Fuchs, Hamlett, & Appleton, 2002;
Greenwood, Arreaga-Mayer, & Carta,
1994; Miller et al., 1998; Montague,
1997; Swanson, 1999; Swanson &
Hoskyn. 1998, 2001). Rivera (1996) rec-
ommends the following sequence for Figure 8 . Concession-Stand
explicit instruction: Exampie
1. Advance organizer.
2. Demonstration.
3. Guided practice.
4. Independem practice.
This sequence ensures that students
have the motivation and prerequisite
skills to be successful in the lesson, and
it provides a gradual shift of responsi-
bility from the teacher's demonstration
to the student's independent perform-
ance.
Advance Organizer
The advance organizer typically
includes a review of needed prerequisite
knowledge, a statement related to the
purpose or objectives of the lesson, and
a rationale for learning the new content
(Hudson, 1996; Lenz, Ellis, & Scanlon,
1996). Students with and without dis-
abilities improve their learning and
retention of new skills and concepts
when educators use advance organizers
(Kooy, Skok, & McLaughlin, 1992).
Demonstration: "I Do"
After the advance organizer, the teacher
provides the demonstration ("1 do"). In
tbe "I do" phase of the lesson, the
teacher models the concept and solves
the problem while saying aloud wbat
the students should be thinking while
they solve similar problems. Although
this phase of the lesson emphasizes
teacher demonstration, maximizing tbe
students' engagement and participation Guided Practice: "We Do"
is very important. The teacher can facil- When the demonstration is complete,
itate such participation by encouraging the teacher moves to guided practice
students to answer questions and give ("we do"). This "we do" phase begins
choral responses, as well as by using with a high level of teacher support
instructional materials. Such participa- (step-by-step prompts), progresses to a
medium level of support (multiple steps
tion helps students stay on task and
performed with fewer prompts), moves
reinforces learning. These activities also
to low-level support [that is, the teacher
help the teacher monitor the students'
reduces prompts further or groups sev-
understanding of the concept. The
eral steps together so that students take
teacher needs this information to deter- on more responsibility), and ends with
mine how many examples and prob- no prompts (that is, students complete
lems he or she should model. Teacher the task on their own, but can request
demonstrations must be exphcit, con- and receive assistance from the
cise, repetitive, and organized. teacher). This gradual progression of
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2006 • 33
decreased teacher support sets students
up for success with the new concept.
Independent Practice: "You Do"
The remaining phase of the explicit
teaching sequence involves independ-
ent practice ("you do"). During this
"you do" phase, students demonstrate
their understanding of the new concept
without teacher assistance. The inde-
pendent practice activity should align
closely with the teacher demonstration
and the guided practice phase of the les-
son. For example, if the teacher and stu-
dents used manipulative devices during
the teacher demonstration and guided
practice, students should be allowed to
use the same devices during independ-
ent practice. Mastery criteria for inde-
pendent practice should be set high
(e.g., 90%) to ensure that the students
understand the concept.
Final Thoughts
Designing instruction to develop stu-
dents' conceptual understanding of
mathematics is an important goal.
Helping students with disabilities
understand the underlying meaning of
mathematics promotes acquisition,
retention, and generalization of many
mathematics objectives. It also helps
them recognize mathematical relation-
ships and connections. Without a focus
on teaching conceptual understanding,
mathematics instruction becomes mem-
orization of meaningless facts and pro-
cedures.
Without a focus on teaching
conceptual understanding,
mathematics instruction becomes
memorization of meaningless
facts and procedures.
Instruction that the teacher plans
and implements by using the five evi-
dence-based guidelines (i.e., use vari-
ous modes of representation, consider
appropriate structures for teaching spe-
cific concepts, consider the language of
mathematics, integrate real-world appli-
cations, and provide explicit instruc-
34 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
tion) supports the acquisition of high
levels of conceptual understanding. A
high level of understanding will serve
students well while they progress
through the mathematics curriculum
within school and when they translate
the use of mathematics to environments
outside school.
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Susan P. Miller, Professor, Depariment of
Special Education, University of Nevada Las
Vegas. Pamela J. Hudson, Associate Pro- go to
fessor, Department of Special Education and
Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan.
Address correspondence to Susan P. Miller,
www.NPRinc.com
Department of Special Education, Box
453014, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las
Vegas. NV 89154 (e-mail: millersp@unlu. Over 3,CXX) s t a f f
nevada.edu). development training
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